School of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Soil Mechanics SGM 311

2024

Soil Mechanics SGM 311 (2024) 1

 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. ORGANISATIONAL COMPONENT
1.1 General premise and educational approach
1.2 Lecturers, venues and consulting hours
1.3 Study materials
1.4 Learning activities
1.5 Rules of assessment
1.6 General

2. STUDY COMPONENT
2.1 Module objectives
2.2 Module structure
2.3 Study themes

3. REFERENCES

Soil Mechanics SGM 311 (2024) 2

 1 ORGANISATIONAL COMPONENT

1.1 GENERAL PREMISE AND EDUCATIONAL APPROACH

According to the education policy of the University it is accepted that "a student should undergo an academic-
scientific moulding as to be able later in professional context to function as an independent scientist and to
contribute to the creative development of the chosen profession. In effect it refers to a purposeful and pro-
active education approach which brings with it a change in emphasis from the traditional lecturer-centred
teaching approach to a more dynamic student-centred learning approach". The syllabus for this module has
accordingly been developed to accommodate this learning approach.

1.2 LECTURERS AND VENUES

Name Room Contact Info.

Lecturer Prof. SW Jacobsz 11-9 (ENG 1) Email: sw.jacobsz@up.ac.za

Appointments can be made via email. Due to the number of students registered for the course private
consultation via email is not practical. Students are encouraged to ask questions during lectures or in the
discussion class. Should students contact the lecturer via email, they can expect email messages to be
responded to during office hours (Monday to Friday 07h30-16h30).

Venue and times of lectures:

Soil mechanics SGM 311 will be presented during the first semester of 2024.
Day Time Room Type
Tuesday 13h30 - 14h20 ENG3-2 Formal lecture
Wednesday 10h30 - 12h20 AE Annex Formal lecture
Wednesday 13h30 - 15h20 ENG3-2 Tutorial class
Friday 13h30 – 14h20 ENG2 4-38 Formal lecture

1.3 STUDY MATERIALS

Prescribed Textbook:
• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, J.A. Knappett and R.F. Craig, Spon Press, 2020

Supplementary Reading:
• An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, R.D. Holtz and W.D. Kovacs, Prentice Hall, 1981.

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1.4 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Contact Time and Learning Hours
Soil mechanics SGM 311 will be presented during the first semester of 2024. Contact time will consist of two
50-minute formal lectures as well as a two two-hour discussion sessions per week, the first of which will be
used as a lecture. This module carries a weighting of 16 credits implying that, on average, a student will have
to spend approximately 160 hours to comply with the study goals. As a prerequisite to enrol for SGM311 the
student must have gained exam entrance for "Strength of Materials" SWK 210.

Lectures
Lectures are presented in a style of co-operative and student-centred learning. Brief clarification and
explanation of the subject matter and concepts are given during the lectures. All the relevant study material is
adequately referenced.

Lectures will be presented on campus in the venues indicated on the previous page and students are
expected to attend in person. In cases where access to campus is not possible for whatever reason such
strike action, a pandemic etc, lectures will be streamed online in real time via Blackboard Collaborate. Such
lectures will be recorded.

Class tests
A number of class tests will be written during the semester to allow students to earn marks outside of the
formal semester tests. The contribution of the class test mark to the semester mark will be 20%.

Semester Tests
Two semester tests will be written during the semester. If a semester test is missed, a doctor certificate or
other relevant documentation must be submitted to the head of department's secretary as per university
regulations.

Students must plan to write the semester tests on campus under normal examination conditions.

Examination
A 3-hour examination will be written at the end of the semester. All work addressed during the semester will
be covered during the examination.

Students must plan to write the examination on campus under normal examination conditions.

Special Examination
Under certain conditions the Dean of EBIT may grant a special examination for SGM 311. The special
examination will take place during January 2025 on campus.

1.5 RULES OF ASSESSMENT

Also see the examinations regulations in the Year Books of the Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and
Information Technology (Part 1: Engineering).

Pass Requirements
In order to pass the module a student must:
• fulfil the requirements to be admitted to the exam
• obtain a minimum mark of 40% in the examination.
• obtain a final mark of at least 50%.

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Calculation of the final mark
The final mark will be calculated as follows:
Semester mark: 50%
Examination mark: 50%

Calculation of the semester mark

The semester mark will be calculated as shown below, with the final semester mark composition dependent
on Covid lockdown regulations.

Semester tests: 80%

Class tests: 20%

1.6 GENERAL
• The semester tests and examination will be closed book.
• All examination regulations will be applied during tests and examinations.

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 2 STUDY COMPONENT

2.1 OBJECTIVES
By nature of the fact that soil incorporates interaction between two or more physical phases, i.e. the soil
grains and the pore fluids the behaviour of soil is complex. In this module the student will be familiarised with
the fundamental characteristics of engineering soils and the physical principals that govern their behaviour.
This behaviour will be compared with other classic engineering materials. A fundamental understanding of soil
behaviour will be established which is essential to geotechnical design. Students are advised to embark on a
well-structured and systematic study programme, in which the module material is studied in a probing,
scientific and innovative manner, rather than by simple and passive memorising.

Critical learning outcomes:

The following ECSA exit-level outcomes are addressed in this module, i.e. at the conclusion of this module
the student will be capable of:

ECSA 2.1: Problem solving

The interpretation of field and laboratory test data and derivation of meaningful parameters for geotechnical
design. The solution to simple materials-related engineering problems, like seepage analysis and stress
distribution analysis in soils.

ECSA 2.2: Application of scientific and engineering knowledge

The application of fundamental principles and concepts of physics and chemistry to predict the behaviour and
the properties of soils, and to understand the relationship between the internal structure of materials and their
resultant properties. The calculation, interpretation and application of a variety of mechanical properties of
soils.

ECSA 2.4: Investigations, experiments and data analysis

To specify materials testing experiments and appropriate test equipment, to calculate and predict material
properties from the acquired experimental data, and to critically analyse, interpret and present the results.

ECSA 2.9 Independent learning ability

The development of learning skills, such as the understanding of fundamental concepts, scientific logic and
reason, and the extensive use of the prescribed textbook in their studies, are emphasised in this module,
which facilitates an ability of lifelong learning.

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2.2 MODULE STRUCTURE
Study theme and Study units Contact hours Notional hours
1. Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 1 2
2. Basic Characteristics of Engineering Soils 12 24
2.1 The Nature of Engineering Soils
2.2 Mineralogical Composition of Soils
2.3 Properties of Soil Particles
2.4 Soil Structure
2.5 Soil Classification
2.6 Phase Relationships
3. Water in Soils 12 24
3.1 Soil Water
3.2 Permeability
3.3 Capillarity
3.4 Seepage Theory
3.5 Flow Nets
3.6 Pore Pressures and Uplift Pressures
3.7 Seepage through Earth Dams
4. The Principle of Effective Stress 12 24
4.1 Principle of effective stress
4.2 Effective stress response in saturated soils
4.3 Effective stress response in partially saturated soils
4.4 Consolidation
4.5 Seepage forces
5. The Strength of Soils 12 24
5.1 Description of stresses in soils (Mohr circles)
5.2 Isotropic compression of soils
5.3 The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
5.4 Shear strength of clays
5.5 Shear strength of sands
5.6 Shear strength tests
6. Ground Investigation 6 6
6.1 Methods of site investigation
6.2 Sampling techniques
6.3 In-situ testing
Total 55 110

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2.3 STUDY THEMES

STUDY THEME 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Learning objectives:
In this brief introduction the student is familiarised with the field of geotechnical engineering.

Self study activities:

For a background to the history and development of Geotechnical Engineering the student may refer to the
following publications:
• Historical development of Geotechnical Engineering, Holtz, R.D., and Kovacs, W.D. (1981), An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall, Chapter 1, p 7.

STUDY THEME 2: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

Study units:
• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Chapter 1.
Section 1.7 is for information purposes only.

Self study activities:

• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition:
Chapter 1, Problems 1.1 – 1.6

Criteria of assessment:
At the end of this study theme a student will be able to:
• Define what constitutes an engineering soil.
• Explain the origin and formation of soils at the hand of the geological cycle.
• Describe the structures of the basic soil forming minerals, specifically those of quartz and the principal
clay minerals, i.e. kaolin, illite and montmorillonite
• Explain why different clay minerals exhibit different degrees of activity for example swelling
characteristics
• Define the term specific gravity and know the typical range of values in soils.
• Describe the fundamental properties of soil particles that are of importance in engineering (mineralogy,
shape, size and texture) and their basic influence on soil behaviour.
• Discuss clay fabric structure, specifically the mechanisms and importance of dispersion and
flocculation.
• Classify soils according to the British classification systems.
• Relate the meaning and importance of the plasticity or Atterberg limits in soils and know typical values
of these indexes in soils.
• Calculate and use all the phase relationship formulae in dry, moist and fully saturated soils.

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STUDY THEME 3: WATER IN SOILS

Study units:
• Seepage, Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Chapter 2.
Sections 2.7 – 2.10 are for information purposes only.

Self study activities:

• Laboratory and field methods of determining the coefficient of permeability
 Constant Head Test in Permeameter Cell
Head, K.H. (1984), Manual of soil laboratory testing, Volume 2: Permeability, shear
strength and compressibility tests, London: Pentech Press Limited, Chapter 10, pp 85 - 87
& 107 -121.
 Falling Head Permeameter Test - Not included in either the BS or ASTM standards!
Head, K.H. (1984), Manual of soil laboratory testing, Volume 2: Permeability, shear
strength and compressibility tests, London: Pentech Press Limited, Chapter 10, pp 87 -
890 & 126 -132.
• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition:
Chapter 2, Problems 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6.

Criteria of assessment:
At the end of this study theme a student will be able to:
• Calculate the coefficient of permeability for soils using Hazen's formula and the results from laboratory
constant head and falling head permeameters.
• Derive the equations for and calculate the equivalent permeability in multi-layered or in-homogeneous
soils.
• Explain the phenomenon of capillary rise in soils at the hand of the capillary tube analogy.
• Estimate the theoretical rise heights based on capillary tube theory and calculate the pore pressures in
the saturated zone above the water table.
• Calculate hydraulic gradients using Bernoulli's equation for simple seepage flow problems.
• State Darcy's law and calculate seepage rates and quantities for one dimensional flow.
• Derive the continuity equation for two dimensional flow in a homogeneous and isotropic soil.
• Calculate flow rates and quantities in homogenous and isotropic or an-isotropic soils by making use of
flow nets.
• Calculate the pore pressure distribution and stability against uplift of hydraulic structures as well as the
potential for seepage erosion at the downstream exit.

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STUDY THEME 4: THE PRINCIPAL OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

Study units:
• Effective stress, Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Chapter 3.
Section 3.3, 3.6 and 3.7 is for information purposes only.

Self study activities:

• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition:
Chapter 3, Problems 3.1 - 3.5.

Criteria of assessment:
At the end of this study theme a student will be able to:
• Define the principal of effective stress and relate its importance in geotechnical engineering.
• Understand the implications of assuming either fully drained or fully undrained conditions in soils.
• Calculate vertical stress distributions with depth in soil deposits including, total stress, effective stress
and pore pressure.
• Calculate horizontal stresses in soil given the coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
• Describe the effective stress concept for partially saturated soils and give Bishop's equation for effective
stress in partially saturated soils.
• Define and briefly discuss the following terms: Compression, consolidation, normally consolidated and
overconsolidated.

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STUDY THEME 5: THE STRENGTH OF SOILS

Study units:
• Soil behaviour in shear, Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Chapter 5.
Sections 5.7 is for information purposes only.

Self study activities:

• Laboratory Shear Strength Tests
 Direct Shear Test:
Matthews, M.C. (1988), The engineering applications of direct and simple shear testing,
Ground Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 2, 13-21.
Head, K.H. (1994), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 2: Permeability, Shear
Strength and Compressibility Tests, John Wiley and Sons, Chapter 12, 189-251.
 Triaxial Shear Test:
Bishop, A.W., and Henkel, D.J. (1962), The measurement of soil properties in the triaxial
test, London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.
Head, K.H. (1984), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests,
London: Pentech Press Limited, Chapter 18, 911-970.
• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition:
Chapter 5, Problems 5.1 – 5.7

Criteria of assessment:
At the end of this study theme a student will be able to:
• Define and calculate two dimensional stresses and strains acting in a soil.
• Calculate the normal and shear stresses acting in any direction in a soil at a point within a soil mass,
using direct calculations for simple cases or by constructing a Mohr's circle.
• Define and calculate the principal stresses and their directions.
• Discuss briefly the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
• Explain the basic functioning of the direct shear box and triaxial shear box tests.
• Calculate the strength or factor of safety against failure of a soil in terms of effective stresses and the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
• Construct diagrams of typical shear behaviour of normally consolidated and heavily overconsolidated
clays as well as loose and dense sands.
• Define the undrained shear strength of a clay.
• Differentiate between, and discuss the characteristics of the different failure terms used in geotechnical
engineering, i.e. critical state strength, peak strength and residual strength.
• Calculate the pore pressure parameters, A and B and explain the significance of each.

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STUDY THEME 6: GROUND INVESTIGATION

Study units:
• Ground Investigation, Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Chapter 6.

Self study activities:

• Site Investigation:
SAICE (2010), Site investigation. Code of practice.
Clayton, C. R. I., Matthews, C. and Simons, N. E. (1995). Site Investigation, 2nd Edition.
Blackwell Science, Oxford, 600pp.
• Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition: Chapter 7.

Criteria of assessment:
At the end of this study theme a student will be able to:
• Explain the site investigation process.
• Give guidance on spacing of site investigation points.
• Discuss different sampling techniques.
• Discuss the following in-situ tests:
➢ Standard penetration test (SPT)
➢ Dynamic probe light (DPL)
➢ Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)
➢ Dynamic probe super heavy (DPSH)
➢ Pressure meter test (PMT)
➢ Vane shear test
➢ Cone penetration test (CPT and CPTu)
➢ Seismic refraction test
➢ Continuous surface wave test (CSW)
➢ Seismic cone test
➢ Down-hole seismic test
➢ Cross-hole seismic test
➢ Resistivity test

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 3 REFERENCES

Bishop, A.W., and Henkel, D.J. (1962), The measurement of soil properties in the triaxial test, London:
Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.

Knappett J.A. and Craig R.F. (2020). Craig's Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition, Spon Press, 2020.

Head, K.H. (1992), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and Compaction Tests,
London: Pentech Press Limited.

Head, K.H. (1994), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 2: Permeability, Shear Strength and
Compressibility Tests, John Wiley and Sons.

Head, K.H. (1984), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests, London: Pentech
Press Limited.

Holtz, R.D., and Kovacs, W.D. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall.

Kerisel, J. (1985), The history of geotechnical engineering up until 1700, Proceedings, 11th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, Vol. Gold, 3-93.

Matthews, M.C. (1988), The engineering applications of direct and simple shear testing, Ground Engineering,
Vol. 21, No. 2, 13-21.

Soil Mechanics SGM 311 (2024) 13

Module code Module name Name of lecturer
SGM311 Soil mechanics Prof SW Jacobsz
MODULE OUTCOMES HOW ARE THE STUDENTS ASSESSED AGAINST
THE OUTCOMES?
To enable a student to: Students are assessed in two written semester tests, class
tests and a written examination. Assessment concentrates
1. To develop an understanding of soil mechanics theory on both theory and applications. In the tests and
and its application in civil engineering. examination students are assessed against new problems
that they have generally not been exposed to before, for
example:
2. Have an understanding of the composition of clay
minerals, grading analysis, Atterberg limits and soil 1. Classify soil according to the British classification
classification. system.
2. Calculate the density, void ratio, porosity and degree of
3. Have an in-depth understanding of the phase saturation of a given soil.
relationships of soil. Do calculations to determine density,
void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation of soil. 3. Draw the two dimensional flow net for an engineering
problem.
4. Understand Darcy's law and its application to seepage 4. Calculate the volume of water seeping through soil for
analysis. Be able to draw flow nets and determine the one dimensional and two dimensional problems,
volume of water seeping through soil for various 5. Calculate the vertical effective stress, vertical total
engineering problems. stress and pore pressure with depth for a complex soil
profile with changing water table and/or artesian
5. Have an in-depth understanding of the principle of conditions.
effective stress. Be able to calculate the vertical effective
6. Use Mohr circles to solve stresses on any plane in a
stress in a complex ground profile.
soil mass.
6. Understand the consolidation analogy. 7. Use the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria to calculate the
strength of soil, or the principal stresses, or pore pressure
at failure,
7. Be able to apply Mohr circles to analyse stresses in
soils. 8. Describe the characteristics of the shearbox or triaxial
test
8. Understand the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and its
ECSA OUTCOME: DLO 1, 2, 9
application to the shear strength of soils for drained and
undrained conditions.

9. Have a good understanding of the test used to measure

the shear strength of soil including the shearbox and
triaxial test.

CONTENT: The composition of clay minerals, grading analysis, Atterberg limits and soil classification. Phase
relationships of soil. Density, void ratio, porosity and degree of Saturation of soil. Darcy's law and seepage analysis.
Flow nets. The principle of effective stress. Vertical effective stress in a complex ground profiles. The consolidation
analogy. Mohr circles analysis for soils. Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and shear strength of soils. Strength tests for
soils including the shearbox and triaxial tests.

LIST OF PRESCRIBED BOOKS AND SUPPORTING MATERIAL

Craig's Soil Mechanics, J.A. Knappett and R. F. Craig.

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