Section 5: Solids, liquids and gases

Unit:18 (Density and pressure)

Density and pressure

Density is the mass per unit volume of an object or fluid. The greater the density, the greater is
its mass if we keep volume of the material same. In case of liquid, it is seen that the liquid with
higher density will always sink in one that has a lower density.

Describe experiments to determine density using direct measurements of mass and volume:
Experiment: To determine the density of a regularly-shaped object.

Apparatus: Vernier calipers, micrometer/screw gauge, ruler, balance

Procedure:
1. Find the mass, using the balance.
2. Determine the volume by taking appropriate measurements and then calculating the volume as
follows:
• Volume of a rectangular block = Length × width × Height
4
• Volume of a sphere of radius 𝑅 = 𝜋𝑅3
3

• Volume of a cylinder of radius 𝑅 and height L= 𝜋𝑅2L

Skills regarding handling the experiment

A. How to measure the length?
a) Measuring the length of an object:
I. The ruler (up to 30 cm)
 Accuracy: 0.1 cm = 1mm
 The ruler should be placed as close to the object as possible.
 The eye must be directly above the mark on the scale or the thickness of the ruler
causes parallax error.
 II. The micrometer screw gauge (up to 2 cm)
 Accuracy: 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
 Can be used to measure small objects in the millimeter range.
 Before making measurement, check to ensure that the reading is zero when the
jaws are closed, otherwise a zero error must be allowed for where a reading is
taken.

III. Vernier scale (up to 15 cm):

 Accuracy: 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
Has two scales, the mm scale and Vernier scale
Notes:
 each reading should be repeated several times to get an acceptable average.
 Some readings should be excluded if their values are very far from the other readings
(abnormal readings).
Measuring thickness of a thin object:
Multiples can be measured and the divided to find an average value. For example, to obtain
the average thickness of one page of a book, measure the thickness of 20 pages and divide
your result by 20.
How to check that the ruler is vertical to the bench?
By using set square method: put the set square (right-angle triangle) so that one side of the
angle is parallel to the bench, while the other side of the right angle is parallel to the meter rule.
Meter

Right-angle

Bench

How to measure a circumference of a cylindrical-shaped object (cup, test tube…)?

To measure a circumference of a cylindrical-shaped object, wind a string 10 times around it then

unwinds it, measure the length of the string and divide by 10. The string should be thin, tangent
and without spacing between turns.

 Reasons for inaccuracy:

 Using thick string
 The marks are thick
 Leaving space between turns
 Winding turns at angles
 Stretching of the string
  Precautions:
 Use thin string
 Thin marks
 Take more number of turns
 Make sure that the string isn’t stretched

Experiment: To determine the density of a liquid.

Apparatus: Burrete, beaker, balance, retortstand.

Procedure:

1. Find the mass of a clean, dry beaker (m1).

2. Run a volume of the liquid from the burette into the beaker.
3. Find the mass of the beaker and the liquid (m2)
Calculation: If the masses are measured in kg, and the volume in m3, then the density of the liquid.
m 2−m 1 3
ρ= (kg/m )
v
Precaution:
 When reading the volume of the liquid, make sure that the eye is level with the base of
meniscus of the liquid.
 Keep the beaker on a plain surface.

Experiment: To determine the density of an irregular shaped object

1. Determine the mass of the object by using a top pan balance.

Now find, find the volume:

2. Pour some water in a measuring cylinder.

3. Mark the position of the lower meniscus of the water level.
4. Put the object into the water. The water level rises.
5. Mark the position of the lower meniscus again
6. Subtract the two readings and get the volume of the object.
Density: Use the equation of density.
 Pressure
Pressure is defined as:
The concentration of a force or the force per unit area

Example1: Tractors (Low pressure)

 Tractors have large tiers
 This spreads the weight(force) of the tractor over a large area
 This reduces the pressure which prevents the heavy tractor from sinking into the mud
Example 2: Nails (High pressure)
o Nails have sharp pointed ends with a very small area
 This concentrates the force, creating a large pressure over a small area This allows the nail to be hammered
into a wall Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)
The area should always be the cross-sectional area of the object This means the area where the force is at right
angles to it.

 This equation tells us that:

If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure If it is spread over a small area it will result in a

large pressure.
Pressure in liquids and gases
Pressure in liquids and gases act equally in all directions, as long as the liquid or gas are not moving.
Pressure in a fluid (gas or liquid) is created from the movement of particles (as they collide with a
surface).

Experiment: To prove the above statement.

4 holes are made at the same depth in a can. So, when it is filled with water, the water flowing from
these holes moves at same speed. This proves that the pressure is equal in all direction.
know and use the relationship for pressure difference:

pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field strength

p=h×ρ×g

Experiment: To investigate that pressure decreases with height.

Three holes are made at different height of the can. The water from the hole at the bottom-most of the
can travels at highest speed. And the water from top-most hole travels at lowest speed. Thus, proving
that pressure increases with depth.

Atmospheric Pressure:
 Pressure exerted by the weight of the air on the earth’s surface.
 Measured by barometer
 It decreases with an increasing altitude
 It is 101,325 Pa at sea level
 Normal atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of Hg

Application: Drinking straw, Sucker hook, Magdeburg Hemispheres (Explanation)

Magdeburg Hemisphere:

Gas Pressure
Gas pressure means simply the pressure exerted by gas on anything. It is measured by manometer.

Simple Mercury Barometer: Barometers can be used to predict the weather. They measure changes in
atmospheric pressure over time.
Manometer:
Pressure in liquid:

P = hρg (Pressure of liquid) + P (atm)

Chapter 19

The States of Matter

The states of Matter
Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases

- Solids - particles arranged regularly and packed closely together. Vibrate in fixed
positions. Strong forces between particles
- Liquids - particles are mostly touching with some gaps. Particles move about at random.
Medium forces between particles
Gases - particles move at random (Brownian motion) and quickly. Particles are far apart.
Weak forces between particles.
Thermal expansion of Solid, Liquid and Gas:
All three states of matter expand when heated. The atoms themselves do not expand, but the volume
they take up does. In physics, Thermal expansion can be defined as the change in the length, width,
height, or volume of any material on changing the temperature.

Comparison of thermal expansion in solid, liquid and gases:

1. All the three states namely solid, liquid and gases expand on heating.

2. Solid expands very less as compared to liquid and gases.

3. Gases expands much more than liquid and solids.

4. This happens because intermolecular force of attraction is very strong in solids, intermediate in
liquids and very weak in case of gases.
Examples of thermal expansion in solid, liquid and gas:

Brownian Motion:
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium (a liquid or a
gas). This motion pattern typically consists of random fluctuations in a particle's position inside
a fluid.
Changes of State:
Heating a system increases its internal energy and causes either an increase in temperature
or a change of state.

Give the proper name for the following conversions:

Solid —> liquid (melting)
- Liquid —> gas (boiling)
- Gas —> liquid (condensing)
- Liquid —> solid (freezing)
- Solid—> gas (sublimation)
Describe the process of boiling
- Regions within a liquid turning to gas
- Gas rises through the liquid releasing vapor from the surface
- At boiling point - temperature stays the same despite continued energy input
- Continued energy input separates the molecules to form gas
Describe the process of melting
- Solid turns to liquid
- Thermal energy is absorbed —> temperature rises
- Energy eventually sufficient to overcome molecular attraction
- At this point more energy does not increase temperature, but separates the molecules
faster

Explain the relationship between temperature of an object and its internal energy (heat)
- Temperature measures how hot something is, measured in Celsius or Kelvin
- Higher temperatures mean more internal energy
 - Thermal energy makes the molecules of a substance vibrate more (increases kinetic
energy)
- This vibration means each molecule is carrying more energy
Heating a system increases its internal energy and causes either an increase in
temperature or a change of state.
● When the temperature of a body rises, the energy goes towards making the
molecules vibrate more and increases their kinetic energy.
● When a body changes state, energy goes towards making the molecules freer from
each other rather than increasing their kinetic energy – the temperature stays
constant.
Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when energy is put in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

A graph of temperature against time will show a flat region where the ice is melting

Note:

The thermal energy supplied does not contribute to the average kinetic energy of the particles in the
ice - rather, it is used to weaken the bonds between the particles so they become freer to slide around
each other (i.e., a liquid!) Once the ice is fully melted, the temperature of the liquid water begins rising
again.

Define specific heat capacity:

Change in thermal energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature
The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1℃ and is measured in Joules per kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg℃).
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
 Here:
 ΔQ = change in thermal
energy, in joules (J)
 m = mass, in
kilograms(kg)
 c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per
degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
 ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
Worked Example
Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200
J / kg °C. Calculate the amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.

ΔQ = (0.48) × (4200) × (0.7) = 1411.2

ΔQ = 1400 J
Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Energy supplied = Energy taken in

Vit= mc ΔT
Ideal gas molecules
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly due to collisions with other gas molecules.

Gases exert

pressure on a container due to collisions between gas molecules and the wall.
When the molecules rebound off the walls, they change direction so their velocity and
therefore
The Gas Laws:

 Boyle’s Law
 Charles Law
 Pressure Law

Boyle’s law: is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass, kept at a
constant temperature) is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it.
P ∝ (1/V)
 The relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at
constant temperature:
- p1V1 = p2V2

Charles law: States that the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
at constant pressure.
V∝T
Pressure law: The pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume is directly proportional to
the Kelvin temperature. P∝T

● At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because the
molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
How is pressure created by gas in a container?
- Random movement
- Gas particles collide with walls of container
- Creating small force

Why does the pressure of a gas increase with increased temperature?

- Molecules move faster so they hit the walls with more force
- Number of impacts per second increases
- Total force increases

What is absolute zero?

The temperature at which the pressure is zero is called absolute zero (-273℃).
The Kelvin scale of temperature defines absolute zero to be 0K with an increment of
one Kelvin equal to an increment of one degree Celsius. This means that:
▪ temperature in kelvin = temperature in degrees Celsius + 273
 - 0C = 273K
What is 20C in K?
- 293K

What is 50K in C?
- -223C

Unit: 6 (Magnetism &Electromagnetism)

Magnets:
What is a Magnet?
An object which is capable of producing magnetic field and attracting unlike poles and repelling like
poles. Magnetism is an effect that we cannot see, hear or touch. We can feel the force when any
magnetic material is brought closer to it.

There are three types of magnets, and they are as follows:

 Permanent magnet
  Temporary magnet

 Electromagnets

Poles of a Magnet
The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have two poles: a north and a south
Magnetic poles always exist in pair.

The Law of Magnetism

 Two like poles (S and S or N and N) repel each other
 Two unlike poles (S and N) attract each other

Magnetic Materials:
● Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to magnets and cannot be
magnetized (e.g., glass, plastic)
● Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets and can be magnetized (e.g.,
iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)

 Magnetism can be induced in magnetic materials by placing them in a magnetic field.

 Magnetic materials that can be permanently magnetized are described as magnetically hard
(e.g., steel). Magnetic materials that are only temporarily magnetized are described as
magnetically soft (e.g., soft iron).

Magnetic Fields:
All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field. A magnetic field is defined as:
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic material
(such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)

Magnetic Field Lines:

 Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic field The
direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
 If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be strong
 If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak
● There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines.
Magnetic field lines:
 Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
 Must never touch or cross other field lines

Patterns of magnetic field:

If two magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields overlap and affect each other. We can
investigate this using iron fillings or plotting compasses.
 Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets

Exam Tip
If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet, remember to
indicate both the direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the magnetic field.
You can do this by:

Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south pole

Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance from the

magnet increases

Experiment: Investigating Magnetic Fields

Procedure:
Equipment
● Bar magnets
● Iron filings
● Paper
● Plotting compass
Method 1: Iron Fillings
1. Sprinkle some iron filings onto a sheet of paper.
2. Place the permanent bar magnet onto the paper and the filings should move into the shape
of the magnetic field.
Method 2: Plotting Compass
1. Place the permanent bar magnet onto a plain piece of paper.
2. Place the plotting compass somewhere around the field and then draw the direction of the
needle at that point.
3. Continue placing the needle in various positions on the paper and drawing arrows.
4. Join the arrows when there are enough to visualize the field distance apart.

Electromagnetism:
An electric current passing through a conductor produces a magnetic field around it. It is called

electromagnetism. The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of current flow.

It is determined by Right hand grip rule.

Right hand grip rule:

 Point thumb in the direction of current

flow
 The curl fingers give the direction of magnetic field
The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:

1. Increasing the current in the wire

2. Wrapping the wire into a coil or solenoid

Solenoid:
A helical coil of a wire composed of numerous loops or turns.

The magnetic field strength of a current carrying solenoid can be increased by

(i) increasing the number of turns in the solenoid.
(ii) increasing the current flowing through the solenoid.
(iii) Using soft iron as core in the solenoid

The direction of magnetic field in solenoid:

 Right-hand rule used to find the direction of the magnetic field.

 point the wrapped fingers (along the coil) in the direction of the current.
 Then, the thumb will point to the direction of magnetic field within the solenoid.

Electromagnets:
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current.
It disappears when current is turned off.

 Greater the current, the greater the strength

 The greater the number of coils, the greater the strength.
 Wrapping coil around an iron core