Lesson Proper for Week 8

Biomes of the Earth

A biome is a large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
The Land Biomes

● Tundra

An extremely cold regions that lacks trees and has a permanently frozen subsurface
soil. This frozen soil layer is known as permafrost.

Covers Expansive areas of the arctic, amounting 20% of Earth’s land surface.
High winds and low temperatures produce similar plant communities called
alpine tundra, on very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics.

Precipitation: Precipitation averages from 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra

but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra, 60 cm in alpine tundra.

Temperature: Winters are cold, with averages in some areas below -30°C.
Summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C.

Plants: The vegetation of tundra is mostly herbaceous, consisting of a mixture of

mosses, grasses, and forbs, along with some dwarf shrubs and trees and lichens.
A permanently frozen layer of soil called permafrost restricts the growth of plant
roots.

Animals: Large grazing musk oxen are resident, while caribou and reindeer are
migratory. Predators include bears, wolves, and foxes. Many bird species migrate
to the tundra for summer nesting.

Human Impact: Tundra is sparsely settled but has become the focus of significant
mineral and oil extraction in recent years.

● Taiga

Taiga, is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth. Precipitation Annual precipitation

generally ranges from 30 to 70cm and periodic droughts are common. However,
some coastal coniferous forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest are temperate rain
forests that may receive over 300 cm of annual precipitation. Temperature winters
are usually cold; summers may be hot. Some areas of coniferous forest in Siberia
typically range in temperature from-50°C in winter to over 20°C in
summer. Plants Northern coniferous forests are dominated by cone-bearing
trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock, some of which depend on fire to
regenerate. The conical shape of many conifers prevents too much snow from
accumulating and breaking their branches, and their needle- or scale-like leaves
reduce water loss. The diversity of plants in the shrub and herb layers of these
forests is lower than in temperate broadleaf forests. Animals While many
migratory birds nest in northern coniferous forests, other species reside there
year-round. The mammals of this biome, which include moose, brown bears, and
Siberian tigers, are diverse. Periodic outbreaks of insects that feed on the
dominant trees can kill vast tracts of trees. Human Impact although they have not
been heavily settled by human populations, northern coniferous forests are being
logged at an alarming rate, and the old-growth stands of these trees may soon
disappear.

● Temperate Grassland

Distribution: The veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of
Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies of
central North America are examples of temperate grasslands.

Precipitation: Precipitation is often highly seasonal, with relatively dry winters

and wet summers. Annual precipitation generally averages between 30 and 100
cm.
Periodic drought is common. Temperature: Winters are generally cold, with
average temperatures falling below -10°C. Summers, with average temperatures
often approaching 30°C, are hot. Plants The dominant plants are grasses and
forbs, which vary in height from a few centimeters to 2m in tallgrass praire. Many
grassland plants have adaptation that help them survive periodic, protracted
droughts and fire. For example, grasses can sprout quickly following fire. Grazing
by large mammals helps prevent establishment of woody shrubs and tree.

Animals: Native mammals include large grazers such as bison and Wild horses.
Temperate grasslands are also inhabited America a wide variety of burrowing
mammals, such as prairie dogs in North America. Human Impact Deep, fertile
soils make temperate grasslands ideal places for agriculture, especially for
growing grains. As a consequence, most grassland in North America and much
of Eurasia has been converted to farmland. In some drier grasslands, cattle and
other grazers have turned parts of the biome into desert.

● Tropical Forest

Distribution Tropical forest occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions.

Precipitation In tropical rain forests, rainfalls relatively constant, about 200-400
cm annually. In tropical dry forests, precipitation is highly seasonal, about 150-
200 cm annually, with a six- to seven-month dry season. Temperature: High year-
round, averaging 25-29°C with little seasonal variation. Plants: Tropical forests
are vertically layered, and competition for light is intense. Layers in rain forests
include trees that grow above a closed canopy, the canopy trees, one or two
layers of sub canopy trees, and layers of shrubs and herbs (small, nonwoody
plants). Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant in tropical rain There are
generally fewer layers in tropical dry forests. A tropical forests, whereas many
tropical dry forest trees drop their leaves during the dry season. Epiphytes such
as bromeliad and orchids generally cover tropical forest trees but are less
abundant in dry forests. Thorny shrubs and succulent plans are common in some
tropical dry forests. Animals Earth's tropical forests are home to millions of
species, including an estimated 5-30 million still undescribed species of insects,
spiders, and other arthropods. In fact, animal diversity higher in tropical forest
than in any other terrestrial biome. The animals. Including amphibians, birds and
other reptiles, mammals, and arthropods, are adapted to the vertically layered
environment and are often inconspicuous.

Human Impact: Humans long ago established thriving communities in tropical

forests. Rapid population growth leading to agriculture and development is now
destroying many tropical forest.

● Deciduous Forest

A deciduous forest is a biome dominated by deciduous trees which lose their

leaves seasonally. The Earth has temperate deciduous forests, and tropical and
subtropical deciduous forests, also known as dry forests. Another name for these
forests is broad-leaf forests because of the wide, flat leaves on the trees. Trees in
tropical deciduous forests lose their leaves in the dry season and regrow them in
the rainy season. In temperate deciduous forests, trees lose their leaves in the fall
and regrow them in the spring.

Animals inhabiting deciduous forests include insects, spiders, reptiles and birds.
Mice, rabbits, foxes, deer, otters, bears and humans are just some examples of
mammals that live in deciduous forests. Tropical and subtropical deciduous
forests are also home to mammals such as elephants, monkeys, tigers, and
giraffes.

Deciduous forests are home to trees such as oak, birch, beech, aspen, elm and
maple. Tropical and subtropical forests also have teak trees, palm trees and
bamboo. Plants found in these forests include flowers, ferns, mosses and herbs.
In addition, tropical and subtropical forests feature flowers such as orchids and
numerous vines called lianas. The average temperature of deciduous forests is
50°F and annual rainfall averages 30 to 60 inches. Temperate deciduous forests
also have precipitation in the form of snow. Deciduous forests must have at least
120 days without frost. This period can extend to 250 days in some tropical and
subtropical deciduous forests. Tropical and subtropical deciduous forests have a
very tight temperature range between 68°F to 77°F. This is in stark contrast to
temperate deciduous forests, which have a far wider range of -22°F to 86°F.
Precipitation in temperate deciduous forests ranges 30 to 60 inches per year,
while annual rainfall can be over 80 inches in tropical and subtropical deciduous
forests. Recent research shows climate change is altering the way in which
deciduous forests respond to temperature, precipitation and drought.

Logging, conversion of the land into agriculture, deforestation for housing

development, forest fires, and farming are all examples of how Humans impact
the deciduous forest. Logging and deforestation have an impact on the forest
because humans cut down millions of trees each year for housing construction.

● Desert

Distribution: Deserts occur in bands near 30° north and south latitude or at other
latitudes in the interior of continents (for instance, the Gobi Desert of north-
central Asia).

Precipitation: Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm

per year.

Temperature: Temperature is variable seasonally and daily, maximum air

temperature in hot deserts may exceed S0°C; in cold deserts air temperature may
fall below-30°C.Plants Desert: landscapes are dominated by low, widely scattered
vegetation; the proportion of bare ground is high compared with other terrestrial
biomes. The plants include succulents such as cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted
shrubs, and herbs that grow during the infrequent moist periods. Desert plant
adaptations include tolerance of heat and desiccation, water storage, and
reduced leaf surface area. Physical defenses, such as spines, and chemical
defenses, such as toxins in the leaves of shrubs, are common.

Animals: Common desert animals include snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants,
beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents. Many species are
nocturnal. Water conservation is a common adaptation, with some species
surviving solely on water obtained from breaking down carbohydrates in
seeds. Human Impact: Long-distance transport of water and deep groundwater
wells have allowed humans to maintain substantial population in deserts.
Urbanization and conversion to irrigated agriculture have reduced the natural
biodiversity of some deserts.
● Savanna

Distribution Savanna: Occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions.

Precipitation: Seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm per year. The dry season can
last up to eight or nine months. Temperature: The savanna is warm year-round,
averaging 24-29°C, but with somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical
forests. Plants: The scattered trees found at different densities in the savanna
often are thorny and have small leaves, an apparent adaptation to the relatively
dry conditions. Fires are common in the dry season, and the dominant plant
species are fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought. Grasses and small
nonwoody plants called forbs, which make up most of the ground cover, grow
rapidly in response to seasonal rains and are tolerant of grazing by large
mammals and other herbivores. Animals: Large plant-eating mammals, such as
wildebeests and zebras, and predators, including lions and hyenas, are common
inhabitants. However, the dominant herbivores are actually insects, especially
termites. During seasonal droughts, grazing mammals often migrate to parts of
the savanna with more forage and scattered watering holes. Human Impact: There
is evidence that the earliest humans lived in savannas. Fires set by humans may
help maintain this biome, though overly frequent fires reduce tree regeneration
by killing the seedlings and saplings. Cattle ranching and overhunting have led to
declines in large-mammal population.

The Aquatic Biomes:

Unlike terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are characterized primarily by their

physical environment. They also show far less latitudinal variation, with all types
found across the globe. Ecologist distinguish between freshwater and marine
biomes on the basis of physical and chemical differences. Marine biomes
generally have salt concentrations that average 3%, whereas freshwater biomes
are usually characterized by a salt concentration of less than 0.1%.

The oceans make up the largest marine biome, covering about 75% of Earth's
surface. Because of their vast size, they greatly impact the biosphere. Water
evaporated from the oceans provides most of the planet's rainfall, and ocean
temperatures have a major effect on global climate and wind patterns. Marine
algae and photosynthetic bacteria also supply much of the world's oxygen and
consume large amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Freshwater biomes are
closely linked to the soils and biotic components of the surrounding terrestrial
biome. The particular characteristics of a freshwater biome are also influenced by
the patterns and speed of water flow and the climate to which the biome is
exposed.
● Marine Biome

The marine biome is an environment characterized by the presence of salt water.

The marine biome is found in all of Earth's oceans and is the largest biome in the
world. The marine biome is home to an amazing array of living organisms, from
the enormous blue whale to microscopic cyanobacteria.

Marine Biome Climate

The average water temperature of the marine biome is 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4

degrees Celsius) but can be colder or warmer depending on location. Shallow
oceans or those near the equator will have a higher temperature than those near
the poles. Depth and temperature of the marine waters greatly impact all life
within the marine biome.

Marine Water

Marine water is generally composed of about 96.5% pure water and 3.5% percent
dissolved compounds. Salinity refers to the saltiness of water.

Marine Water and Sunlight

Marine water is inhabited by a wide variety of organisms that depend on the

presence of sunlight and nutrients in order to thrive. Coastal marine ecosystems
are able to retain more nutrients than those of the deep ocean because dead
organic matter falls to the sea floor where it becomes available for
marine organisms. Nutrients are recycled quickly through a marine ecosystem
and do not build up on the sea floor the way soil does in a terrestrial forest. The
availability of sunlight is largely dependent on water depth. Sunlight becomes
less available as ocean water becomes deeper. Other factors that influence light
availability include local cloud cover, water turbidity, ocean surface conditions
and water depth. The photic zone refers to water depths of up to approximately
100 meters, where sunlight can penetrate and photosynthesis can occur.
The aphotic zone refers to water depths greater than 100 meters, where light
cannot penetrate and photosynthesis cannot occur.

Marine Ecosystems

A marine ecosystem is the interaction of the community of marine organisms and

their environment. Marine ecosystems are characterized by factors such as
availability of light, food and nutrients. Other factors that affect marine
ecosystems include water temperature, depth and salinity, as well as local
topography. Changes in these conditions can change the composition of species
that make up the marine community. The pelagic zone includes the water and
organisms that spend their lives floating or swimming in the water. Pelagic
organisms include plankton (such as algae, bacteria, protozoans and diatoms)
that drift in the ocean currents and provide the basis of the marine food chain and
nekton (such as fish, penguins, squid and whales) that swim and eat the plankton
and smaller organisms.

The benthic zone includes the sea floor and the organisms that live there. Benthic
zones include semi-dry areas such as intertidal zones, coastal marine
ecosystems like coral reefs, and also deep ocean trenches. Benthic organisms
receive nutrients from organic matter that falls from the pelagic zone. Benthic
plants and plant-like organisms include sea grasses, seaweeds and algae.
Examples of benthic animals include crabs, corals, shellfish and sea stars.

Examples of Marine Ecosystems

Examples of marine ecosystems include coral reefs, estuaries, open ocean,

mangrove swamps and seagrass meadows. Marine ecosystems can generally be
split into two categories: coastal and open ocean habitats. While only 7% of the
total area of the ocean is considered coastal habitat, the majority of marine life is
located in coastal waters. Coastal waters have more available sunlight and
nutrients than the open ocean.

Freshwater Biomes

● Lakes

Physical environment Standing bodies of Lakes water range from ponds a few
square meters in area to lakes covering thousands of square creating
stratification. Temperate lakes may kilometers. Light decreases with depth, have
a seasonal thermocline; tropical lowland lakes have a thermocline year-round.

Chemical Environment The salinity, Oxygen concentration, and nutrient content

differ greatly among lakes and can vary with season. Oligotrophic lakes are
nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich; eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and
often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice in
winter. The amount of decomposable organic matter in bottom sediments is low
in oligotrophic lakes and high in eutrophic lakes; high rates of decomposition in
deeper layers of eutrophic lakes cause periodic oxygen depletion.

Heterotrophs: In the limnetic zone, small drifting heterotrophs, or zooplankton,

graze in the phytoplankton. The benthic zones inhabited by assorted
invertebrates whose species composition depends partly on oxygen levels.
Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen.
Human impact: Runoff from fertilized land and dumping of wastes lead to
nutrient enrichment, which can produce algal blooms, Oxygen depletion, and fish
kills.

● Streams and Rivers

Physical Environment: The most prominent physical characteristic of streams

and rivers is the speed and volume of their flow. Headwater streams are generally
cold, clear, turbulent, and swift. Farther downstream, where numerous tributaries
may have joined, forming a river, the water is generally warmer and more turbid
because of suspended sediment. Streams and rivers are stratified into vertical
zones.

Chemical Environment: The salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers
increases from the headwaters to the mouth. Headwaters are generally rich in
oxygen. Downstream water may also contain substantial oxygen, except where
there has been organic enrichment. A large fraction of the organic matter in rivers
consists of dissolved or highly fragmented material that is carried by the current
from forested streams.

Geologic Features: Headwater stream channels are often narrow, have a rocky
bottom, and alternate between shallow sections and deeper pools. The
downstream stretches of rivers are generally wide and meandering. River
bottoms are often silty from sediments deposited over long periods of time.

Heterotrophs: A great diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted

rivers and streams, distributed according to, and throughout, the vertical zones.
In streams flowing through temperate or tropical forests, organic matter from
terrestrial vegetation is the primary source of food for aquatic consumers.

Human Impact: Municipal, agricultural, and industrial pollution degrade water

quality and kill aquatic organisms. Damming and flood control impair the natural
functioning or stream and river ecosystems and threaten migratory species such
as salmon.

● Estuaries

Physical Environment: An estuary is a transition area between river and sea.

Seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down
during the falling tide. Often, higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the
channel and mixes a little with the lower-density river water at the
surface. Heterotrophs: Estuaries support an abundance of worms, oysters, crabs,
and many fish species that humans consume. Many marine invertebrates and
fishes use estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate through them to freshwater
habitats.

Upstream. Estuaries are also crucial feeding areas for waterfowl and some marine
mammals.

Human Impact: Filling, dredging, and pollution from upstream have disrupted
estuaries worldwide.