CHAPTER 8 - CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

CONCEPT MAP

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POINTS TO REMEMBER

CELL THEORY :

 Schieiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.

 They proposed that the body of animal and plant are composed of cells and product of
cells.
 Rudolf Virchow (1855) he modified and gives the final shape to the cell theory.
o All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
o All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS :

 Represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO.

 Smaller and multiply more rapidly than eukaryotic cells.
 Four basic shape of bacteria are
o Bacillus (rod like)
o Coccus (spherical)
o Vibrio (comma shaped)
o Sprillum (spiral)
 All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane.
 There is no well-defined nucleus.
 Chromosome is single and circular, not enveloped by nuclear membrane.
 Presence of many small, circular, extra chromosomal and self-replicable DNA called
plasmid.
 Plasmid provides unique characteristic to the bacteria.
 One of the characteristic is antibiotic resistant.
 No membrane bound cell organelles.
 A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome is present.

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Cell envelope and its Modifications :

 Most prokaryotic cell have characteristic complex cell envelope.

 The cell envelops consists of tightly bound three layer structure;
o The outermost glycocalyx.
o Middle cell wall
o Inner plasma membrane.
 According to the nature of the cell wall and behavior towards the stain developed by
Gram, bacteria are Gram positive or Gram negative.
 Glycocalyx may for a loose sheath called slime layer.
 Glycocalyx may be thick and tough called the capsule.
 The cell wall determines the shape of the cell, strong structural support to prevent the
bacterium from bursting and collapsing.
 Plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature and interacts with outside world.
 A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by extensions of
plasma membrane into the cell.
o These extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
o They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to the
daughter cell.
o They also help in respiration and secretion.
 Some bacteria have filamentous extensions called flagella.
 Bacterial flagellum has three parts – filament, hook and basal body.
 Pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
 Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell. Play role in adhesion.

Ribosome and inclusion bodies :

 Ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.

 Each ribosome (70 S) has two sub units; smaller (30 S ) and large (50 S).
 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
 Several ribosomes attached to a single mRNA to form a chain called polyribosome or
polysome.
 Reserve materials are stored in the form of inclusion bodies.
 Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules are the inclusion
bodies.

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EUKARYOTIC CELL :

 Eukaryotes include all the Protists, plants, animals and fungi.

 Extensive compartmentalization due to membrane bound cell organelles.
 Possess an organized nucleus with nuclear envelope.
 Have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structure.
 Genetic materials are organized into chromosomes.
 The plant cell possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole, which are absent
in animal cell.
 Animal cells have centrioles which absent in plant cells.

Cell membrane :

 The cell membrane composed of lipids that arranged in bilayer.

 Lipids are arranged within the membrane with the hydrophilic polar head towards the
outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
 Non polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous environment.
 The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phophoglycerides.
 Cell membrane also possesses protein and carbohydrates.
 Ratio of protein and lipids varies from cell to cell.
 Human erythrocyte plasma membrane contains 52 % protein and 40 % lipids.
 Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral.
 Peripheral protein lie on the surface and integral proteins are partially or totally buried
in the membrane.
 The improved model of the structure of plasma membrane was proposed by singer and
Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic model.
 According to this the quasi fluid nature of lipid enables the lateral movement of proteins
within the overall bilayer.

Function :

 Passive transport.
o Simple diffusion
o Facilitated diffusion.
 Active transport.
 Phagocytosis
 Exocytosis.
 Pinocytosis.

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Cell wall :

 A non-living rigid structure called cell wall present outside the plasma membrane of plant and
fungal cell.
 Algae have a cell wall made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium
carbonate.
 Plant cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins and proteins.
 The cell wall of young plant is called primary cell wall.
 On maturity secondary cell wall formed inner to it.
 The middle lamella is a layer of calcium pectate which holds or glues the neighboring cells.
 The cell wall and middle lamella may traversed by plasmodesmata; the cytoplasmic connection
between two adjacent cell.

The endomembrane system :

Endoplasmic reticulum :

 Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm, called endoplasmic
reticulum.
 It divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments:
o Luminal (inside the ER)
o Extra luminal (cytoplasm).
 The ER shows ribosomes attached to their outer surface called Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
(RER).
 Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome called SER (smooth endoplasmic reticulum)

Function:

 RER present in the cell actively involved in protein synthesis.

 SER is the site for synthesis of lipid, glycogen and steroid hormones.

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Golgi apparatus:

 Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed this organelle, and named after him.
 It consists of many flat, disc shaped sacs or cisternae.
 These are staked parallel to each other.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with distinct convex cisor the
forming face and concave transor the maturing face.

Function:

 Principally responsible for packing of materials to be delivered intra-cellular target or

intercellular target.
 Materials are packed in the form of vesicles, from the ER fuse with the cis face of the Golgi
apparatus and move towards the trans face.
 Important site for the formation of glycoprotein and glycolipids.

Lysosomes:

 Membrane bound vesicular structure.

 Formed by Golgi body.
 Rich in all type hydrolytic enzymes, optimally active in acidic pH.
 These enzymes are capable to digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

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Vacuoles:

 The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.

 It contains water, sap, excretory product.
 Vacuole is bounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
 In plant cells the vacuole can occupy 90% of the volume.
 Tonoplast facilitates active transport of material from cytoplasm into the vacuole.
 In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for excretion and osmoregulation.
 In many protists, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.

Mitochondria:

 The number of mitochondria varies according to the physiological activity of the cell.
 Each mitochondrion is a double membrane bound structure with outer and inner membrane,
dividing its lumen into two aqueous compartments
o Outer compartment.
o Inner compartment.
 The inner compartment is called the matrix.
 The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae towards the matrix.
 The cristae increase the surface area.
 Two membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial function.
 Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration.
 They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence called ‘power house’ of the cell.
 The matrix also possess single circular DNA molecule and a few RNA molecules, ribosomes
(70S), they synthesize their own protein.
 Mitochondria divide by fission.

Plastids :

 Plastids are found in all plant cells and in Euglenoids.

 They bear some specific pigment, impart specific colour to the plants.
 Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified into
o Chloroplast.
o Chromoplast
o Leucoplast.
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  The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, traps solar energy for
photosynthesis.
 In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls are present.
 The leucoplasts are colourless plastids of varied shapes and size with stored nutrients.
o Amyloplast - store carbohydrates.
o Elaioplasts – store oils and fats.
o Aleuroplast – store proteins and minerals.
 Chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
 These are oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon like organelles.
 Chloroplast is a double membrane organelle.
 The space limited by inner membrane is called stroma.
 A number of organized flattened membranous sacs called thylakoid are present in the stroma.
 Thylakoids are arranged like stakes of coins to form grana.
 There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the
different grana.
 They thylakoids enclose a space called lumen.
 Chlorophyll pigments are located in the thylakoids.
 Chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
 Stroma contains small circular DNA and ribosomes.

Ribosomes :

 Ribosomes are granular structure first observed by George Palade (1953).

 Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
 Non-membranous cell organelles.
 Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
 ‘S’ stands for sedimentation coefficient; measure of density and size.
 Both 70S and 80S ribosomes consists of two subunits.
 Primary function is protein synthesis hence called protein factory of the cell.

Cytoskeleton :

 An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm is

collectively known as cytoskeleton.
 Cytoskeleton involved in many function such as mechanical support, motility, maintenance of
the shape of the cell.

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Cilia and Flagella :

 Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.

 Cilia are small help in the movement of cell or surrounding fluid.
 Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement.
 Cilia and flagella covered by plasma membrane.
 Their core called axoneme, possess a number microtubules running parallel to the long axis.
 The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules
and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
 The central tubules are connected by bridges and are also enclosed by a central sheath, which is
connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublet by radial spoke.
 The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers.
 Both cilia and flagella emerge from centrioles- like structure called basal bodies.

Centrosome and centrioles :

 Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.

 They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
 Both centrioles in a Centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
 Each centriole has an organization like the cartwheel.
 They are made of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
 Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet.
 The adjacent triplets are also linked to each others.
 The central part of the centriole is called hub.
 The hub connected to peripheral triplets by radial spokes.
 The centriole forms the basal body for cilia, flagella and form spindle fibres during cell
division.

Nucleus :

 Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown in 1831.

 Materials inside the nucleus was stained by Flemming and named as chromatin.
 The interphase nucleus has highly extended and elaborates nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin.
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  The nucleus also contains nuclear matrix and one or two spherical bodies called nucleoli.
 Nuclear envelope consists of two membranes with perinuclear space (10- 50 nm).
 The outer membrane remains continuous with endoplasmic reticulum.
 Presence of nuclear pore due to fusion of two membranes.
 Nuclear pores allow the movement of RNA and protein in both directions.
 The nuclear matrix or nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
 Nucleolus is the site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
 During cell division the chromatins condensed to form chromosomes.
 Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, non-histone proteins and
some RNA.
 A single human cell contains approximately two meter long thread of DNA in 46
chromosomes.
 Each chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere.
 On each side of centromere there is disc shaped structures called kinetochores.
 Based on the position of the centromere chromosomes are classified into four types:-
o Metacentric: centromere at the middle with two equal arms.
o Sub-Metacentric: one short arm and one long arm.
o Acrocentric: with extremely short arm and a very long arm.
o Telocentric: with terminal centromere.
 A few chromosomes have non-staining constrictions at a constant location. This gives the
appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.

Question and Answers

Select and write one most appropriate option

1. Which structures perform the function of mitochondria in bacteria?

(a) Nucleoid
(b) Ribosomes
(c) Cell wall
(d) Mesosomes
Answer - (d)

2. The organelles that are included in the endomembrane system are:

(a) Golgi complex, Mitochondria, Ribosomes and Lysosomes
(b) Golgi complex, Endoplasmic reticulus, Mitochondria and Lysosomes
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Ribosomes and Lysosomes
(d) Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, Lysosomes and Vacuoles
Answer - (d)

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 3. All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in
(a) Mycoplasma
(b) Bacillus
(c) Vibrio
(d) Blue green algae
Answer - (a)
4. The plasma membrane consists mainly of
(a) phospholipids embedded in a protein bilayer
(b) proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer
(c) proteins embedded in a polymer of glucose molecules
(d) proteins embedded in a carbohydrate bilayer
Answer - (b)
5. Choose incorrect match
(a) Chloroplast - Thylakoid
(b) Golgi bodies - Cristae
(c) Mitochondria - Oxysome
(d) Centriole - Microtubules
Answer - (b)

6. What is a tonoplast?
(a) Outer membrane of mitochondria
(b) Inner membrane of chloroplast
(c) Membrane boundary of the vacuole of plant cells
(d) Cell membrane of a plant cell.
Answer - (c)

Assertion_Reason Based Questions

Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by a statement of reason.

Mark the correct choice as:
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.

7. Assertion: Rudolf Virchow modified the hypothesis of cell theory given by Schleiden and
Schwann.
Reason : Cell theory says that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Answer – (b)
8. Assertion: The Golgi apparatus mainly performs the function of packaging materials.
Reason: Materials to be packed in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with trans face of the
Golgi Apparatus
Answer – (c)
9. Assertion : Plasmids are double-stranded extra chromosomal DNA.
Reason : Plasmids are possessed by eukaryotic cells.
Answer – (c)
10. Assertion: Lysosomes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
Reason: Lysosomes are rich in hydrolytic enzymes like lipases, proteases and carbohydrases
Answer – (a)

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11. What does “S” stand for in the 70S and 80S ribosome?
“S” is the Svedberg’s unit for sedimentation coefficient. It depicts the rate of sedimentation of a
cell during ultracentrifugation. Heavier the cell structure, higher is the sedimentation
coefficient.

12. Where is dynein present?

In microtubules of flagella

13. Briefly describe the cell theory.

Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory (1838-39). This theory, however,
did not explain as to how new cells were formed. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that
cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He
modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape. Cell
theory as understood today is
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

14. What are the cell inclusions in a prokaryotic cell?

Cell inclusions in prokaryotic cells are granules or inclusion bodies. They lie freely in the
cytoplasm. For example, phosphate granule; glycogen granules, sulphur granules, gas vacuole,
poly-(ii) hydroxybutyrate. There may be metachromatic granules.

15. What is a mesosome in a prokaryotic cell? Mention the functions that it performs.
 Mesosome is a membranous structure in prokaryotic cell, which is formed by the extensions
of the plasma membrane into the cell in form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
 Mesosomes are equal to mitochondria in eukaryotes, as they perform aerobic cellular
respiration in prokaryotes.
 It helps in DNA replication and distribution of genetic material to daughter cells.
Mesosomes also help in respiration, increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and
enzymatic content and cell wall formation.

16. What are the main functions of the cell wall?

The main functions of the cell wall are:
 It gives a definite shape to the cell and protects the internal organelles.
 It provides a framework and lends support to the plasma membrane.
 It prevents the cell from desiccation.
 It counteracts physically the osmotic pressure produced by the cell contents.
 It helps in the transport of materials and metabolites in and out of the cell.

17. Write the functions of the following:

a. Centromere
b. Smooth ER
c. Centrioles
a. Centromere: Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere.
Two sister chromatids are joined together at the centromere.
b. Smooth ER: The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of lipid. In
animal cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER.
c. Centrioles: The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and spindle fibres that give
rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in animal cells.

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18. Describe the functions of the three organelles, viz Golgi bodies, chloroplasts, and
mitochondria.
(a) Functions of Golgi bodies:
 Carbohydrate synthesis of mucopolysaccharides
 Formation of acrosome
 Formation of the lysosome.
 Formation of the plasma membrane.
 Formation of the cell wall.
 Absorption of compounds.
 Production of hormones.
 Formation of pigments.
 Yolk deposition.
(b) Functions of chloroplast:
 Their main function is to trap the sun’s energy and to convert it into the chemical energy
of food by photosynthesis.
 Storage of starch,
 Chloroplasts in fruits and flowers change into chromoplasts.
(c) Functions of Mitochondria:
 Powerhouses the cell and stores energy as ATP.
 Several respiratory enzymes are found in mitochondria.
 DNA is also contained in mitochondria.
 They regulate the concentration of calcium ions in the cells.
19. Give an ultrastructure of mitochondria.
 Mitochondria, unless specifically stained, are not easily visible under the microscope.
 The number of mitochondria per cell is variable depending on the physiological activity of
the cells.
 In terms of shape and size also, considerable degree of variability is observed.
 Typically it is sausage shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0 ft m (average 0.5
film) and length (1.0 -4.1 ft).
 Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and
the inner membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments, i.e. the
outer compartment and the inner compartment.
 The inner compartment is called the matrix. The outer membrane forms the continuous
limiting boundary of the organelle.
 The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae. The cristae increase
the surface area.
 The two membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial
function. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration.
 They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence they are called. “Power houses” of
the cell.
 The matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes
(70s) and the components required for the synthesis of proteins.
 The Mitochondria divide by fission.

20. Differentiate between Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Ribosomes are attached to their surface. Ribosomes are not attached to their surface.
Formed of cisternae and a few tubules. Formed of vesicles and tubules.
It participates in the protein and enzyme Takes part in the synthesis of glycogen,
synthesis. lipids, and steroids.
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 May develop from the nuclear envelope. May develop from RER.
It is internal. It is peripheral.
It is connected to the nuclear envelope. It is connected to the plasmalemma.
Lacks detoxification enzymes. Contains detoxification enzymes.
Gives rise to lysosomes. Gives rise to sphaerosomes.

Case Based Question

A chloroplast is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts
photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the
energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while
freeing oxygen from water in the cells. The ATP and NADPH is then used to make organic molecules
from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other
functions, including fatty acid synthesis, much amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants.
The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants like
Arabidopsis and wheat.
(i) The ground material in Chloroplast is
(a) Matrix (b) Stroma (c) Lamellae (d) Thylakoid
Answer - (b)

(ii) When green tomatoes fruits turn to red, then

(a) new chromoplasts are formed
(b) chloroplasts are disintegrated and get converted into chromoplasts
(c) chromoplasts are changed to chloroplasts
(d) none of these
Answer - (b)

(iii) In chloroplasts, the parallel layering of membranes is suited for

(a) maximum exposure of enzymes
(b) maximum light absorption
(c) minimum light absorption so cells can maintain their temperature
(d) all of these
Answer - (b)

(iv) Chlorophyll in chloroplasts is present in

(a) Stroma
(b) outer membrane
(c) inner membrane
(d) thylakoids
Answer - (d)

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