HEAT

TRANSFER
Conduction,
Convection an
Radiation

Vijay Agarwal
HEAT TRANSFER

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction (in all the three states of matter)

Convection (only in Fluids)

Radiation (heat propagates in the form of EMW thus Require no medium)

MODE-I Thermal Conduction

 In this process of heat transfer there is no mass movement of matter

 In this process heat transfer takes place from one part of matter to another due to the temperature
difference between them.

Understanding the Conduction Process

If two ends of a rod are kept at two different temperatures (see fig.) heat Fixed temp. Fixed temp.
TH TL
Heat flow
is transferred from hot end of the rod to the cold end. This transfer takes
place due to molecular collision. The molecules at one end of the rod gain
heat from the source (hot end) and their average kinetic energy increases. As these molecules collide with the
neighbor molecules having less kinetic energy, the energy is shared between these two groups. The kinetic energy of
the neighbor molecules increases. As they collide with their neighbors on the colder side, they transfer energy to
them. This way, heat is passed along the rod from molecule to molecule. The average position of the molecule does not
change and hence, there is no mass movement of matter. In case of metals free electrons also helps in conduction.

Variable and Steady State

In the above illustration, in the initial stage the heat absorbed by a cross section is not transferred as a whole
to the next cross section but a part of it is absorbed by it (and if the bar is unlagged a part also escapes from
its sides, by convection in the surrounding air) due to which its temperature rises.
This state is called variable state.
After a long time a stage comes when the all of the heat absorbed by a cross section is transferred to the
next as a whole and the temperatures of different cross sections are now maintained at different constant
temperatures. This state is called steady state.

2
Conceptual Tips:
If the bar is well lagged with a bad conductor (insulated), such as asbestos wool the temperature falls uniformly from
the hot end to the cold end i.e. temperature gradient is constant. But if the bar is not lagged the temperature gradient
falls along the bar.

Fixed temp. Fixed temp.

T Fixed temp. Fixed temp.
T
TH TL TH TL
Heat flow Heat flow

x x

Lagged Bar unlagged Bar

Reason: The difference between the temperature distributions is due to the fact that, when the bar is unlagged, heat
escapes from its sides, by convection in the surrounding air. So the heat flowing per second (i.e. heat current
intensity) falls with distance. The vertical arrow in the figure represents heat escaping from the surface of the bar.
But when the bar is lagged, the heat escaping from its sides is negligible, and the heat current intensity is constant
along the length of the bar.

Heat Current Intensity

Consider a slab (or a rod) in steady state having length L and uniform cross-section A and the temperatures of its hot
and cold end are TH and TL respectively. The heat flown through it in time t is given by
( TH  TL )
Q  KA t
L
dQ ( T  TL ) ΔT
Rate of flow of heat i.e., Heat Current is H   KA H   KA
dt L L
If the cross section is not uniform or if the steady state conditions are not reached, the equation can only be applied to a
thin layer of material perpendicular to the heat flow. If A be the area of cross section at a place, dx be a small thickness
along the direction of heat flow, and dT be the temperature difference across the layer of thickness dx, the heat current
through this cross-section is
dQ dT
H   KA
dt dx

Conceptual Tips:
 dT
Temperature Gradient: The quantity is called the Temperature Gradient (The rate of fall in
dx
temperature (in the direction of heat flow with distance). Its unit is K-m-1 or C-m-1
As a variable x indicates the direction of current flow, and so we introduce a –ve sign to represent that the heat flows in
dT
the direction of decreasing temperature (or say is negative along the direction of heat flow).
dx

Isothermal Surface:
A surface drawn perpendicular to the direction of flow of heat is called isothermal surface. The temperature of each and every
point of such a surface is the same i.e. temperature gradient along an isothermal surface is zero. There is no flow of heat along
an isothermal surface.
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 Thermal Conductivity: Good And Bad Thermal Conductors
K is a constant for the material and is called the thermal conductivity of the material. Its SI unit is J/s-m-K or
W/m-K. As a change of 1K and a change of 1C are the same, the unit may also be written as W/m-C.
In general, Ksolids> KLiquids>KGases
Remember: K is maximum for Ag and minimum for Freon
In Solids also the metals are better conductors than non-metals because of the presence of free electrons. The
free electrons help in carrying the thermal energy from one place to another in a metal. That is why
 Cooking utensils are made of metal whereas their handles are made of plastic or wood.
Remember: For cooking utensils the material used must have low specific heat and high thermal conductivity
 Wool and cotton are good thermal insulator because air, which is a bad thermal conductor, is trapped between its
fibers.
 Hollow brick houses are cooler (during summer days)

Wiedemann-Franz Law:
The ratio of thermal to electrical conductivity is the same fore all metals. So a metal, which is good thermal conductor, is
also a good electrical conductor. I.e.
K/=constant
In fact, K/  T, Thus K/T=constant

Ingen Hauz’s Experiment:

This is an experiment to compare the thermal conductivities of different materials. If several geometrically identical rods
are coated with wax and the ends are maintained at the same temperature differences. Then the lengths of the rods up
to which wax is melted is proportional to K

Thus for two different rodsl1/l2= (K1/K2) I.e., K1/K2= (l1/l2)2

Thermal Resistance or R-value:

ΔT
There is a analogy between the equation H   KA and I= V/R (ohm’s Law for electric current) Analogously, heat
L
current H is energy flow per unit time and is driven by temperature difference. We can express the equation as:
ΔT
H Where RH=L/KA is called the thermal resistance of the bar.
RH

TiPs
1. Combination of Rods
Because of the mathematical equivalence of the above equation with ohm’s law, the thermal resistance of series
and parallel combination of rods can be obtained from the corresponding well-known results for series and parallel combinations of
electrical resistors.

a. Combination of Rods in Series

TH TJ TL
 In series combination H1=H2=H

4
  The ratio of temperature differences (or say temperature drops)
Δ T1 R1 L1 L2
 where T1=TH-TJ and T2=TJ-TH; R1  and R 2 
Δ T2 R 2 K1A1 K2 A 2

Δ T1 L1  K2  Δ T1  K 2 
Thus if A1=A2 (which is mostly the case)    further if L1=L2 then   
Δ T2 L2  K1 
 Δ T2 K
 1


 Temperature of the Junction:

TH R 2  TLR1 T K A L  TL K 2 A 2 L1
solving the previous equation TJ  substituting the values of R1 and R2 TJ  H 1 1 2
R1  R 2 K1A1L2  K 2 A 2 L1

TH K1L2  TL K2 L1 T K  TL K2
if A1=A2 (which is mostly the case) TJ  further if L1=L2 then TJ  H 1
K1L2  K2 L1 K1  K2

 Equivalent Resistance:
Req.=R1 + R2
L1  L2 L L L  L2 K1K2 further if L =L then K  2 K1K2
 1  2 (taking A1=A2=A) Thus KEq.  1 1 2 Eq.
KEq. A K1A K2 A K1L2  L1K2 K1  K2

b. Combination of Rods in Parallel

TH
H1 R 2
 In parallel combination  TL
H2 R1

H1 KA
thus, if L1=L2 (as is mostly the case in parallel combination)  1 1
H 2 K2 A 2

 Equivalent Resistance:
1 1 1
 
R eq R 1 R 2

KEq ( A1  A 2 ) K1A 1 K 2 A 2 K A  K2 A 2 K  K2
Thus   (For L1=L2=L) I.e., KEq  1 1 further if L1=L2 then K Eq  1
L L L ( A1  A 2 ) 2

2. Growth of ice
When atmospheric temperature falls below 0C the water in the lake is starts freezing. Let at any time t, the thickness of
ice in the lake be y and atmospheric temperature is -TC. The temperature of water in the contact with the lower surface
of ice will be zero. (The temperature of water at the bottom of the lake is at 4C). If A is the area of the surface of the
( 0   T)
lake, heat escaping through ice in time dt dQ  KA dt
y

Now due to escaping of this heat if dy thickness of water in contact with lower surface of ice freezes dQ=mL=(Ady)L

dy KT  1  ρL y 1ρL 2
Thus ,    and thus the time taken to grow a thickness y, t  0 y.dy  y
dt ρ L  y  KT 2 KT

Remember
 The time taken to double, triple… the thickness will be in the ratio 1:4:9:…..
 The time taken to change the thickness from 0 to y, y to 2y,.. will be in the ratio 1:3: 5:…
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 *
MODE-II CONVECTION
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is therefore possible only in fluids. Convection can be
natural or forced.

Natural convection:
 In natural convection gravity plays an important role. When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part expands
and, therefore, becomes less dense. Because of buoyancy, it rises and the colder part replaces it. This again
gets heated, rises up and is replaced by the colder part of the fluid. This process goes on. This is why heating is
done from the base and cooling from top.
 Important- If a liquid is heated from the top it gets heated by Conduction only.
dQ
 In natural convection  Δ T5 / 4
dt

 Natural convection cannot take place in gravity free region such as freely falling lift or orbiting satellite (where
gravity is effectively zero).

 Natural convection plays an important role in ventilation, in changing climate and weather and in forming land
and sea breezes and trade winds.

Do u Know- Natural Convection and the anomalous expansion of water plays an important role in saving the life of
aquatic animals
When the atmospheric temperature goes below 0C. As the water at the surface is cooled, it becomes denser and
goes down. The less cold water from the bottom rises up to the surface and gets cooled. This way the entire water is
cooled to 4C. As the water at the surface is further cooled, it expands and the density decreases. Thus, it remains at
the surface and gets further cooled. Finally, it starts freezing. Heat is now lost by the water only due to conduction
through the ice. As ice is a poor conductor of heat the further freezing is very slow. The temperature of the water at
the bottom remains constant at 4C for a large period of time. The atmospheric temperature ultimately improves and
the animals are saved.

Forced convection:
 In forced convection, material is forced to move by a pump or by some other physical means.

 Heat transfer in a liquid by brisk stirring or in air by a blower or fan is example of force Convection.

 In the human body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates blood through different parts of the body,
transferring heat by forced convection and maintaining it at uniform temperature.

 Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its parts. A hot bar placed under
a running tap loses heat by conduction between the surface of the bar and water, not by convection within
dQ
water. In forced convection Δ T
dt

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 Mode-III RADIATION
The fastest mode of heat transfer

Prevost’s Theory of Heat Exchange

All bodies continuously emit and absorb energy in the form of electromagnetic waves at all temperatures. I.e.,
exchange of heat energy between a body and its surroundings takes place at each and every temperature. This energy
is called The Radiant energy or Thermal Radiation.

 If the Energy Radiated > Energy Received  temperature of the body falls

 If the Energy Radiated < Energy Received  temperature of the body rises

 If the Energy Radiated = Energy Received  temperature of the body = temperature of its surroundings

Conceptual Tips †
8 -1
In this phenomenon the heat transfer takes place in the form of EMW (velocity =310 m-s ) Thus, it is the fastest mode
of heat transfer.

No medium is required for the propagation of radiant energy. Solar energy reaches the earth by this mode.

The mediums through which radiations are transmitted are called Diathermanous and the materials opaque for
radiation are called Athermanous.
Some materials are Diathermanous for radiations of given wavelength range but Athermanous for the other. For example
radiations from a source at temperatures lesser than that of a red-hot source cannot pass through glass but high
temperature radiations can pass through it. This fact is used in green houses.

When radiation passes through a medium a part of it is absorbed (depending on the absorptive power) thus increasing
the temperature of the medium.

All electromagnetic radiation is not thermal radiation and cannot be associated with a temperature. Monochromatic
(single wavelength) laser radiation, for example is not thermal radiation.

In order to obtain a spectrum of radiation a special prism like Rock Salt Prism, Fluorspar prism is used.

Emissive Power (e)

The total radiant energy emitted per unit area of a surface per second is called the ‘emissive power’ of that surface.
-2 -1 -2
Unit: Joule-m -sec i.e. watt-m

Spectral Emissive Power (e)

The total radiant energy emitted per unit area of a surface per second per unit wavelength-range at wavelength  is
called the ‘spectral emissive power’ of that surface at wavelength .
Unit: Joule-m-2 -sec-1Å-1- i.e. watt-m-2Å-1
Relation between emissive power and spectral emissive power

e=∫e.d

†
Vijay Agarwal [Mob. 9630205696,]

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Absorptive Power, Reflective Coefficient, Transmittive Coefficient
When radiations of intensity Q are incident on a body, it is used up in three ways

1. A fraction of it is reflected Q Qr
Qr/Q is called Reflective coefficient or Reflectance (r)

2. A fraction of it is absorbed
Qa/Q is called Absorptive coefficient (a) or Absorptive Power or Absorptance (a) Qt

3. A fraction of it is transmitted
Qt/Q is called Transmittive coefficient or Transmittance (t)

Since, Q= Qr+ Qa+ Qt

 Qr/Q + Qa/Q + Qt/Q =1

r+a+t=1 Thus,

 If r =1 a=0 and t=0 I.e., the body is a perfect reflector

 If a =1 r=0 and t=0 I.e., the body is a perfect absorber (Black Body)

 If t =1 a=0 and r=0 I.e., the body is a perfect transmitter

Spectral Absorptive Power (a):

Spectral absorptive power of a body is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation corresponding to wavelength  in
that is absorbed by the body.

I.e. If the spectral absorptive power of a surface at wavelength  be a , then of the incident radiation Q between the
wavelengths  and +, the energy absorbed will be aQ.

The absorptive power of a Black Body is unity.

Absorptive power is a dimensionless quantity whereas emissive power is dimensional.

If a surface absorbs 95% radiation of wavelength =5000 Å (a=0.95), then for that surface a0.95, until and
unless it is said that 95% radiation of all wavelengths (not only 5000 Å) is absorbed by the surface.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The rate of thermal radiation energy from the surface of a body is proportional to the surface area A and to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature T. For a perfect radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H) is given by
4
H=AT
This relation obtained experimentally by Stefan and later proved theoretically by Boltzmann is known as Stefan-
Boltzmann law  is a universal constant it is called Stefan- Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units is 5.6710-8
Wm-2K-4 .

Most bodies emit only a fraction of the rate given by the above equation. A substance like lamp black comes close to the
limit.

Thus for bodies other than Ideal Black Body

H=AT4

8
Where  is called emissivity or relative emittance
Emissivity is different from emissive power.
2
Emissivity of a body is the ratio of the total power radiated per m by a given body, to that emitted by a black
body at the same temperature.
 =1 for a perfect radiator. =0.4 for a tungsten lamp.
 For a body with different interior temperatures from its surface temperature, T entering in the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law is the surface temperature.

TipS Applications of SBL

1. Rate of Loss in Heat:
A body at temperature T, with surroundings at temperatures TS, emits as well as receives radiation. For a
body with emissivity , the net rate of loss in radiant energy is
4 4
H=A(T -TS )

If the body is Sphere then A=4R2 Thus, H R2

2. Rate of Cooling (Rate of fall in temperature with time):
If the mass of body =m , specific heat of its material =S then

Since, H=A(T4-TS4) ms(dT/dt)=A(T4-TS4)

dT ε Aσ 4
Thus
dt

mS

T  TS4 

If the body is sphere then A=4R2and m=4/3R3

dT ε 4π R 2σ 3εσ
Thus,  3
dt 4 3π R ρ S

T4  TS4  
Rρ S

T4  TS4 

dT 1
I.e. 
dt Rρ S

Important Results:
 If Two spheres have same T, TS, S and R then
a. H (rate of loss in heat) is same for both
b. dT/dt ( rate of cooling) is more for hollow sphere ( as dT/dt  1/m when the surface areas are equal to each other)

 If the bodies are of different shapes (for ex. Cube, Sphere, Cylinder and Flat surface having same T, TS, S, 
dT/dt (rate of cooling) Area/Volume is maximum for flat surface and minimum for solid sphere.

3. Newton’s Law of Cooling

Only applicable when T=T-TS<<T (or TS)
dT
=-k(T-TS) where, k=4ATS3/mS
dt
Thus, If the difference in the temperature of the body and its surroundings is small as compared to T or TS,
The rate of cooling is proportional to the excess temperature of the body over the surrounding
The negative sign appears because loss of heat implies temperature decrease.
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Applications of NLC

If the initial and final temperatures of the body are T1and T2 respectively then T=1/2 (T1+T2 ) this is called radiation
correction

T1  T2  T  T2 
For numerical solving use the following equation  k 1  TS 
t  2 

The Graph between T and t is thus exponential decay curve.

 To find out the specific heat of a liquid (or to compare the specific heats of two different liquids)
If for the two given liquids having same mass, nature of surface and initial temperature are allowed to cool down in a
common environment then if t1 and t2 are the time intervals taken for the achieve same final temperature then
t1 S1

t 2 S2

4. The Solar Constant and Determination of the Temperature of Sun

The Sun emits radiant energy continuously in space. The earth receives a very small part of this energy. Solar
Constant (S0) is defined to be the radiant power that a unit area of the earth would receive in the absence of the
atmosphere when placed at right angles to incident radiation at a distance equal to the mean distance of the earth
from the sun. Its measured value is 1340Wm-2.
The Power H radiated by Sun in accordance with SBL
H=AT4=4 Rs2 T4

where RS is the radius of the sun, assumed to be an IBB (=1)

The radiant power per unit area received by the earth at a mean distance R0 is
1/ 4
H σ 4π R s2 T4 σ R 2s T4  R 02S0 
S0    Thus, the temperature of sun T   2 

4π R 20 4π R 20 R 20  R Sσ 
RS
now is the mean angle subtended by the solar radius at the earth. Its value is 4.6510-3radian.
R0

Thus, T=5742K  6000K (the experimental value)

Ideal Black Body

A body whose surface absorbs all incident radiations at low temperatures irrespective of their wavelength and emit out
all these absorbed radiations at high temperatures. I.e. IBB is a good absorber at low temperatures and a good emitter at
high temperature.
For IBB a=a =1 and r=0 and t=0
 In a brightly lit environment, IBB looks black since it reflects less (strictly nil) than others. In a dark room, however, a
hot black body shines more than others.
 If a non-black body (<1) is placed inside a cavity, radiation coming out of the opening is the radiation of a black
body (=1). The lack of perfect emissivity of the body in this situation is compensated by the part of incident radiation
from the walls that it reflects. Ex. Fery’s Black Body

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Fery’s Black Body
A double walled metallic hollow enclosure maintained at a uniform temperature, with a small opening compared to its
size and a conical projection. The inner wall is painted black.

 The opening {and not the sphere) acts as a perfect absorber. Radiation entering the hole suffers innumerable
absorptions and diffuse reflections at the interior walls and has negligible chance of coming out. It gets eventually
absorbed fully, whatever be the material of the walls of the enclosure. The cone directly opposite to the hole ensures
that the incoming radiation is not directly reflected back to the hole.
 If the sphere were uniformly heated to a high temperature, then the radiation coming out of the opening will be very
nearly the black body radiation.

It is not essential that a perfectly black body should appear black

In fact, a perfectly black body is one, which absorbs externally incident radiation of all wavelengths, or emits
radiation of all wavelengths when heated to a high temperature. Sun emits radiation of all wavelengths. So, it may be
called a blackbody, even though it looks white. A thermally- insulated closed oven is also very nearly a black body.

Kirchoff’s Law

According to this law, the ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for radiation of a given wavelength
is the same for all bodies at the same temperature and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body
at that temperature.
e   eλ   eλ 
I.e.,  λ         .... Eλ where 1, 2, 3,… represent different surfaces at same temperature.
 a  a 
 aλ 1  λ  2  λ  3
eλ
I.e. = Eλ
aλ

e ‡
=E i.e., e=aE since, e=E thus a= I.e., absorptance=emissivity
a
A conclusion from KL is that if a surface is a good absorber of a particular wavelength of radiation, it is also a
good emitter of that wavelength of radiation.

Some Phenomenon explained by Kirchoff’s Law:

 If a piece of decorated china is heated in a furnace to about 1000oC and then taken out suddenly in a dark room, the
decorations appear much brighter than white china. The decorations are better absorbers and, therefore, also better
emitters.
 A platinum coated black spot on a heated metal ball shines more brilliantly than the polished surface. A green glass
heated in a furnace when taken out glows with red light.
 A red glass appears red in white light, because it reflects red light and absorbs the rest. Since the average effect of
the rest of the light (white-red) is greenish, we can say that the red glass absorbs green light strongly. Hence,
according to KL, the emissive power of red glass should be maximum for green light. That is why when red glass is

‡
Experimentally proved by Ritchie’s experiment
11
 heated to a high temperature, it gives greenish glow, because now it strongly emits green light. Similarly, green
glass, gives reddish glow on being heated.
 Origin of Fraunhofer lines in solar spectrum.
Spectral Distribution of Black Body Radiation§ (Studied by Lumer and Pringsheim)

The important thing about thermal radiation at any temperature is that it is not of one (or a few) wavelength(s) but has a
continuous spectrum from the small to the large wavelength.

On studying the E- curves for radiation energy emitted by a black body for different temperatures following results are
obtained:

 At a given temperature energy is not uniformly distributed among different wavelengths.

 At a given temperature intensity of heat radiation increases with wavelength, reaches a maximum at a particular
wavelength and with further increase in wavelength it decreases.

 Wien’s Displacement Law:

With increase in temperature wavelength m corresponds to most intense radiation decreases in such a way that
mT=b where b=2.8910-3m-K. is called wien’s constant

 This law is very useful for estimating the surface temperatures of celestial bodies like the moon, sun and the
stars. Thus (m)1 T1=(m)2 T2

Note: The temperature of any object like the moon is determined from the spectrum of radiation
emitted by the moon itself, not by the spectrum of the light it reflects.

 This law explains why the colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame first becomes dull red, then reddish
yellow and finally white hot.

 Remember: If there are three star blue, red and white then their temperatures Tblue>Twhite>Tred

 Wein also proved that the maximum emitted energy (E)m corresponding to a wavelength , is proportional to
5
the T5 (E)m  T

 For all wavelengths an increase in temperature causes an increase in intensity.

 The area under the curve will represent the emissive power at a particular temperature (as e=∫e.d) Thus the
area  T4 {in accordance with SBL}

 The most significant feature of the blackbody radiation curves is that they are universal. They depend only
on the temperature and not on the size, shape or material of the blackbody.

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