DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Density: The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. mathematically,

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬(𝐦)
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞(𝐕)

The Greek letter p(rho) is the symbol used for density. Density has kilogram per cubic metre (kgm-3) as SI. units, but it is often
convenient to use gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).

Densities of solids and liquids vary slightly with temperature. In most cases, the substance gets little bigger when heated and
an increase in volume leads to a reduction of density for a fixed mass. The density of gases vary greatly depending on how
compressed they are.

Exercise

1) Water has a density of 1000kgm-3, what does the mean?

2) A piece of anttacite has a volume of 1cm3and a mass of 27 g, what is the density
a) In g/cm3
b) In kg/m3
3) Calculate the mass of air in a room of floor dimensions of 10m  12m and height 4m. (density of air =1.2kg/m3)
4) A bottle full of water has a mass of 45g; when full of mercury its mass is 360g.

If the mass of the empty bottle is 20g, calculate the density of mercury. (take density of water to be 1000kg/m3)

Importance of density measurement

Architects and engineers refer to tables giving the densities of various building materials when engaged in the design of
bridges, flyover and other structures. From the plan drawn up, they can calculate the volume of any part of the structure which
when multiplied by the density of the material, gives the mass and hence the weight.

Measurement of density

a) liquids
Requirement: measuring cylinder, scale balance, container.
Setup:

Procedure: the mass of the empty container (mc) is measure using a scale balance. The liquid is placed inside the
container and combined mass (mcl) measured and recorded using the scale balance. The liquid is then poured into a
measuring cylinder and the volume of the liquid (v) is also measured.
Calculation
Mass of empty container = mc
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 Mass of empty container and liquid = mcl
Mass of liquid = mcl – mc = ml
Volume of liquid = v
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒎𝒍
 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅(𝝆) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 , 𝝆 = 𝑽

Precaution:
1) Eyes are placed at right angles to the scale of the measuring cylinder to avoid parallax error.

b) Solids:
i) Regularly shaped solids.

The mass of the object is measured using a top- ban balance. Depending on the shape of the object the length of the
sides are measured using appropriate measure element such as ruler, from this length the volume of the object is
calculate using a suitable formulary. Therefore, the density of any regular object can be calculate for Density = mass
/Volume

ii) Irregularly shaped solider, (e.g. store)

Requirement: A top- ban balance, measuring cylinder water and light thread.

Procedure: The mass of the object (m) is measured using a top-ban balanced. A light thread is tied to the object and
dipped to a half-filled measuring cylinder. As the object is placed inside the cylinder, the new volume v2 is measure
and recorded.

Calculation: initial volume of water in the measuring cylinder is = v1

final volume of water in the measuring cylinder is = v2
volume of irregular object (v) is =v2-v1.
Mass of object is= m
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭
 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭

Precautions: the thread should be very thin so that it occupies a negligible volume.
eyes are place normally (at right to the scale and avoid parallax arrow.
N.B: for larger masses (object), we use an eureka can in the place of a measuring cylinder

Pressure
When a force acts on a body, its effect spreads out over an area. Some forces spread out more than others.

A B

Since A and B have the same weight, they exert the same force on the ground. The force A is spread out more compare to that
of B. This difference is due to the area occupied by each block on the ground. Hence, whenever the word “pressure” is
mentioned, Force and Area occupied must be considered.
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Hence, pressure can be defined as;

the force acting normally (perpendicularly or at right angle) per unit surface area to which the force is applied. i.e.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷) = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨)

If force is measured in Newton (N) and area (A) in square metre (m2), then pressure is Nm-2 (or the Pascal (Pa). Therefore
1Nm-2= 1Pa

i) With the aid of labeled diagram give the outline of an experiment to me a sure the density of an irregularly shaped
stone your outlines should include
- Labeled diagram.
- Procedure
- List of qualities you must measure
- How you would like the measured quantities to get a value of the density, of the stone.
- One precaution taken to ensure accuraly (8mks)

The Pascal is the pressure exerted on a surface area of 1m2 when a normal force of 1N acts on it. I e. whenever a
force of 1N acts at right angles on a surface area, then the pressure exerted on that surface is 1pa.

Factors Affecting the Magnitude pressure.

The magnitude of pressure depends on
i) Force: it the surface area is kept constant, increasing the applied force increases pressure while decreasing
the applied force reduces the pressure exerted.
ii) Surface Area: for a constant force, increasing the surface area decreases the pressure exerted and reducing
the surface area increases the pressure exerted. This explains why a sharp knife is more effective in cutting
that a blunt knife. the sharp knife covers a small surface area hence exerts a high pressure than the blunt knife

Some daily experiences of pressure

1) Animals in the deserts have broad legs so as to produce a large surface area to the ground and hence exerting a small
pressure.
2) A man can sleep on a bed nails whereas in impossible to sleep on just a nail. This is because the weight of the man is
spread over many nails resulting to a lower pressure

Assignment

-Explain why a person wearing snow shoes does not sink into snow.

-A drawing pin has a sharp point

Answer

1) It is because the shoe does not occupy a lot of space and does not apply a lot of pressure.
2) It occupies less space.

Example
A horse has a mass of 320kg and the surface area of 1 foot is 0.02m. calculate the pressure it exerts on the ground.
a) When it is standing on one foot.
b) When is standing on one foot.
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 3) A block measuring 0.7mx1.5mx0.1 has a mass of 30kg. show with diagrams the position of the block in which the
position of the block produces greatest and least pressure in each case.

Pressure in liquids.

Liquid exerts pressure in the same way that air does, gravitational force tries to pull a liquid downwards in its container. This
causes pressure to develop on the container and on any object put the liquid.

Characteristics of pressure in liquid.

1) Pressure in a liquid acts in all directions. A liquid under pressure pushes on every surface in contact with it, no
matter which way the surface is facing.
2) Pressure in liquid increases with depth. The dipper into a liquid you go the greater the weight of the liquid above
and the higher the pressure, consider a container with three holds A,B and C on the same side but at different depths as
shown below

Water shoot out fastest at C because of the largest pressure exerted by water. It is followed by B at lastly A. it is
therefore wise to conclude that pressure increases with depth.
Assignment
Explain why:
i) Deep sea divers always wear protective suits
ii) A bubble form at the bottom of water suddenly grows big as it rises to the top.

3) Pressure in a liquid depends on the density of the liquid. If water in a lake were replace by a less dense liquid, the
pressure at all points would be less.
4) Pressure doesn’t depend on the shape of the container the diagram below

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 When the top is opened water flow through the main tube into all the tube of different shapes and sizes which are
connected to each other and rises in each of the tube to the same level. this indicates that pressure of water in each
tube is the same. Hence, the shape of the container doesn’t affect the pressure.

Calculation of pressure in liquids.

The pressure at any point in a liquid can be calculated provided the depth beneath the surface and the density of a liquid
are known. Consider e diagram shown below

𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = ⍴𝒈𝒉

Exercise

A tan 4m long, 3m wide and 2m deep as filled to the brim with mercury. If the density of mercury is 13600kgm2, calculate

i) The pressure on the base

ii) The force on the base (assume acceleration due to gravity (g) = (10m/s2=10N/kg)

N/B: IT is important to notice that the base area (A) does not appear in the final expression force pressure in liquid. The
pressure at any point in a liquid at rest depends only on the depth, density and acceleration due to gravity.

Transmission of pressure in fluid/ liquid.

Liquids and gases transmit pressure from one point to another equally in all direction. However, liquid cannot be compressed
easily i.e. their volume cannot easily be reduce by mere application of pressure. Therefore. If a force is applied to a liquid at
one point on a container, pressure will be develop at that point. This pressure will be transmitted equally in all directions
throughout the volume of the liquid. This obey pascals principle which states that “pressure applied to an enclosed liquid
is transmitted equally to every part of the liquid regardless of the shape of the container’’. Infact, this is the principle
which enables the functioning of the following.

1) Injection syringe
2) Hydraulic lifter
3) The distribution of pipe-born water.

The hydraulic system: the hydraulics system has three important components:

1) –hydraulic fluids
2) –a master cylinder (usually small)
3) –a slave cylinder (usually big)
The hydraulic fluids is not usually water or mercury.

Assignment
Why water and mercury are not the best choice for hydraulic fluid.

Water contains air bubbles and air is compressible also water can easily leak out through the movable parts of the
hydraulic system. Mercury is very expensive and very poisonous. The hydraulic system functions on the principle of
transmission of pressure. A small force applied on the master cylinder which has a small surface area exert a large pressure at
that point. This pressure is transmitted equally to the slave cylinder where a large force is created on a large area of the slave
piston.
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 THE HYDRAULIC JACK

In the hydraulic press a force F1 applications on a small piston (master) of cross sectional area A1 develop a pressure P given
F1
by p 
A1

This pressure is transmitted equally throughout the liquid to the large piston (slave) of area A2.

1) The large piston thus experiences an upward force F2 which is equal to the pressure x its Area A2.
𝑭𝟏
Mathematically, 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑨𝟏

Upward force (F2) on slave piston = 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒙 𝒊𝒕′ 𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑷 𝒙 𝑨𝟐

A2
THE FORCE (Effort) is multiplied by a factor to give the load F2. This ration is called the mechanical advantage (MA)
A1
of the machine

N/B: M.A has no unit. Since it is only a ration. The hydraulic system can also be called a force multiplier

Assignment

2) A force of 200N is applied on the effort piston of hydraulic machine of cross sectional area 2m2 to overcome a load on
the slave piston of area 4m2
i) Calculate the pressure exerted on the load piston.
ii) What is the pressure acting to lift he load on the load piston.
iii) Calculate the load this piston can lift
iv) What advantage or disadvantages will a more viscous liquid have a less viscous are? Explain
A viscous liquid is denser, Hence resulting to a high pressure.

3) A hydraulic press has two cylinder of cross sectional area 0.2m2 and 0.5m2 of the smaller piston is push down with a
force of 100N through a distance of 0.3m.
i) Calculate the pressure transmitted by the liquid
ii) What is the force exerted by the larger piston
iii) Name two machines that make use of these principles and state how it functions.
4) The diagram below shows a hydraulic lift

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 a) State the principle on which e above system operate.
b) State one practical advantage of using only fluid than
c) Water ii) mercury
d) Calculate the lifting of the jag when an effort of 40N is applied on a
e) Determine the mechanical advantage of jag and state it physical significant.

It indicates the number of times the machine multiplies the effort to give the load

Revision

1) Which of the following relationship can be used to calculate liquid pressure?

2) Explain why a sharp each cuts better than a blont 1: because the sharp knives has a small surface area Hence it
exert a great force.
3) State the principle on which all hydraulic machine function
4) A force of 360N acts over an area of 2m2. Calculate the pressure exerted
5) Given that the pressure exerted on an area of 6m2 is 700Pa. Calculate the force
6) State 4 characteristic of pressure in liquid .
-pressure in liquid act in all directions.
-pressure in liquid increases with depth.
-pressure in liquid depends on the density of the liquid.

Atmospheric pressure.
This is the pressure exerted by atmospheric air on objects below it and acts in all directions. This pressure is due to the
weight of air column which extends several kilometers upward above the earth surface.
This pressure is affected by altitude and humidity.
1) Humidity: this is the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere. When the humidity in the atmosphere is
low the weight of the air is low and the force exerted per unit area (pressure) is low. Atmospheric pressure
increases with increases in humidity of the air.
2) Altitude (height): atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude. This implies that as one climb up a
high mountain, the pressure acting on him due to the atmosphere reduces. Therefore, the greater the altitude the
lesser the atmospheric pressure i.e. the higher you go the lesser the atmospheric pressure and the lower you go the
higher the atmospheric pressure.
- This account for the reasons why passengers in an air craft flying at high altitude usually experience difficulties in
breathing due to low atmospheric pressure. This result may lead to nose bleeding.
- When a ball is inflated at higher altitude, and taken to lower altitude, it becomes flat this is because as the altitude
reduces, atmospheric pressure increases and as a result the pressure inside the ball becomes less than the atmospheric
pressure.
- -Astronaut in space must always wear spacesuits unless they are on pressurized cabin. These suits supply oxygen and also
maintain a suitable pressure an unprotected body in space will cross water and blood to boil and probably explode into
the surrounding vacuum.

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 Some demonstrations of atmospheric pressure.
i) The crushing can experiment: small quantity of water is place in a thin walled can and boil for several
minutes to drive out the air from the can. The heating is stopped and immediately, the can is sealed
with well fitted rubber stoppers and allowed to cool. It is then seen to have been crushed as shown
below. Explanation; As heat is lost, some of the steam condense and partial vacuum is created in the can.
the pressure inside the can becomes slower than that in the external atmosphere (atmospheric pressure)
and hence the can is crushed and it volume is reduce.

N/B: we are not crushed by atmospheric pressure because the pressure in our blood stream always balances with
that of the atmosphere.

The atmosphere pressure is approximately 101,300pa. Hence  atmospheric pressure=101,3000pa

ii) The milk bottle experiment. If a container is filled to the brim with liquid and sealed such that there is no
air inside the container and no access for atmospheric pressure. It will be imposition to suck up liquid
from such a container using a straw. When an extra hole is made on the container, atmospheric air can
easily travel through and make the pressure in the container higher than that in the mouth. Hence the
liquid is pushed by atmospheric pressure into the mouth.
iii) Magdeburg hemispheres: it comprise of hollow metal hemispheres that fit together exactly. They are
made specially strong so that they do not collapse like the tin can described earlier. When the air inside the
hemisphere is pumped out, the pressure inside falls and the greater atmospheric pressure outside presses
the two hemispheres. Tightly together to an extend that sixteen horses cannot pulled apart. However, as
soon as air is reattempted, the hemispheres fall apart.

Measurement of gas pressure.

Instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure are called Barometers.

For convenience, atmospheric pressure is often expressed in millimeters of mercury(mmHg) instead of the pascal. if h= 76mm,
then atmospheric pressure can simple be measured as 760mmHg This is known as standard atmospheric pressure. In more
accurate calculation, standard atmospheric pressure is about 101300pa and this value is express as 1 atmosphere.

1 atmosphere=760mmHg=101300Pa

Example : determine the height of the water column that the atmosphere can support given that atmospheric pressure is
Pa10000 density of water = 1000kg/m3

Water cannot be used in a barometer because a water barometer will be very bulky (more than 10m high)

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N/B: when a liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, the total pressure at a given depth is given by

𝑃 = 𝐻 + ⍴𝑔ℎ

where H=atmospheric pressure and phg = pressure due to liquid column.

THE MANOMETER

The manometer is an instrument use to measure gas pressure or the different between gas pressure and atmospheric pressure.
The figure below shows the structure of a mercury Barometer.

A consist of u – tube containing mercury, one end is opened to the atmosphere while the order end is connected to the gas
supply. The pressure at B is the gas pressure while the pressure at A is atmospheric pressure. B and C are the same level in the
mercury which implies pressure at B= pressure at C

But pressure at C= at atmospheric pressure (H) + pressure due to liquid column AC

 Gas pressure (pressure at B) 𝑃 = 𝐻 + ⍴𝑔ℎ

Exercise

Consider the diagram below and used it to determine the pressure of the gas if atmospheric pressure is 76cmHg.

Work Energy Power and machines.

In ordinary conversation the word “Work’’ refers to almost any kind of physical and / or mental activity. But in science and
mathematics, it has 1 meaning only. In science, Work is done when a force moves its point of application along the direction
of its line of action. For example

i) A man pushing her faulty car from her house to a garage does work since the car moves a distance in the direction
of the unbalanced force exerted by the man.
ii) A woman climbing a ladder does work against her weight, on the other hand, the Greek god atlas, who spends his
time supporting the world on his shoulder, most have become tired but technically he is merely exerting an
upward force on it without moving it, hence he did no work.

Definition: work is define as the product o- e resultant (un balanced) force and the distance moved by the force in the
direction of the resultant force, mathematically, work (W) =resultant force(F)displacement(s)

𝒘=𝒇𝒙𝒔

If resultant force ( F) is measured in Newton(N) and distance in metre(m) then work is measured in Newton metre (Nm).

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 This unit is equivalent to a special unit called the joule (J).

Work is a scalar quantity. And 1J=1Nm

Hence,1J is the work done when a force of 1 Newton(N) moves its point of application through a distance of 1m in the
direction of the force.

Note: if a force does not act in the direction in which motion occurs but at an in the angle, ө , then the work done is
defined as the product of the component of the force in the direction of motion and the distance in that direction

If the object moves a distance in the horizontal direction shown, then the work equals

𝒘 = 𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒔ө 𝒙 𝒔

Example

1) Calculate the work done when a man pushes a box which a force of 50N along a distance of 8m in the direction of the
force.
2) A girl of mass 60kg works up a stare case each 15cm high. Calculate the work she does in climbing 9 steps.
3) How much work is done in moving the block below through the distance of 2m

Energy:

things have energy if they can be use to do work. A person with a lot of energy is capable of doing much work. Energy can be
regarded as a store of work and this stored work can be release when necessary. Hence.

Energy can therefore be defined as the ability or capacity to do work

Law of conservation of energy. This law states that energy can neither be created nor destroy but can be change from one
form to another

Mechanical energy: in machines, any energy that a body processes as a result of its motion or virtue (state or position) is
called mechanical energy, mechanical energy can be divided into kinetic energy and potential energy.

i) Kinetic energy: this is energy a body processes by reason of its motion. Hence, all moving object process kinetic
energy. The higher the speed of the body the greater its kinetic energy.

It is calculated as
𝟏
𝒌𝒆 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
Examples

A bullet of mass 0.2kg is released from a raffle (gun) with a velocity of 20m/s. calculate the kinetic energy of the bullet

A student of mass 82kg with a velocity of 10m/s. what is her kinetic energy.

Potential energy: this is energy that a body has by risen of its position or state. Some of these include.

i) Elastic potential energy: this energy stored in stretched or compressed material.

ii) Gravitational potential energy: this is energy in an object due to its position in a field of force of gravity.
the potential energy process by a body of mass (m) at a height(h) above the surface of the earth say, is given by
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 𝑷 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

Example

i) How much work is done against gravity on lifting a 20kg of rice a distance of 3m?

Solution

Work done (w)= 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

ii) On striking the ground, a 20kg ball has kinetic energy of 20,000J. at what height was it released given that friction
is ignored

Solution

At point of stick, all potential energy is converted into kinetic energy i.e.

iii) Electric potential energy: this is energy in a charged body due to it position in an electric field.
iv) Chemical potential energy: this is energy released by atomic bond formation or rearrangement. When a fuel burns
the energy is released by chemical reaction batteries and food also store energy in this form.
Assignment
1) A force of 20N acts through a distance of 4m. Find the work done.
2) A bag of beans is lowered a distance of 10m. How much work is done against gravity if the mass of the bag is
30kg?

ENERGY RESOURCES:

these are devices or processes from which energy can be obtained. Natural sources of energy are called primary energy.
There are either non-renewable (finite) sources or renewable (infinite) sources:

a) Non-renewable (finite) sources: these are sources of energy which cannot be replaced when used and will eventually
run out. They are limited in supply and are foreseen to get finish one day.
Example include: fossil fuel, and nuclear energy
i) Fossil fuel: fossils are remains of animals and plants buried millions of years. All fossil fuels were originally formed
from plants, animals and tiny seen creatures which died and were buried millions of years back. Since they take
millions of years to be formed, they are very difficult to be replaced when used example coal natural gas, petrol,
kerosene, crude oil
Advantage of using fossil fuel
1) This fuel burns smoothly in engine
2) It carries a large amount of available energy per liter

Disadvantages of using fossil fuel

1) It is limited in supply
2) It produces carbon dioxide when burn which may cause global warming.
ii) Uranium (nuclear fuel): it is the name of the fuel used in many nuclear power stations although the uranium ore
is dug from the ground, it is not a fossil fuel. The nuclear energy produced vaporizes water to turn turbines which
generate electricity.
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Advantage of nuclear fuel

1) Large amount of nuclear energy can be produced during a nuclear reaction

2) Nuclear power is “clean’’ because it does not produce polluting gases when well handled

Disadvantages of nuclear fuel.

1) The supply of nuclear fuel is limited

2) The cause of building and operating a nuclear power plant is very high

b) Renewable sources: renewable sources are those energy resources which are unlimited in supply. This means that
they are inexhaustible (can never be used up) because they are constantly been replaced when used. Winds, waves,
solar, biomass, tidal, geothermal and hydroelectricity are all example of renewable energy resources.

Wind: wind energy is the utilization of energy that move air. This is achieved by using huge wind mills. Many windmills
grouped together is called a wind farm, kinetic energy is captured by the wind turbine and turn into electricity as turbine rotate.

Advantage of wind
- It does not require any fuel therefore it can generate electricity as long as the wind blows
- It is on limited in supply
- It produces no gas hence is very clean.
Disadvantage of wind
- The initial cost for wind turbines is very high the rotating blades produce a humming sound which is a naissance
- Efficiency for energy capture is low.

Hydroelectric plant; Hydroelectricity is the generation of electricity from water. In hydroelectricity plant, rivers are dammed
to form large lakes uphill. The water is allowed to flow through pipes to the bottom of the dam and is use to turn turbines which
drive generators and produce electricity. Hence, water is giving enough gravitational potential energy. This potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy as water move, kinetic energy as turbines turn with a very high speed and later to electrical energy.

ADVANTAGE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT (HEP)

1) It is unlimited in supply.
2) The ‘’full’’ for hydroelectricity is cheap.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT ( HEP)

1) Hydro – dams can be a potential time bombs for cities located down streams.
2) During e dry season, shortage o- water may affect e supply o- electricity

Geothermal energy: this energy is obtained from radio isotopes. The energy release from these radio isotopes heat water
beneath the earth producing hot steam. This steam can be used to turn turbines attached to a generator there by producing
electricity.

Exercise

The diagram in F1 shows a cross sectional view the main features of a hydroelectricity power plant

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 i) Explain why the dam’s thickness increases towards the base.
ii) Describe the main energy changes taking place in the plant.
iii) If the reservoir is 45.0m above the spiral casting, calculate the speed of water passing through the spiral casting
(state any assumption made in your calculation).
iv) If the water supplies a power of 67.500000Nto the turbines whose efficiency is 90 %, calculate the power supplied
to generator.
v) What is the function of the transformer at the end of plant?

MACHINE

A machine is any device which enables a force applied at one point to overcome another force at some other point, it can also
be defined as any device that enables work to be done more conveniently.

TYPES OF MACHINE

Many types of simple machines exist which include among many other the following + levers, pulley system, rams, system of
gears and the hydraulic pressing system.

a) The lever: the term lever may be applied to any rigid body which is pivoted about a point called the fulcrum (pivot).
Levers are based on the principle of moment. This principle states that ‘’ for a body at equilibrium, the sum o-
clockwise moment equals the sum of anticlockwise moment about the same point. A force called the efforts is applied
at one point of the lever and this overcomes a force called a loud at some other force.
Classification of levers.
There are three classes (orders) of levers: first second and third classes.
i) First class lever: A first class lever is one with pivot in between the load and the effort e.g. scissors, pliers etc.
ii) Second class lever: in this class, the load lies between the effort and the pivot include bottle opener, spanners
wheel barrow etc.
iii) Third class lever: here the efforts acts between the pivot and the load, examples include tongs, human force
arm and fishing rod.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE of a lever M.A is the ration of load to effort. Mathematical

load(L)
M.A =
effort(E)

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Mechanical advantage has no unit since it is a ration of two forces. Some machines are design to overcome a load much
greater than the effort used e.g. a spanner use to undo a tight bolt. Here (A force multiplies).

M.A also denotes the number of times a machine multiplies an effort. M.A depends partly on friction and quality of the
machine.

Example

1) A machine uses an effort of 6N to overcome a load of 30N. Calculate its mechanical advantage.

2) A machine has a mechanical advantage of 4 what does this mean.

Solution

This means that the ration of load to effort is 4:1 i.e. the load overcomes by the machine, is 4 times the effort applied velocity
ration.

VELOCITY RATIO

Velocity ration can be defined as e ratio of distance moved by effort applied to a machine (x) to the distance moved by load (y)
attached to the machine. Mathematically,

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒙

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒚

Velocity ration of a machine has no unit since it only a ratio of two distance (or velocities) velocity ration of a machine
depend on the geometry of the moving path and its independent of friction.

Example.

For a machine, a load at 3m from a pivot was overcome by an effort applied at 6m from pivot calculate the velocity ratio the
machine.

Efficiency of a machine The efficiency of a machine can be defined from energy, work and power point of view. It can be
defined as the ratio of energy output (work out put or power output) to Energy input (work input power input) of a machine.
Efficiency can be expressed just as a ration or in percentage.

Mathematically

𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Efficiency of a machine is always less than 100% this is because of the following reasons.

i) Some of the energy is used to overcome friction between the movable part of the machine
ii) Some of the energy is used to race movable part of the of the machine.

PULLEYS ISTEMS a pulley is a highly efficient machine used mainly for lighting heavy load. The forces are transmitted by
robes belt etc, used in construction with pulley at the axes. Pulleys can either be single fixed, single moving, single fixed and
moving or block and tackle.

A) Block and tackle: consider a single block and tackle system

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 if the load is raised through a distance(h) than each of the rope supporting the lower pulley block is shortened by the distance
(h), negating friction between the rope and pulley wheels at equilibrium

NB: a traditional method for calculating the velocity ration of a pulley is by counting the number of pulleys or the
number of ropes supporting the movable piston.

Examples

INCLINE PLANE (RAMP): Another simple machine is the incline plane. The figure below shows a simple ramp.

1) A woman pulled a bag of weight 700N with the use of a robe up an inclined plane of length 4.5m to get to a plat form
1.5m high using a force of 280N. find,
a) The velocity ratio
b) The mechanical advantage
c) The useful work done
d) The efficiency of the machine

The Gear system

- It changes the speed of a rotating shaft
- Alter the force produced by it. i.e force increases as speed reduces
- The faster turning gear is the one with the smaller number of teeths.

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 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑨
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑩

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝑨
=
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝑩

Example
1) A driving gear wheel having 25 teeth engages with a second wheel with 100 teeth on the same shaft.
a) Calculate the velocity ratio
b) The mechanical advaqantage of the gear system if it efficiency is 85%.

Thermometry.

The science of temperature and thermometer is known as thermometry. Traditionally, were often define temperature
as a measure of how hot (degree of hotness) or cold a body is.
Temperature values are measured using thermometers. Thermometers make use of temperature scale.
A temperature scale is a set of well-defined numbers that can be used to measure temperature.
Every temperature scale is characterized by at least 2 fixed points (lower fixed point and upper fixed point) and at
least 1 thermometry property. Fixed points are temperature values that causes the state of the substance to change
Lower fixed point of water; it is the temperature of pure melting ice under standard atmospheric pressure. 00C
Upper fixed point of water; it is the temperature of steam from pure boiling water under standard atmospheric
pressure. 1000C
Fundamental interval; it is the differences between two fixed point .
Thermometric property; is that physical property of matter which varies continuously and linearly with
temperature. Examples of thermometric property include;
- Change in Length
- Change in volume or pressure
- Resistance of length of a length of a wire etc
Thermometric substance; This the substance that vary with temperature in a thermometer. e.g. mercury, wire, gas etc

Types of temperature scale

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Several kinds (types) of temperature scale exist. Some of which include: Celsius scale, Kelvin (absolute or thermodynamic)
scale and Fahrenheit scale

a) Celsius scale: the Celsius scale measure temperature in degree Celsius. it has 0oC as its lower fixed 100oC as its upper
fixed point given a fundamental interval of 100 degrees
b) Fahrenheit scale: this scale measure temperature in degree Fahrenheit (0f). it has 32 0f as its lower fixed point and 212
o
f as its upper fixed point given the fundamental interval of 180degree
c) The Kelvin (absolute or thermodynamic) scale: the Kelvin scale measures temperature in Kelvin( k) it has 273k as
it lower fixed point and 373 k as it upper fixed point given the fundamental interval of 100K.

Converting from one temperature scale to another

i) Celsius to Fahrenheit: the conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale is related by the formulary
𝟗
𝑭 = 𝟑𝟐 + 𝜽
𝟓

Convert the following Celsius temperatures to temperatures in degree Fahrenheit

1 a) – 370C B) 400C c) 72oC

2) Convert 1120F to 0C

ii) Celsius to Kelvin: if T denote a certain temperature in Kelvin and θ C , then the converion between Celsius and Kelvin is
related by the equation.

𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + 𝜽

2) Convert the question above in equation 1 to Kelvin.

3) Convert 120of to Kelvin
4) Convert 123k to Celsius.

ii ) From Fahrenheit to Kelvin: to convert from Fahrenheit to kelvin we first convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius and then
convert from Celsius to Kelvin.

TYPES OF THERMOETERS

The science of thermometer and temperature measurement is known as thermometry. The temperature os a body is not a fixed
number but depends on the temperature scale adopted and the type of thermometer used. Two thermometers may not give the
same reason for the same body at a particular temperature. This is because different thermometers have different thermometer
properties which vary differently with temperature. However, all thermometers give the same readings only at the fixed point.
This is because fixed point are assigned values by definition. Several types of thermometers exist some of which include.

Liquid in glass thermometer: This is the most commonly used thermometer because:

i) It is relatively inexperience.
ii) It is direct reading.

Choice of a thermometric substance: a thermometric substance is a substance that varies linearly with temperature good
thermometric must have the following reasons.

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 i) High boiling point
ii) Low melting point
iii) High coefficient of experience.
iv) High conductivity ( i.e. is a good conductor
v) Low heat capacity
vi) No tendency of sticking on the container( for liquid)
vii) opaque (for liquid so that it can easily be seen)

Characteristic of a Good thermometer.

1) It must be accurate i.e. it gives the same readings for different bodies at the same temperature.
2) Sensitive i.e. a small change in temperature can be detected
3) It must be reproducible i.e. the thermometer gives the same reason under the same conditions no matter the place and
time.
4) It must be unique.
5) It must be reliable
Advantage of mercury over alcohol as a thermometry property
1) Mercury does not we glass. Alcohol tends to cling (stick) to the wall of the tube.
2) Mercury does not, like alcohol, vaporize and distilled onto the upper part of the bore.
3) Mercury is opaque and easily seen whereas alcohol has to be coloured.
4) Mercury is a better conductor of heat than alcohol.

The clinical thermometer

- Used to measure the temperature of human body

- Has a short scale since the normal body temperature is 370 𝐶
- Has a constriction point, to keep the thermometer at a measured value when it is still in contact with the human
body.
- All liquid in glass thermometers have thin glass bulbs, thick glass walls, thin glass tube, safety bulb.
THE BI – METALIC THERMOMETER

When two different metals are divided together and heated they bend because one metal expand more than the other.

MATTER

From the kinetic theory matter which states that “matter is made up of ting particles (i.e. atoms or molecules) which are
always in continual motion. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

STATES OF MATTER.

Matters exist in three major states namely: solid, liquid and Gas.

i) Solid: the atoms that make up solid are closely parked to each other. The force of attraction between the atoms is
very strong. The atoms are not free to move but vibrate about their rest position. Solid have regular shape.
ii) Liquid: the atoms that make up liquids are parked to each other but not as compared to the solid. The force of
attraction between the atoms is strong. The molecules (atoms) are free to move about colliding e w with

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 neighboring atoms and exchanging partners. This type of motion is known as translational motion. This is the
reason why liquid takes the shape of a vessel in which it is placed.
iii) Gas: the molecules that make up a gas are very far a parked. The force of attraction between the molecules is very
weak. The motions of these molecules are ran don and translational companion between the three states of
matter

Elasticity and Hooker’s law.

Elasticity is mechanical property of a material that gives it the ability to return to its original shape size after been stretchered
or compressed. A material that regains it original shape size after stretching forces on it is known as elastic material examples
include, rubber, spring, metal wire etc Hooker’s law’’

In the early 19 century the scientist Robert Hooke established a relationship between the stretching force and the extension
of a material. This law is known as Hooke’s law

it states that;

the extension of materials (helical spring, wire etc) is directly proportional to the stretching force provided the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒

F= force, e = extension and k = spring constant

There exist a certain point of extension of a material beyond which the material does not regain it original shape and
size. This point is known as the yield point.

The force at the yield point is called the elastic limit. The elastic limit of a material is the force (load) beyond which the
material does not regain it original shape and size.

A condition known as plastic deformation. The braking point of the material is the point beyond which the material
breaks. The force at the breaking point is known as the breaking stress. A graph of force against extension for a
material that obeys Hooke’s law is as shown below:

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