Heat Transfer

by
Dr. Surfarazhussain S. Halkarni
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
SRM University – AP, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
E-mail: surfarazhussain.s@srmap.edu.in
Webpage: https://sites.google.com/view/dr-surfaraz-halkarni/home

Note : This presentation is a part of lecture series on HMT during Jan-May 2025 by Dr. Surfarazhussain S. Halkarni.
All rights are reserved with Dr. Halkarni. This should not be published anywhere without the consent of author.
 INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics (TD) summary:

• Energy can be transferred by interactions of a system with its
surroundings. These interactions are called WORK and HEAT.
• However, TD deals with the END STATES of the process during which an
interaction occurs and provides NO INFORMATION concerning the
NATURE OF THE INTERACTION OR THE TIME rate at which it
occurs.

Objective: To extend thermodynamic analysis through the study of the modes

of heat transfer and through the development of relations to
calculate heat transfer rates.
 INTRODUCTION
Several questions need to asked to understand this subject:
• What is heat transfer?
• How is heat transferred?
• Why is it important?

• To develop an appreciation for the fundamental concepts and

principles that underlie heat transfer processes.

• To illustrate the manner in which a knowledge of heat

transfer may be used with the first law of thermodynamics
(conservation of energy) to solve problems relevant to
technology and society.
 INTRODUCTION
What is heat transfer?
“Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due
to a spatial temperature difference”.
Whenever a temperature difference (ΔT) exists in a medium or
between media, HEAT TRANSFER must occur.
We refer to different types of heat transfer processes as MODES.

Figure: Modes of Heat Transfer (Source: Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.)
 INTRODUCTION
Modes/ Mechanisms of HEAT TRANSFER
(Transport modes / Transmission modes)
• CONDUCTION
• CONVECTION
• RADIATION

ENGINEERS, it is important that we understand the

PHYSICAL MECHANISMS and RATE EQUATIONS

To quantify the amount of energy being

transferred per unit time.
 CONDUCTION
When a TEMPERATURE GRADIENT exists in a STATIONARY
MEDIUM, WHICH MAY BE A SOLID OR A FLUID, we use the term
CONDUCTION to refer to the HEAT TRANSFER that will occur across
the medium

• TRANSFER OF ENERGY from the MORE

ENERGETIC to the LESS ENERGETIC particles
• HIGHER TEMPERATURES are associated
with HIGHER MOLECULAR ENERGIES
SOLIDS:
Energy transfer due to the combination of
VIBRATION of the MOLECULES IN A LATTICE

FLUIDS (Gases & Liquids):

Conduction through a
Conduction is due to the COLLISIONS AND solid or a stationary fluid*
DIFFUSION of MOLECULES during their random
motion
*Incropera et al., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer , 7th Ed., Wiley Publ. 6
 CONDUCTION (contd.)
Rate equation is known as FOURIER’S LAW (Conduction)
Fourier’s law is based on experimental evidence (Empiricism)
1D- Conduction plane wall
dT
′′
qx = − k
dx
′′
qx = − k
(T2 − T1 )
=k
(T1 − T2 )
L L
Heat rate by conduction
Q x = q′x′ × Anormal (W )
where,
(
q′x′ = Heat flux in X − direction Wm -2 )
dT
= Temperature gradient
dx
(
k = Thermal conductivity of material Wm -1K -1 )
L = Thickness of the material (m)
 CONVECTION
CONVECTION refers to heat transfer that will occur between a
SURFACE and a MOVING FLUID when they are at DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES
Rate equation is called as
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

q′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
Where, h = Convective heat transfer
coefficient (W/m2.K)
Hot Surface
CONVECTION HEAT FLUX is presumed to be :
Convection from a surface
POSITIVE : if heat is transferred from the surface to a moving fluid1
(Ts > T∞ )
NEGATIVE : if heat is transferred to the surface
(T∞ > Ts )
1Incropera et al., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer , 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.
 RADIATION
Energy transfer due to electro-magnetic waves
THERMAL RADIATION
Net radiation heat exchange
• Radiation – Solid, Fluids (liquid or gas) between two surfaces*
• All surfaces of finite temperature
emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves
• No medium is required for RADIATION
(vacuum is perfect medium)
STEFAN - BOLTZMAN LAW
4
E b = σ Ts
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface (K)
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4)
Eb = Emissive Power (W m-2)
EMISSIVE POWER -Rate at which energy is released per unit area
Similar to Heat Flux
*Incropera et al., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer , 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.
 RADIATION (Contd.)
BLACK SURFACE: Stefan Boltzman Law (specifies the upper limit)
HEAT FLUX EMITTED by a real surface is << of a BLACKBODY at the
SAME TEMPERATURE
4 ɛ : is a Radiative property of the surface termed the
E = σ ε Ts EMISSIVITY
Radiation between a surface
0<ɛ <1 and large surroundings*

For any real surface in surroundings

Stefan Boltzman Law:

′′ 4
(
q = σ ε Ts − Tsurr.
4
)

*Incropera et al., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer , 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.
Examples & Applications: HEAT TRANSFER

Daily life Flights Space

Power generation Submarines (under water)

Human body

Deep space applications

Electronics
 CONDUCTION
• Heat conduction was defined as the transfer of thermal
energy from the more energetic particles of a medium
to the adjacent less energetic ones.
• It was stated that conduction can take place in LIQUIDS
and GASES as well as SOLIDS provided that there is NO
BULK MOTION INVOLVED.
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely
related, they are of a different nature.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude, and
thus it is a VECTOR QUANTITY.
Heat transfer has DIRECTION as well as MAGNITUDE, and thus it
is a vector quantity.
For example:
Heat flux on that surface is 80 W/m2
Immediately prompts the question
“IN WHAT DIRECTION?”
Answer is: Work with a coordinate
system and indicate direction with
plus or minus signs.

A positive quantity indicates heat A negative quantity indicates heat

transfer in the positive direction transfer in the negative direction
Fig.: Heat Transfer (Source: Cengel et al., 5th Ed., McGrawHill Publ.)
Fourier’s law is PHENOMENOLOGICAL; that is, it is developed from
observed phenomena rather than being derived from first principles.
Hence, we view the rate equation as a generalization based on much
experimental evidence.

CONDUCTION is the transfer of energy from the more energetic

particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result
of interactions between the particles

The RATE OF HEAT CONDUCTION through a medium depends on:

• the GEOMETRY of the medium,
• its THICKNESS,
• the MATERIAL of the medium,
• as well as the TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE across the medium.
 FOURIER’S LAW

Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of

thickness (Δx) = L and area (A).

The temperature difference (ΔT) across the wall is ∆T = T2 − T1

Experiments have shown that the rate of heat transfer (Q) through the wall is
doubled when the temperature difference (ΔT) across the wall or the area A normal
to the direction of heat transfer is doubled, but is halved when the wall thickness
(L) is doubled.
Thus we conclude, that the RATE OF HEAT CONDUCTION through a
plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer.

Rate of Heat Conduction ∝

( Area )× (Temperature difference )
(Thickness )

Q∝
( A)× (T1 − T2 )
(∆x )

Q= k
( A)× (T1 − T2 )
= −k
A × (T2 − T1 )  A∆T 
= −k  
(∆x ) ∆x  ∆x 
where, the constant of proportionality (k) is the thermal conductivity of the
material. It is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat

  ∆T 
Q = −kA W
 ∆x 
 For the limiting case of ∆x → 0the equation reduces to the differential form:

  ∆T    dT 
Q = −kA W Q = −kAnormal  
 ∆x   dx 

This is called FOURIER’S LAW of HEAT CONDUCTION

 dT   Q   dT   dT 

Q = − kA    = −k   q′x′ = − k   − − − − − (2.1)
 dx   Anormal x  dx   dx 

where,
Negative sign in Eq. (2.1) (
q′x′ = Heat flux in X − direction Wm -2 )
ensures that heat transfer in the dT
= Temperature gradient
positive (X) direction is a dx
positive quantity (
k = Thermal conductivity of material Wm -1K -1 )
 In heat CONDUCTION ANALYSIS, (A)
represents the area NORMAL to the
direction of heat transfer

HOMOGENEOUS : The property is

not a function of position/ location,
i.e. it does not depend on
location (x, y or z).

ISOTROPIC: the property does

not depend on a particular
direction.

Source: http://sepwww.stanford.edu/public/docs/sep65/joe2/paper_html/node6.html#SECTION00031000000000000000
 Apply FOURIER’S LAW of HEAT CONDUCTION
  dT 
Q = − kA 
 dx 
Copper Silicon

(i.) Copper (k = 401 W/m·K) (ii.) Silicon (k = 148 W/m·K)

Thermal conductivity of the material is a significant property which

influence heat exchange/ transfer
Location of a point is specified as:
• Cartesian / Rectangular coordinates ( x, y, z )
• Cylindrical coordinates (r , θ , z )
• Spherical coordinates (r , θ , φ )

Rectangular coordinates

Spherical coordinates Cylindrical coordinates

where the distances (x, y, z and r) and the angles (θ and ϕ).
Then the temperature at a point (x, y, z) at time t in rectangular
coordinates is expressed as T(x, y, z, t).
Choice of coordinate system for a given geometry is the one that
describes the surfaces of the geometry best.
 Energy Balance (or Conservation)
Conservation of energy principle can be expressed as follows: The
net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.

E In − EOut = ∆ESystem
 Total Energy   Total Energy   Change in Total 
  −   = 
 
 entering system   leaving system   Energy system 
Considering Energy
generated also
E In − EOut + EGenerated = EStored

This relation is often referred to as the ENERGY BALANCE and is

applicable to ANY KIND OF SYSTEM undergoing ANY KIND OF
PROCESS.
 Derivation of Heat conduction equation in
Cartesian coordinates
Consider a medium within which there is no bulk motion (advection) and the
temperature distribution T(x, y, z) is expressed in Cartesian coordinates.

Q(z + dz)
Q(y + dy)

Qx
Q(x + dx)

Qy
Qz
Figure 2.1: Differential CV for conduction analysis
(Source: Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.)
Let us consider a small an infinitesimally small (differential) control
volume-CV (dx dy dz) as shown in Figure 2.1.
Consider and any instant of time (t) and apply conservation of
energy/ energy balance:
Let us consider the components along X- direction:
Entering CV: Qx ⇐ E in
By Taylor series expansion & neglecting higher-order terms, we have:
∂Qx
Leaving CV: Q( x + dx ) = Qx + dx ⇐ E Out
∂x
Similarly components along Y & Z directions:
Entering CV: Q y ⇐ E in
By Taylor series expansion & neglecting higher-order terms, we have:
∂Q y
Leaving CV: Q( y + dy ) = Q y + dy ⇐ E Out
∂y
Entering CV: Qz ⇐ E in
By Taylor series expansion & neglecting higher-order terms, we have:
∂Qz
Leaving CV: Q( z + dz ) = Qz + dz ⇐ E Out
∂z
Conservation of Energy (apply it) :

E In − E Out + E Generated = E Stored − − − (2.1)

Let there be thermal ENERGY GENERATION. This term is
represented as:
E Generated = q gen.
where, q gen. is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the
medium (W/m3).
In addition, changes may occur in the amount of the internal thermal energy
stored by the material in the control volume.
If the material is not experiencing a change in phase, latent energy effects are not
pertinent and the ENERGY STORAGE TERM may be expressed as:

 ∂T
EStored = ρC p
∂t
∂T
where ρC p is the time rate of change of the (thermal) energy of the medium per
∂t
unit volume

Substitution in equation (2.1) gives us:

E In − E Out + E Generated = E Stored − − − (2.1)

Let us focus on LHS terms of equation (2.1) for each direction:
E In − E Out
 E In − E Out
 ∂Qx  ∂Qx
In, X- direction: Qx − Q( x + dx ) = Qx − Qx + dx  = − dx
 ∂x  ∂x
 ∂Q y  ∂Q y
In, Y- direction: Q y − Q( y + dy ) = Q y − Q y + dy  = − dy
 ∂y  ∂y
 ∂Qz  ∂Qz
In, Z- direction: Qz − Q( z + dz ) = Qz − Qz + dz  = − dz
 ∂z  ∂z

 ∂Qx   ∂Q y   ∂Qz 
Entire CV:  − dx  +  − dy  +  − dz 
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
NOTE:
Once again it is important to note that the terms E Genrated & E Stored and represent
different physical processes
 Substitution all components in equation (2.1) gives us:

E In − E Out + E Generated = E Stored ........(2.1)

 ∂Qx   ∂Q y   ∂Qz  ∂T
− 
dx  +  − 
dy  +  − dz  + q gen. = ρC p
 .......(2.2)
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  ∂t

Using FOURIER’S LAW of HEAT CONDUCTION (Cartesian coordinates):

 ∂T   ∂T 
Qx = −k x Ax   = − k x (dy × dz )  
 ∂x   ∂x 

 ∂T   ∂T 
Q y = −k y Ay   = −k y (dz × dx )  
 ∂y   ∂y 

 ∂T   ∂T 
Qz = −k z Az   = − k z (dx × dy )  
 ∂z   ∂z 
 Substitution components in equation (2.2) gives:

 ∂Qx   ∂Q y   ∂Qz  ∂T
− dx  +  − dy  +  − dz  + q gen. = ρC p
 .......(2.2)
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z  ∂t

∂   ∂T   ∂   ∂T  
− − k x  (dy × dz ) dx − − k y  (dz × dx ) dy
∂x   ∂x   ∂y   ∂y  
∂   ∂T   ∂T
− − k z  (dx × dy ) dz + q gen. = ρC p
∂z   ∂z   ∂t
Multiply equation by volume of CV gives:

[E In ]
− E Out (dx dy dz ) + E Generated (dx dy dz ) = E Stored (dx dy dz )

[EIn − EOut ] + EGenerated = EStored

  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  
 k x   + k y   + k z   (dx dy dz ) +
 ∂x   ∂x  ∂y   ∂y  ∂z   ∂z  
∂T
q gen. (dx dy dz ) = ρC p (dx dy dz )
∂t
Dividing out the dimensions of the control volume (dx dy dz), we
obtain:
∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂T
 kx   + k y   + k z   + q gen. = ρC p
∂x   ∂x  ∂y   ∂y  ∂z   ∂z  ∂t
........................(2.3)

Equation (2.3) is called as 3D HEAT DIFFUSION/ CONDUCTION

EQUATION in (Cartesian coordinates) for
heterogeneous, isotropic materials.
 Heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates for
(Case of constant thermal conductivity)
We have already derived the HEAT DIFFUSION/ CONDUCTION EQUATION in
(Cartesian coordinates) for heterogeneous, isotropic materials.

∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂T
 kx   + k y   + k z   + q gen. = ρC p
∂x   ∂x  ∂y   ∂y  ∂z   ∂z  ∂t
For the case of constant thermal conductivity:
kx = k y = kz = k
∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂T
 k  + k   + k   + q gen. = ρC p
∂x   ∂x  ∂y   ∂y  ∂z   ∂z  ∂t

 ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T   ∂T
k    +   +    + q gen. = ρC p
 ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z   ∂t
  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T   q gen.  ρC p  ∂T  1  ∂T
   +   +    + =   = 
 ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z   k  k  ∂t  α  ∂t
 k   m2 
where, α =   = Thermal diffusivity 
 
 ρC 
 p   s 
Additional simplifications of the general form of the heat equation are often
possible: Under STEADY-STATE conditions, there can be no change in the
amount of energy storage

∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T  ∂   ∂T 
 k  + k   + k   + q gen. = 0
∂x   ∂x  ∂y   ∂y  ∂z   ∂z 
 Thermal Conductivity
To use Fourier’s law, the thermal conductivity of the material must be
known. This property, which is referred to as a transport property,
provides an indication of the rate at which energy is transferred by the
diffusion process.
It depends on: the physical structure of matter, atomic and molecular, which is
related to the state of the matter.

Fourier’s qη′′
kη = where,
Law (∂T ∂η ) η = either X , Y or Z directions (Cartesian coordinate)

Accordingly, transport of thermal energy may be due to two effects:

• the MIGRATION OF FREE ELECTRONS and lattice vibrational waves.
• when viewed as a PARTICLE-LIKE PHENOMENON, the lattice vibration quanta
are termed phonons.
In pure metals, the electron contribution to conduction heat transfer dominates,
whereas in NONCONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS, the PHONON
CONTRIBUTION IS DOMINANT.
Thermal Conductivity also varies with TEMPERATURE
Range of thermal conductivity for various states of matter at
normal temperatures and pressure

(Source: Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.)

1Temperature dependence of the
thermal conductivity of
SELECTED SOLIDS

The thermal conductivities of some

materials at room temperature

(Source: 1Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.; 2 Cengel et al. , 5th Edn. Mc-GrawHill Publ.)
1Temperature dependence of
the thermal conductivity of
SOLIDS & FLUIDS

(Source: 1Cengel et al. , 5th Edn. Mc-GrawHill Publ.)

 Significance of THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY (α)
In heat transfer analysis, the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat
capacity is an important property termed the THERMAL
DIFFUSIVITY.
Heat Conduction  k  m 2
Thermal diffusivity (α ) =
Heat Storage  ρC p  s
The product ρCp (J/m3 K), commonly termed the VOLUMETRIC HEAT CAPACITY,
measures the ability of a material to store thermal energy.
It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its
ability to store thermal energy.
• Materials of large (α) will respond quickly to changes in their thermal
environment.
• Materials of small (α) will respond more sluggishly & taking longer to
reach a new equilibrium condition.

Note: The accuracy of ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS depends on the accuracy

with which the THERMOPHYSICAL properties are known
The thermal diffusivities of some materials at room
temperature

(Source: 1Cengel et al. , 5th Edn. Mc-GrawHill Publ.)

 Thermal Resistance Concept
Let us understand from analogy of Electrical current flow

CV

Circuit
(Electrical)

Electric current flow

 Thermal Resistance CONDUCTION
An analogy exists between the DIFFUSION OF HEAT and
ELECTRICAL CHARGE. Just as an electrical resistance is associated
with the conduction of electricity, A THERMAL RESISTANCE may
be associated with the CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
Consider case of PLANE WALL (1D- One Dimension)

Equivalent
thermal
circuit
Figure 2.6: 1D conduction analysis (Plane Wall)
(Source: Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.)
 Thermal Resistance CONDUCTION
For, CURRENT flow the Equation is given by:
where, I = Current (Amperes : A) ;
V1 − V2 ∆V
I= = V = Voltage (Volts : V );
R R R = Resistance (Ohms : Ω)
For, HEAT flow by conduction the Equation is given by:
w.k.t FOURIER’S LAW of HEAT CONDUCTION (Cartesian coordinates):
 dT   Ts1 − Ts 2 
Heat Rate: Q = − kA  = kA 
 dx   L 
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate, it follows from above Eqn. that the thermal resistance for conduction
in a plane wall is
(Ts1 − Ts 2 ) ∆T ∆T
Q=
L
= =
( ) ∆T L
 L
 
Rt , Cond .

 Rt , Cond . = =
kA  kA  Thermal Conductive
Resistance
Q kA
 Thermal resistance for CONVECTION

Qx

Convection
Convection Thermal
Conduction
Thermal Resistance
Thermal
Resistance
Resistance

Qx
 For, HEAT flow by Convection the Equation is given by:
Rate equation is called as NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING:

Heat Rate at inner wall: QHot ,Wall = hA(T∞1 − Ts1 )

Heat Rate at outer wall: QCold ,Wall = hA(Ts 2 − T∞ 2 )

Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate, it follows from above Eqn. that the thermal RESISTANCE FOR
CONVECTION in a plane wall is:

Q=
(T∞1 − Ts1 ) = (Ts 2 − T∞ 2 ) = ∆T
=
∆T
∆T 1
1 1  1 
 
(
Rt , Conv. ) Rt , Conv. = =
Q hA
hi A ho A 
 
 hA  Thermal Convective
Resistance
 Complete analogy with all Resistances taken into
account:

T∞,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,2 T∞, 2
Qx 1 L 1
h1 A1 kA h2 A2
Equivalent thermal circuit

Overall Heat Transfer across the PLANE WALL (with convection surface conditions) is
given by :
where, Total Resistance is given by:
T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 2 1 L 1
Qx = RTotal , x = + +
RTotal h1 A kA h2 A
 Application to Composite Wall
Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex
systems, such as COMPOSITE WALLS. Such walls may involve
any number of series and parallel thermal resistances due to
layers of different materials.
Consider the series composite wall:

T∞ ,1 − T∞ ,n
Q1D =
∑R n

where, the overall temperature difference is: T∞ ,1 − T∞ ,n

where, Thermal Resistances are:

∑R n
Equivalent thermal circuit for a series composite wall.

Figure 2.7: 1D conduction analysis (Composite Wall)

(Source: Incropera et al., 7th Ed., Wiley Publ.)
 T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 4
Q1D =
 1   LA   LB   LC   1 
  +   +   +   +  
 h1 A   k A A   k B A   kC A   h2 A 
NUMERICALS