MATHEMATICS

FUNDAMENTAL
OF
MATHEMATICS
(Study Notes)

JEE Main + Advanced

FUNDAMENTAL
OF
MATHEMATICS

1.
Definition of Set:
A set is a collection of well-defined objects which are distinct from each
other. Sets are generally represented by capital letters A, B, C, ... etc and
the elements of the set by a, b, c, etc.
By well defined we mean there is a rule by which one can decide whether
an element belongs to the set or not.

Ex: (i) Natural numbers, prime numbers, real numbers less than 10, all
are well defined objects.
(ii) But collection of good students in a class, collection of good
batsmen are not sets because good student and good batsman
are not well defined.

Some Important Number Sets:

N = Set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
W = Set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Z or I = Set of all integers = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...}
Z+ = Set of positive integers = {1, 2, 3, ...} =N
Z¯ = Set of negative integers = {–1, –2, –3, ...}
Z – {0} = Set of all non-zero integers = {±1, ±2, ±3, ...}
Q = Set of all rational numbers = {p/q; p, q ∈ I, q ≠ 0}
R = Set of all real numbers.
R–Q=Set of all irrational numbers Ex. { }
2, 3, π, e, log2 … ..

Note: Symbol "∈" denotes "belongs to"

Methods of writing a set:

1. Roster Method:
In this method a set is described by listing elements, separated by

Fundamental of Mathematics
commas and enclosing them by curly brackets. It is also called
Tabular Method.
Ex: The set of vowels = {a, e, i, o, u}

2. Set builder Method:

In this case we write down property or rule "p" which gives us all
the elements of the set. A = {x: p(x)}
Ex: A = {x, x ∈ N and x = 2n for n ∈ N} = {2, 4, 6, .....}
B= {x2, x ∈ Z} = {0, 1, 4, 9, .....}

Q.1 Write the following sets in set builder form

A = {1, 4, 9, 16, .....}
B = {2, 9, 28, 65, .....}
C = {13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31}
Sol. A = {x : x = n2, m ∈ N} or {x2 ; x ∈ N}
B = {x : x = n3 + 1, n ∈ N} or {x3 + 1 ; x ∈ N}
C = {x : x is prime number, 13 ≤ x ≤ 31}

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 2.
Q.2 Write the following sets into tabular form.
A = {x : x2 – 4 = 0, x ∈ N}
B = {x : x = 2 y, 1 ≤ y ≤ 3, x ∈ N}
Sol. For A ⇒ x2 – 4 = 0
⇒ (x + 2) (x – 2) = 0
x = 2, x = –2 (non-natural number)
∴ A = {2}
For B ⇒ (∵ x = 2y and 1 ≤ y ≤ 3
∴ 2 ≤ x ≤ 6 and x ∈ N
∴ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Types of sets
1. Null set or Empty set:
A set having no element is called null Set or Empty set or void set.
It is denoted by φ or { }
Ex: A = {x ∈ N; 5 < x < 6} = φ
B = {x: x is a prime number, x < 2}
The sets which have atleast one element are called non-empty/
non-void sets.

2. Singleton set:
A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.
Ex: A = {0}

3. Finite set:
A set which has finite number of elements is called finite set.
Ex: A = {a, b, c}, B = {1}, C = { }

Order of a finite set A is the number of elements in the set. It is

Fundamental of Mathematics
denoted by n(A) or O(A) It is also called cardinal number of set A.
Ex: If A = {1, 2, 3}, then n(A) = 3

4. Infinite set:
A set which has infinite number of elements is called infinite set.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....}

5. Equal sets:
Two sets A & B are called equal if every element of set A is an
element of B and every element of set B is an element of set A. If A
and B are equal sets, then we write A = B and if they are unequal,
then we write A ≠ B.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {x: x = 2y, y = 0, 1, 2} are equal sets.

6. Equivalent sets:
Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if they have same number of
elements i.e. n(A) = n(B)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 3.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3] and B = {4, 5, 6} because n(A) = n(B) = 3
Note: If two sets are equal, then they are equivalent, but converse
is not always true.
SUBSETS & SUPERSETS:
If every element of set A is an element of set B, then A is subset of B and
B is superset of set A. And we write A ⊆ B
Ex: If A = {5, 7} and B = {1, 5, 7, 9} then A ⊆ B
A is subset of B and B is superset of A

PROPER SUBSET:
If A is subset of set B such that A ≠ B, then A is called proper subset
of B and we write A ⊂ B
Ex: A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, C = {1, 2, 3}
A, B are subsets of C, A is proper subset of C but B is not proper
subset of C (as B = C).

Points to Remember:
1. Every set is subset of itself. (A ⊆ A)
2. Null set ( φ ) is subset of every set ( φ ⊆ A)
3. N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C
4. If n(A) = m then total number of subsets of A = 2m
Proper subsets of A = 2m – 1
5. A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇔ A = B

UNIVERSAL SET:
A set consisting of all possible elements which occur in the
discussion is called a Universal set. It is denoted by "U".
Ex: If A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 3, 5}, C = {2, 5, 6} then
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be taken as universal set.

Fundamental of Mathematics
POWER SET:
Set of all subsets of set A is called power set of A and it is denoted
by P(A)
Ex: For A = {1, 2} power set P(A) = { φ , {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
If n(A) = m, then n (P(A)) = 2m

Q.1 Find the value of n(P(P(P( φ ))))

 
 
Sol.  n ( φ ) = 0 ⇒ n  P ( φ )  = 20 = 1
 
 B(let ) 
 
 
 
 n (B) =
1 ⇒ n  P (B)  = 21 =
2
 
 C(let ) 
 
 n (C ) = (
2 ⇒ n P (C ) =
22 =
4)
IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 4.
Q.2 If n(A) = 4, then find number of subsets of P(A).
Sol. n(A) = 4 ⇒ n(P(A)) = 24 = 16
Hence number of subsets of P(A) = 216
Q.3 State TRUE or FALSE
(i) ϕ = {0}
(ii) {a, b} ⊆ {a, b, c}
(iii) {a, b} ∈ {a, b, c}
(iv) {a} ∈ {{a}, b}
(v) ϕ ⊂ {1, 2}
(vi) { }
φ ∈ φ, {1}
(vii) x ∈ A, A ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ B
(viii) x ∈ A, A ⊄ B ⇒ x ∉ B
(ix) A ⊆ B, x ∉ B ⇒ x ∉ A
(x) A ⊆ B, B ∈ C ⇒ A ∈ C
Sol. (i) False: {0} is a singleton set & φ is null set.
(ii) True: Clearly {a, b] is a subset of {a, b, c}
(iii)False: {a, b} is a subset it is not an element for {a, b, c}
although a, b are elements but {a, b} cannot be treated as a,
b.
(iv) True: Clearly {a} is an element of {{a}, b}
(v) True: ϕ is proper subset of {1, 2}
(vi) True: ϕ is clearly one of the element of {ϕ, {1}}
(vii) False: Let x = 1, A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2}
here x ∈ A, A ∈ B but x ∉ B
(viii) False: Let x = 1, A = {1, 2}, B = {1}
here x ∈ A, A ⊄ B but x ∈ B
(ix) True: If A ⊆ B then all elements of A lie in B and also, we
know x ∉ B then it cannot be an element of A for sure.
(x) False: Let A = {1}, B = {1, 2}, C = {{1, 2}, 3}

Fundamental of Mathematics
Clearly A ⊆ B and B ∈ C but A ∉ C
OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of two sets:
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
U

A B

2. Intersection of two sets:

A ∩ B = {x; x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
U

A B

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 5.
3. Difference of two sets:
A – B = {x ; x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
U

A B

4. Symmetric difference of two sets:

A Δ B = (A–B) ∪ (B–A)
U

A B

5. Complement of a set:
A or A' or Ac = {x ; x ∉ A and x ∈ U} = U – A
U

A AC

6. Disjoint (Incompatible) sets:

Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have any
common element i.e A ∩ B = ϕ
∪

Fundamental of Mathematics
A B

Ex: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 4, 5} then A ∪ B = {1, 2,

4, 5}
A ∩ B = {2}
A – B = {1}, B – A = {4, 5}
AC = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, BC = {1, 3, 6, 7}
A Δ B = {1, 4, 5}

Laws of Algebra of sets:

1. Commutative Law: A ∪ B = B ∪ A
A∩B=B∩A
2. Distributive Law: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
3. Associative Law: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 6.
4. Idempotent Law: A∪A=A
A∩A=A
5. Identity Law: A∪ϕ=A A∪U=U
A∩ ϕ=ϕ A∩U=A
6. Demorgan's Law: (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC
(A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

Some Important Results

1. A – B = A ∩ BC 2. B – A = B ∩ AC 3. (AC)C = A

4. A ∩ AC = ϕ, A ∪ AC = U 5. A–(B∪C)=(A– B) ∩ (A–C) 6. A ∩ B ⊆ A, A ∩ B ⊆B
A–(B∩C)=(A–B) ∪ (A–C) A ⊆ A ∪ B, B ⊆ A ∪ B

7. A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∩ B = A 8. A ⊆ B ⇒ BC ⊆ AC
A⊆B⇒A∪B=B

Q.1 Prove (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC with and without Venn diagram.

Sol. 1) With Venn diagram.
LHS
U

A B

RHS
U U

A B A B

Fundamental of Mathematics
(i) (ii)
U

(i) ∪ (ii) ⇒ = LHS

A B

2) Without using Venn diagram:

let x ∈ (A ∩ B)C ⇒ x ∉ (A ∩ B)
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ AC or x ∈ BC
⇒ x ∈ AC ∪ BC
hence (A ∩ B)C ⊆ AC ∪ BC ..... (i)
Now let y ∈ AC ∪ BC
⇒ y ∈ AC or y ∈ BC
⇒ y ∉ A or y ∉ B
⇒ y∉A∩B

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 7.
 ⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)C
hence AC ∪ BC ⊆ (A ∩ B)C .....(ii)
By (i) & (ii)
(A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

Q.2 Prove the following using laws of algebra:

(i) (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A ∩ B' ∩ C')' ∩ C' = B ∩ C'
(ii) A' ∪ {(A ∪ B) ∩ B'} = (A ∩ B)'
Sol. (i) LHS = (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A' ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ C'
= {A ∪ (B ∪ C) ∩ {A' ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C'
= {(A ∩ A') ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C'
= {ϕ ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C'
= (B ∪ C) ∩ C'
= (B ∩ C') ∪ (C ∩ C')
= (B ∩ C') ∪ (ϕ) = B ∩ C' = RHS
(ii) LHS = A' ∪ {(A ∩ B') (B ∩ B')
= A' ∪ {(A ∩ B'} ∪ ϕ
= A' ∪ (A ∩ B')
= (A' ∪ A) ∩ (A' ∪ B')
= U ∩ (A' ∪ B')
= A' ∪ B' = (A ∩ B') = RHS

THEOREMS ON CARDINAL NUMBERS

1) For two sets A & B
→ n (atleast one in A or B)
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
→ n(A ∪ B) – n(A ∩ B)
n(exactly one in A or B) = n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A ∩ B)
→ n(A – B)
n (only A) =n(A) – n(A ∩ B)

Fundamental of Mathematics
→ n(neither A nor B) = n (A' ∩ B') = n(U) – n(A ∪ B)
2) For three sets A, B & C
→ n (atleast one in A, B or C)
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) –n(C ∩ A) +
n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
→ n (atleast two in A, B or C) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ A) –2 n(A
∩ B ∩ C)

Q.1 If n(A) = 7, n(B) = 10, then find minimum and maximum value of n(A
∪ B)
Sol. ∵ n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
n(A ∪ B)max = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)min
= 7 + 10 – 0
= 17
n(A ∪ B)min = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)max
= 7 + 10 – 7
= 10

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 8.
Q.2 If n(A ∪ B) = 90, n(A – B) = 15, n(A ∩ B) = 30, then find n(B).
Sol. n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A ∩ B) .....(i)
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) .....(ii)
(ii) - (i)
n(A ∪ B) – n(A – B) = n(B)
90 – 15 = n(B) ⇒ n(B) = 75

Q.3 In a group of 40 students 25 take tea, 17 take coffee and 8 take

neither of the two. How many take both tea and coffee.
Sol. let tea → T, coffee → C
given n(U) = 40, n(T) = 25, n(C) = 17, n((T' ∩ C')=8
n (T' ∩ C') = n{(T ∪ C)'} = n(U) – n(T ∪ C)
8 = n(U) –{n(T) + n(C) – n(T ∩ C)}
8 = 40 – {25 + (17) – n(T ∩ C)}
⇒ n(T ∩ C) = 10

Q.4 A college awarded 38 medals in Football, 15 in basketball and 20 in

cricket. If these medals went to a total of 58 players and only three
players got medals in all the three sports, then how many players
received medals in exactly two of the three sports.
Sol. Let Football → F, Basketball → B, Cricket → C
Given n(F) = 38, n(B) = 15, n(C) = 20
n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = 58, n(F ∩ B ∩ C) = 3
n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = n(F) + n(B) + n(C) – {n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ F)} +
n(F ∩ B ∩ C)
58 = 38 + 15 + 20 – {k} + 3
⇒ k = 18
n (exactly two in F, B or C) = {n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ F)} – 3 n(F
∩ B ∩ C)

Fundamental of Mathematics
= k – 3(3) = 9

Number System
1. Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …..}
2. Whole numbers: W = {0, 1, 3, …..}
3. Integers: Z or I = {….. –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …..}
4. Positive Integers: Z+ or I+ = {1, 2, 3, …..} = N
5. Negative Integers: Z¯ or I¯ = {–1, –2, –3, …..}
6. Non-negative Integers: = {0, 1, 2, 3, …..} = W
7. Non-positive Integers: = {….. –3, –2, –1, 0}
8. Even Integers: = {….. –6, –4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …..}
⇒ These numbers can be expressed by “2n”, n ∈ I
9. Odd Integers: = {….. –5, –3, –1, 0, 1, 3, 5, …..}
⇒ These numbers can be expressed by “2n±1”, n ∈ I
Note: (i) 0 is neither positive nor negative integer.
(ii) 0 is an even integer.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 9.
10. Prime Numbers:
Natural numbers which have two distinct factors are prime
numbers.
Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, …..
Note: (i) 1 is not a prime number.
(ii) All prime number (except 2, 3) can be written as form “6n±1”
where n ∈ Z
(iii) 2 is the only prime number which is even.
11. Composite Numbers:
Natural numbers (except 1) which have more than two distinct
factors are composite numbers.
Ex. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, …..
Note: (i) 1 is neither prime nor composite.
(ii) 4 is the least composite number.
12. Co-prime (Relative prime) numbers:
Two natural numbers (not necessarily prime) are co-prime if their
HCF (GCD) is 1.
Ex. (1, 2), (3, 5), (5, 9), (16, 15), …..
Note : (i) Two distinct prime numbers are always co-prime but the
converse need not be true.
(ii) Consecutive natural numbers are always co-prime.
13. Twin prime numbers:
If the difference between two prime numbers is 2 then they are
called twin prime numbers.
14. Rational numbers:
Numbers which can be written in form of “p/q” where p, q ∈ Z and
q ≠ 0. Set of rational numbers is denoted by “Q”.
Ex. 2/3, 7/9, –2/5, 7/1, ……
Note : All terminating decimal numbers, non-terminating but repeating
decimal numbers are rational numbers.

Fundamental of Mathematics
15. Irrational numbers:
Real numbers which are not rational, are irrational numbers. The set
of irrational numbers is denoted by “QC” or “Q’ ”
Ex. 2, 3, 5, … ..π, e, … ..
Note : Non-terminating and non-repeating decimal numbers are irrational
numbers.
16. Real numbers:
The complete set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of
real numbers and it is denoted by “R” hence R = Q ∪ QC
Note : (i) Square of real number is non-negative.
(ii) Real numbers can be represented on real number line.
17. Complex numbers:
These are the numbers which are represented in the form of a + ib
where a, b ∈ R and i= −1 (iota). Set of all complex numbers is
represented by “C”.
Ex. 2 + 3i, 5–7i, 0 + 2i, 2 − 3i , 5, …..
Note : All real numbers are complex numbers.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 10.
Q.1 Prove that n3–n is divisible by 24, where n is odd integer.
Sol. Let n = 2m + 1, m ∈ I (∵ m is odd integer)
Now n – n = n(n – 1)
3 2

= n(n + 1)(n –1) {it is multiple of 3}

= (2m +1) (2m + 1 + 1) (2m + 1 –1)
= (2m +1) 2(m + 1)2m
= 4m(m +1) (2m + 1)
For all m ∈ I, m(m + 1) (2m +1) will be a multiple of 2.
Hence n3 – n is divisible by 24.

Q.2 Prove that p2 – 1 is divisible by 24, where p is any prime number ≥

5.
Sol. Let p = 6n ± 1, n ∈ I (∵ p is a prime number ≥ 5)
hence p2 – 1 = (p + 1) (p – 1)
= (6n ± 1 + 1) (6n ± 1 – 1)
= (6n ± 2) (6n)
= 12 n (n ± 1)
For all n ∈ I, n(n ± 1) will be an even number
Hence p2 – 1 is divisible by 24.

Q.3 Find a, b ∈ I given that a2 – b2 = 13

Sol. a2 – b2 = 13
(a + b) (a – b) = 13 = 1 × 13 … (i)
Now let us assume a, b > 0 then from (i)
a +b =13
=  a 7,
= b 6
a −b =1 
So, in general a = ± 7, b ± 6

Q.4 Find m, n ∈ I if m2 – n2 = 2002.

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol. ∵ m2 – n2 = 2002
(m + n) (m – n) = 2 × 1001
⇒ If m, n both even or both odd then (m + n), (m –n) both are even
then LHS will be multiple of 4 but RHS is not.
⇒ If m is even and n is odd or vice-versa then (m + n), (m –n) both
are odd hence LHS will be odd but RHS is not.
Hence there will be no solution.
Q.5 If x + y2 = x2 + y = 12, then find (x, y)
Sol. x2 + y = 12 … (i)
x + y2 = 12 … (ii)
(i) – (ii) ⇒ (x – y ) + (y – x) = 0
2 2

(x – y) {x + y – 1} = 0
x = y or x = 1 – y
if x = y then from (i)
x2 + x = 12 ⇒ x = 3, –4
hence x = y = 3, –4
if x = 1 – y then from (i)
(1 – y)2 + y = 12

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 11.
 1± 3 5
y2 – y – 11 = 0 ⇒ y =
2
1 3 5
x=
2
1± 3 5 1 3 5
(x, y) ≡ (3, 3), (–4, –4),  , 
 2 2 
 

FACTORIZATION
Some useful identities:
1. a2 − b2 = ( a + b )( a − b )

(a ± b)
2
2. = a2 + b2 ± 2ab

3. ( )
a3 − b3 = ( a − b ) a2 + ab + b2 = ( a − b ) + 3ab ( a − b )
3

= (a + b) (a − ab + b ) = ( a + b ) − 3ab ( a + b )
3
a3 + b3 2 2

(a − b) = a3 − b3 − 3ab (a − b)
3
4.

(a + b) = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
3

(a + b + c ) = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca

2
5.

(a + b + c + d) = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2cd + 2da + 2ac + 2bd

2
6.

7. a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = ( a + b + c ) ( a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca )

→ If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 =
3abc

8. a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca=
1
2
({a − b ) + (b − c ) + ( c − a )
2 2 2
}

Fundamental of Mathematics
( ) ( )( 1 − x + x )
2
9. 1 + x2 + x4 = 1 + x2 − x2 = 1 + x + x2 2

(a + b + c ) = a3 + b3 + c3 + 3 ( a + b )(b + c )( c + a )
3
10.

Q.1 If a + b = 2 and a3 + b3 = 27 then find a2 + b2

Sol. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
27 = (2)3 – 3ab(2)
19 = –6ab ⇒ 2ab = –19/3
(a + b)2 = a2 + b2 +2ab
22 = a2 + b2 + (–19/3) ⇒ a2 + b2 = 31/3

Q.2 If a + b + c = 4, a2 + b2 + c2 = 6 and a3 + b3 + c3 = 8 then find a4 + b4

+ c4
Sol. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
16 = 6 + 2 (λ)
⇒λ=5
a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – λ)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 12.
 8 – 3µ = (4) (6 – 5)
⇒ µ = 4/3
(ab + bc + ca)2 = a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2 + 2abc (a + b + c)
4
25
= y + 2   (4)
3
⇒ γ = 43/3
(a2 + b2 + c2) 2 = a4 + b4 + c4 + 2(γ)
36 = a4 + b4 + c4 + 86/3
⇒ a4 + b4 + c4 = 22/3

1  1   1 
Q.3 If x − 3 , then find the value of 2  x3 − 3  − 3  x2 + 2  − 39
=
x  x   x 
2
 1 2 1 1
Sol.  x −  = x + 2 − 2x
 x x x
1 1
9 = x2 + 2
− 2 ⇒ x2 + = 11 …..(i)
x x2
3
 3 1   1 1 1
 x − 3  = x −  + 3x  x − 
 x   x x x
1
= 27 + 3 ( 3 ) ⇒ x3 −
= 36
x3
Put in required expression ⇒ 2(36) – 3(11) – 39 = 0

Q.4 Factorize the following expressions:

(i) x4 – y4 (ii) 9a2 – (2a – y)2
Sol. (i) x – y = (x ) – (y )
4 4 2 2 2 2

= (x2 + y2) (x2 – y2)

= (x2 + y2) (x – y) (x + y)

Fundamental of Mathematics
(ii) 9a2 – (2a – y)2 = (3a)2 – (2x – y)2
= (3a + 2x – y) (3a – 2x + y)

Q.5 Factorize
(i) 8x3 – 27y3 (ii) a6 – b6
Sol. (i) 8x3 – 27y3 = (2x)3 – (3y)3
= (2x – 3y) ((2x)2 + (2x)(3y) + (3y)2)
= (2x – 3y) (4x2 + 6xy + 9y2)
(ii) a – b = = (a3)2 – (b3)2
6 6

= (a3 + b3) (a3 – b3)

= (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)

Q.6 Factorize
(i) x2 + 3x – 40 (ii) x2 – 3x – 40
(iii) 3x – 10x + 8
2
(iv) 12x2 + x – 35
Sol. (i) x2 + 3x – 40 = x2 + 8x – 5x – 40
= x(x + 8) – 5(x + 8)
= (x – 5) (x + 8)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 13.
 (ii) x2 – 3x – 40 = x2 – 8x + 5x – 40
= x(x – 8) + 5(x – 8)
= (x + 5) (x – 8)
(iii) 3x2 – 10x + 8 = 3x2 – 6x – 4x + 8
= 3x(x – 2) – 4(x – 2)
= (3x – 4) (x – 2)
(iv) 12x2 + x – 35 = 12x2 + 21x – 20x – 35
= 3x(4x + 7) – 5(4x + 7)
= (3x – 5) (4x + 7)

Q.7 Factorize by converting into perfect square:

(i) a2 – 4a + 3 + 2b – b2 (ii) a4 + a2b2 + b4
Sol. (i) (a2 – 4a + 4 – 4) + 3 – (b2 – 2b + 1 – 1)
⇒ (a – 2)2 – 4 + 3 – (b – 1)2 + 1
⇒ (a – 2)2 – (b – 1)2
⇒ [(a – 2) + (b – 1)] [(a – 2) – (b – 1)]
⇒ (a + b – 3) (a – b –1)
(ii) a + a2b2 + b4
4

⇒ (a2 + b2)2 – (ab)2

⇒ (a2 + b2 + ab) (a2 + b2 – ab)

Q8. Factorize 8a3 + b3 + c3 – 6abc

Sol. (2a)3 + (b) 3 + (c) 3 – 3(2a) (b) (c)
⇒ (2a + b + c) ((2a) 2 + b2 + c2 – (2a)b – bc – c(2a))
⇒ (2a + b + c) (4a2 + b2 + c2 – 2ab – bc – 2ac)

Q9. Solve the equations:

Fundamental of Mathematics
(i) 4x – 10.2x–1 = 24
(ii) 4·22x – 6x = 18·32x

( ) ( ) 21
2
Sol. (i) 2x – 10 2x · = 24

Let 2x = t then
⇒ t2 – 5t – 24 = 0 ⇒ t2 – 8t + 3t – 24 = 0
(t – 8) (t + 3) = 0
⇒ t = 8 ⇒ 2x = 23 ⇒ x = 3
⇒ t = –3 ⇒ 2x = –3 ⇒ Not possible
(ii) 4(2x)2 – 2x · 3x – 18(3x)2 = 0
Let 2x = a, 3x = b then
⇒ 4a2 – ab – 18b2 = 0 ⇒ 4a2 –9ab + 8ab – 18b2 = 0
(4a – 9b) (a + 2b) = 0
4a = 9b ⇒ 4 · 2x = 9 · 3x ⇒ 2x+2 – 3x+2 ⇒ x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = – 2
a = – 2b ⇒ 2x = – 2 · 3x ⇒ Not possible

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 14.
Intervals
These are basically subset of real number. If there are two numbers
a, b ∈ R such that a < b then we can define four types of intervals.
(A) Open Interval:
If a < x < b then it can be written as x ∈ (a, b). On number line it can
be represented as
x
a b

(B) Closed Interval:

If a ≤ x ≤ b then it can be written as x ∈ [a, b]. On number line it can
be represented as
x
a b

(C) Semi open or Semi closed interval:

If a < x ≤ b then x ∈ (a, b]
x
a b

If a ≤ x < b then x ∈ [a, b)

x
a b

(D) Infinite Intervals:

If x > a then x ∈ (a, ∞)

x
a

Fundamental of Mathematics
If x ≥ a then x ∈ [a, ∞)

x
a

If x < b then x ∈ (–∞, b)

x
b

If x ≤ b then x ∈ (–∞, b]
x
b

Note: (i) For discrete values of x we use sets

Ex. If x = 1, 2 then we write x ∈ {1, 2}
(ii) If there is no value of x then we write x ∈ ϕ

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 15.
Operation on Intervals:
1. Union (or):
If x ∈ (2, 3) or x ∈ (5, 7) then we write it as x ∈ (2, 3) ∪ (5, 7)

x
2 3 5 7

2. Intersection (and):
If x ∈ (2, 7] and x ∈ [–3, 5] then common values of both
intervals come under intersection. Hence intersection will be
x ∈ (2, 5]
Common

x
–3 2 5 7

Remainder Theorem
If polynomial p(x) whose degree is greater than or equal to 1, is
divided by (x –a), then the remainder is p(a).
Ex. If p(x) = x3 –7x2 + 6x + 4 is divided by (x –1)
then remainder = p(1) = 1 – 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 4
Note : If p(x) is divided by (ax + b) then remainder is p(-b/a).

Factor Theorem
If polynomial p(x) is of degree ≥ 1 and ‘a’ be a real constant such
that p(a) = 0 then (x – a) will be a factor of p(x).
Ex. Let p(x) = x4 – 7x2 + 6 is a polynomial and it is such that p(1) = 0
then (x – 1) will be a factor of p(x).

Fundamental of Mathematics
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

Q.1 Find the remainder when p(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 3x + 1 is divided by 2x + 1.

Sol. By remainder theorem
Remainder = p(–½)
−1 1 3 23
∴ p(–½) = (–½)3 + 2(–½)2 – 3(–½) + 1 = + + +1= is
8 2 2 8
remainder.

Q.2 If f(x) = kx4 + 2x2 + 2k + 1 is divided by x – 1 then remainder is

4k – 2, then find k.
Sol. By remainder theorem
Remainder = p(1)
4k – 2 = k(1)4 + 2(1)2 + 2k + 1
k=5

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 16.
Q.3 Factorize p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
Sol. If x = 1 then
p(1) = (1)3 – 6(1)2 + 11(1) – 6
= 12 – 12 = 0
hence (x – 1) is factor of p(x)
Similarly p(2) = 0 ⇒ (x – 2) is factor of p(x)
p(3) = 0 ⇒ (x – 3) is factor of p(x)
Hence p(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)

Q.4 If x2 + x – 6 is a factor of p(x) = 2x4 + x3 – ax2 + bx + a + b – 1, then

find the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’
Sol. ∵ x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3) (x – 2)
∴ (x + 3) and (x – 2) both are factors of p(x)
⇒ p(–3) = 0
⇒ 2(81) + (–27) – a(9) + b(–3) + a + b – 1 = 0
⇒ 8a + 2b = 134
⇒ 4a + b = 67 …(i)
Also, p(2) = 0
⇒ 2(16) + (8) – a(4) + b(2) + a + b – 1 = 0
⇒ 3a – 3b = 39
⇒ a – b = 13 …(ii)
By (i) and (ii)
a = 16, b=3

Q.5 A polynomial p(x) when divided by x and x – 1 gives remainder 1 and

3 respectively find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x2 – x
Sol. By remainder theorem
p(0) = 1, p(1) = 3
If p(x) is divided by x2 – x remainder is R(x) = ax + b (∵ remainder
can have atmost 1-degree as divisor is of degree ‘2’)

Fundamental of Mathematics
Now by division algorithm
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder
p(x) = Q(x) × x(x – 1) + ax + b …(i)
Put x = 1 in (i)
p(1) = Q(1) × 0 + a + b
3=a+b …(ii)
Put x = 0 in (i)
p(0) = Q(0) × 0 + b
1=b …(iii)
By (ii) and (iii)
⇒ a = 2, b=1
∴ Remainder = 2x + 1

Q.6 Factorize (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) – 8
Sol. {(x + 1) (x + 4)} {(x + 2) (x + 3)} – 8
(x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 5x + 6) – 8
Let x2 + 5x = t then
⇒ (t + 4) (t + 6) – 8

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 17.
 ⇒ (t2 + 10t + 16)
⇒ (t + 2) (t + 8)
⇒ (x2 + 5x + 2) (x2 + 5x + 8)

Q.7 Factorize f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2

Sol. Put x=–2
f(–2) = (–8) + 3(4) + 3(–2) + 2 = 0
∵ f(–2) = 0 ⇒ (x + 2) is a factor of f(x)
Now,

∴ (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2) = (x + 2) (x2 + x + 1)

Divisibility Rules
For 2: Last digit of number must be 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8
For 3: Sum of all digits of the number must be a multiple of 3.
For 4: Number formed by last two digits must be a multiple of 4.
For 5: Unit digit of number must be 0 or 5.
For 6: Number must be divisible by both 2 and 3.
For 8: Number formed by last three digits of number must be a multiple

Fundamental of Mathematics
of 8.
For 9: Sum of all digits of the number must be a multiple of 9.
For 10: Last digit of number must be 0.
For 11: (Sum of digits at even places) – (Sum of digits at odd places) =
Multiple of 11.

Q.1 If the number 5279 ab is divisible by 18 then (a, b) is equal to

Sol. The number must be divisible by 2 and 9 both
For 2 ⇒ Digit b must be 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8
For 9 ⇒ 5 + 2 + 7 + 9 + a + b = 9 k, k ∈ w
23 + a + b = 9 k
if b = 0 then a = 4
if b = 2 then a = 2

(a, b) ≡ (4, 0), (2, 2), (0, 4), (9, 4), (7, 6), (5, 8)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 18.
RATIO
It is a comparison of two quantities by division. If a and b are two
a
numbers then ratio of a and b is or a ÷ b and it is denoted by
b
a : b.
Where a ⇒ antecedent
b ⇒ consequent
3 7 2
Ex. , , , ...
5 9 7

PROPORTION
a c
The equality of two ratios is called proportion If= then a, b, c
b d
and d are said to be in proportion and we write a : b : : c : d and
a c
each term , is called proportional. Also a, b, c, d are called first,
b d
second, third and fourth proportional respectively.
3 6
Ex. = we write it 3 : 4 : : 6 : 8
4 8
a c
Note : If = then
b d

a +b c+d a −b c −d a +b c+d
(i) = (ii) = (iii) =
b d b d a −b c −d
(Componendo) (Dividendo) (Componendo and
Dividendo)

a c e
Note : If = = = λ (let) then,
b d f

Fundamental of Mathematics
a+c+e
λ=
b+d+ f
Note : If a : b : : c : d then
Product of means = Product of extremes
i.e., b·c = a·d
Note: (i) Fourth Proportional:
bc
If x is fourth proportional of a, b, c then a : b : : c : x ⇒ x =
a
(ii) Third Proportional:
b2
If x is third proportional of a, b then a : b : : b : x ⇒ x =
a
(iii) Mean Proportional:
If x is mean (or second) proportional of a, b the a : x : : x : b
⇒ x = ab

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 19.
Q.1 If x : y = 1 : 2 then find the value of (2x + 3y) : (x + y)
x 1
Sol. ∵ = ⇒ Let x = k, y = 2k (k ≠ 0)
y 2

2x + 3y 2 (k ) + 3 ( 2k ) 8k 8
∴= = ⇒
x+y k + 2k 3k 3
∴ Required ratio is 8 : 3.
Q.2 If 15(2x2 – y2) = 7xy then find the value of x : y.
x
Sol. Let = k ⇒ x = ky
y
Now from given equation
15{2(ky)2 – y2} = 7 (ky)y
⇒ 15y2{2k2 –1} = 7ky2
⇒ 15(2k2 – 1) = 7 k
⇒ 30k2 – 7k – 15 = 0
⇒ 30k2 – 25k + 18k – 15 = 0
⇒ 5k (6k – 5) + 3(6k – 5) = 0
⇒ (5k + 3) (6k – 5) = 0
3 5
⇒ k= − or k=
5 6
x 3 5
∴ = − or
y 5 6
a c e
Q.3 If = = = λ (all numbers are positive)
b d f
1/2
ac  a2 + c2 + e2 
Then prove that (i) λ = (ii) λ = 2 2 
bd 2
 b + d + f 
Sol. a = bλ, c = dλ, e = fλ

ac (bλ )(dλ ) = λ2 =λ

Fundamental of Mathematics
(i) =
bd bd
(ii) a2= b2 λ2 …(1)
c2= d2 λ2 …(2)
2 2 2
e= f λ …(3)
Add all three equations a2 + c2 + e2 = (b2
)
+ d2 + f2 λ2
1/2
 a2 + c2 + e2 
⇒ λ = 2 2 2 
 b + d + f 

INDICES:
Some useful formulae:
1. am ·an = am+n 2. am ÷ an =
am−n
( )
n
3. am = amn

a
4.  
−m/n
b
m/n
5. am ÷ b−n =
am ·bn 6.
= a0 1 (a ≠ 0)
= 
b a

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 20.
 −3/2

( 64 )  121 
−1/2
6
Q. Evaluate (i) (ii)  
 169 
Sol. (i)  64 =26 ⇒ 6 64 =2
1/2
 1 1
∴ given exp. ( 2 )
−1/2
⇒  ⇒
2 2
−3/2  3
−3/2 2 − 
 121   112   11   2 133
(ii)   ⇒ 2 ⇒  ⇒
 169   13   13  113
 

Rational Inequalities
f (x)
Let y = be an expression in x where f(x) and g(x) are
g (x)
polynomials in x. If it is given that y > 0 (or y < 0) then we have to
write set of all the values of x for which y is positive (or y is negative)
to evaluate this set, we follow these steps.
Step-1:
Express f(x) and g(x) as factor of linear expressions (If possible) also
collect the same linear factors in one place.
f (x) ( x − 1) ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ( x + 6)
3 4 5

Ex. Let after step-1 =y =

g (x) x2 ( x − 7 )
3

Step-2:
Now mark the values of x for which y = 0 by black dots on number
line (x = 1, –2, 3, –6). Also mark the values for which y is undefined
by white dots (x = 0, 7)

–6 –2 0 1 3 7

Fundamental of Mathematics
Step-3:
Now check value of y for any real number greater than the right
most marked number on number line. If it is positive, then y > 0 for
all numbers greater than the right most marked number.
Ex. Here if we put x = 8 in y then y > 0 hence y > 0 ∀ x ∈ (7,∞)
Step-4:
If exponent of a factor in y is odd, then this point is called simple
point and if the exponent is even, then the point is called double
point.
For above example simple points are x = 1, 3, –6, 7 double points
are x = 0, –2
Now sign in neighbouring interval of simple point is different and for
double point it is same.
+ – – – + – +

–6 –2 0 1 3 7

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 21.
Step-5:
y > 0 for all values of x which lies in interval where positive mark is
present and y < 0 for all values of x of interval where negative mark
is present. Hence solution of
y > 0 is x ∈ (–∞, –6) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (7, ∞)
y ≥ 0 is x ∈ (–∞, –6] ∪ {–2} ∪ [1, 3] ∪ (7, ∞)
y < 0 is x ∈ (–6, –2) ∪ (–2, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (3, 7)
y ≤ 0 is x ∈ [–6, 0) ∪ (0, 1] ∪ [3, 7)
Points to remember:
⇒ Points where denominator is zero are never included in the answer.
⇒ Never cross multiply in inequality until you are sure that
denominator will always be positive.
⇒ We also can multiply both side by negative expression by changing
the sign of inequality.
⇒ We can add and subtract the same expression on both side without
changing sign of inequality.
Q.1 Solve the following inequalities for y > 0, y ≥ 0, y < 0 and y ≤ 0.

(i) y=
( x + 1) ( 2x − 3)
2

(ii) y =
(x 2
)(
− 5x + 6 x2 − 8x + 15 )
(x + 7)
3
(x 2
− 16 )
(iii) y =
( 3x − 2)( 4 − x )
3

(iv) y =
(x 3
− 6x2 + 11x − 6 )
( 7 − 2x ) (5 − x )
2 2
(x 2
)(
+ 2 x2 − 8x + 12 )
(x 2
)( )(
− 3 x4 + x2 + 1 2x − 1 )
(v) y = (vi) y = (x 2
− 6x − 2 )
( 3x + 1) ( x + 5)
7 2

3
Sol.(i) y = 0 for x = – 1, (black dots)
2

Fundamental of Mathematics
y not defined for x = – 7 (white dot)
3
Single points=
x , −7
2
Double points x = −1
+ – – +

–7 –1 3/2

3 
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −7 ) ∪  , ∞ 
2 
3 
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, 7 ) ∪ {−1} ∪  , ∞ 
2 
 3
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −7, −1) ∪  −1, 
 2
 3
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  −7, 
 2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 22.
(ii) (x2 – 5x + 6) = (x – 2) (x – 3)
(x2 – 8x + 15) = (x – 5) (x – 3)
(x2 – 16) = (x + 4) (x – 4)

( x − 2)( x − 3) ( x − 5)
2

y=
( x + 4 )( x − 4 )
+ – + + – +

–4 2 3 4 5

y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −4 ) ∪ ( 2, 3) ∪ ( 3, 4 ) ∪ ( 5, ∞ )

y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −4 ) ∪ 2, 4 ) ∪ 5, ∞ )

y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −4, 2 ) ∪ ( 4, 5 )

y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −4, 2 ∪ ( 4, 5

(iii) – + + – –

2/3 7/2 4 5

(Note if we put any number x > 5 in y, then y < 0. Hence right-most

region is negative)
 2  7 
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈  , 4 −  
 3  2
2  7 
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈  , 4 −  
3  2
 2
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈  −∞,  ∪ ( 4, ∞ ) − {5}

Fundamental of Mathematics
 3
 2
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  −∞,  ∪ 4, ∞ ) − {5}
 3
(iv) x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3)
(x + 2) → Always positive
2

x2 − 8x + 12 = ( x − 6 )( x − 2)

y=
( x − 1)( x − 3)
( x2 + 2) ( x − 6)( x − 2) °
– + + – +

1 2 3 6

y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( 1, 3) ∪ ( 6, ∞ ) − {2}

y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈  1, 3 ∪ ( 6, ∞ ) − {2}

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 23.
 y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, 1) ∪ ( 3, 6 )

y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, 1 ∪ 3, 6 )

(v) x4 + x2 + 1 ⇒ always positive

2 – 1 can be replaced by x because both have same sign scheme on
x

number line
x2 − 3 = ( x + 3 )( x − 3 )
+ + – + – +

–5 −√3 -1/3 0 √3

(  1 
)
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ −∞, − 3 ∪  − , 0  ∪
 3 
( )
3, ∞ — { – 5}

(  1 
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ −∞, − 3  ∪  − , 0 ∪  3, ∞ − {−5}
  3   )
 1
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈  − 3, −  ∪ 0, 3
 3
( )
 1
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  − 3, −  ∪ 0, 3 
 3   

(vi) (
Let x2 − 6x − 2= ) ( x − α )( x − β)
6 ± 36 − 4 ( −2 ) 6 ± 2 11
=α, β = ⇒ α, β
2 2
α = 3 − 11, β = 3 + 11 ( α < β)
+ – +

Fundamental of Mathematics
α β

y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, α ) ∪ ( β, ∞ ) = ( −∞, 3 − 11 ) ∪ (3 + 11, ∞)

y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, α  ∪  β, ∞ ) = ( −∞, 3 − 11  ∪ 3 + 11, ∞ )
 
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( α, β )= ( 3 − 11, 3 + 11 )

y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ α, β  = 3 − 11, 3 + 11 
 

FUNCTION:
It is a relation from non-empty set A to non-empty set B such that
each element of set A is uniquely associated with elements of set
B.
Ex.: f(x) = 2x + 3 is a function from set
A = {2, 3, 5} to set B = {5, 7, 9, 10, 13}
Domain of f = A = {2, 3, 5}
Range of f = {7, 9, 13}

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 24.
 Range ⊆ co-domain
“7” is called “Image” of “2” under ‘f’
‘2’ is called “Pre-image” / “Argument” of ‘7’ under ‘f’ and function f
is denoted by
f:A→B
A B
f 5
2
7
3 9
10
5
13

Q.1 Identify which mapping(s) is/are a function (f) from A to B

A B
f
1
a
2
b 3
(i) It is a function
c 4

A B
f
1
a
2
b 3
(ii)
c 4

Fundamental of Mathematics
It is not a function, ∵ a has 2 images
A B
f
1
a
2
b 3
(iii) It is a function
c 4

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 25.
 A B
f
a 1
2
b
(iv) 3 It is not a function, ∵ f(c) ∈ ϕ
c 4

Q.2 Find domain of the following functions:

(i) f (x) = x

(ii) f (x) = x2

(iii) (x)
f= x2 + 1

(iv) (x)
f= 2x − 1
1
(v) f (x) =
3x + 1
Sol. (i) x ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ [0, ∞)
(ii) x2 ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ R
(iii) x2 + 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ R
(iv) 2x – 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ [½, ∞)
(v) 3x + 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ R – {–1/3}

Q.3 Find range of following functions:

(i) (x)
f= x2 + 1

(ii) (x)
f= x2 − 1

Fundamental of Mathematics
(iii) f ( x )= x2 + 4 + 2
Sol. (i) ∵ x2 ≥ 0
∴ x2 + 1 ≥ 1 ⇒ x2 + 1 ≥ 1
∴ Range ∈ [1, ∞)
(ii) ∵ x2 ≥ 0
∴ x2 – 1 ≥ –1 ⇒ x2 − 1 ≥ 0
∴ Range ∈ [0, ∞)
(iii) ∵x ≥0
2

∴ x2 + 4 ≥ 4 ⇒ x2 + 4 ≥ 2
x2 + 4 + 2 ≥ 4
∴ Range ∈ [4, ∞)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 26.
MODULUS FUNCTION
It is also known as absolute value function and absolute value of a
real number x is denoted by |x|.
Definition:
 x ; x ≥ 0
x =
−x ; x < 0
Domain: x ∈ R, Range: |x| ∈ [0, ∞)
 f (x) ; f (x) ≥ 0

If f ( x ) = 
 −f ( x ) ; f ( x ) < 0

Note: Values of x for which f(x) = 0 are critical points for |f(x)|
Graph: y
Let y = |x|

Note: Graph of y = |x| is symmetric about x = 0

45° 45°
x
(0,0)
Ex. |2| = 2, |5| = 5, 3 = 3

|–3| = –(–3) = 3, |–4| = – (–4) = 4, … etc

Q.1 Define the following functions:

(i) |2x – 1| (ii) |x2 – 5x – 24|
 2x − 1 ; 2x − 1 0
Sol. (i) 2x − 1 = 
− ( 2x − 1) ; 2x − 1 < 0
 1
2x − 1 ; x
2

Fundamental of Mathematics
=
1 − 2x ; x < 1
 2
(ii) x – 5x – 24 = (x – 8) (x + 3)
2

+ – +

–3 8

 2
 x − 5x − 24 ; x ∈ ( −, −3 ∪ 8, )
2
x − 5x − 24 =
 2
(
− x − 5x − 24 ) ; x ∈ ( −3, 8)

Q.2 Define the following:

(i) |x – 2| + |x – 5|
(ii) |x + 1| – |2x – 1| + |x – 5|
Sol. (i) Critical point for |x – 2| is x = 2
Critical point for |x – 5| is x = 5

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 27.
  ( x − 2) + ( x − 5) ; x5

x – 2 + x – 5 =  ( x − 2) − ( x − 5) ; 2 x < 5

− ( x − 2 ) − ( x − 5 ) ; x<2

2x − 7 ; x 5

=  3 ; 2 x<5
7 − 2x ; x < 2

(ii) Critical point ⇒ –1, ½, 5

 ( x + 1) − ( 2x − 1) + ( x − 5 ) ; x≥5

 x + 1 − 2x − 1 − x − 5 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ;
2
≤x<5
x + 1 – 2x – 1 + x – 5 =

 ( x + 1) + ( 2x − 1) − ( x − 5 ) 1
; −1 ≤ x <
 2
 ( ) ( ) ( )
− x + 1 + 2x − 1 − x − 5 ; x < −1

 −3 ; x≥5

7 − 2x 1
; ≤x<5
 2
=
2 x + 5 1
; −1 ≤ x <
 2
 3 ; x < −1


Q.3 Draw graph of

(i) f(x) = |x – 3|
(ii) f(x) = |x + 1| + |x – 5|
(iii) f(x) = |x –1| + |x – 3| + |x –7|
Sol. (i) Critical point x = 3

Fundamental of Mathematics
f(3) = 0, f(4) = |4 – 3| = 1, f(2) = 2 |2 – 3| = 1

f(x)

(2,1)
(4,1)

x
(0,0) (3,0)

(ii) Critical points x = – 1, 5

f(–1) = 0 + 6 = 6, f(5) = 6 + 0 = 6
f(6) = 7 + 1 = 8, f(2) = 1 + 7 = 8

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 28.
 f(x)

(–2,8) (6,8)

(–1,6) (5,6)

x
(–1,0) (0,0) (5,0)

(iii) Critical points x = 1, 3, 7

f(1) = 8, f(3) = 6, f(7) = 10
f(0) = 11, f(8) = 13
f(x)
(8,13)

(0,11)
(1,8) (7,10)

(3,6)

x
(0,0) (1,0)) (3,0) (7,0)

Q.4 Find λ if the equation |x + 1| – |x| + |2x – 1| = λ have

(i) No solution (ii) Exactly one solution
(iii) Exactly two solutions (iv) More than two solution
Sol. To solve this problem, we will use graphical approach for y = |x + 1|

Fundamental of Mathematics
– |x| + |2x – 1| and y = λ
y

(–2,4)

y=λ

(1,2)
(–1,2) (0,2)

(½,1)

x
(0,0)

For (i) λ < 1 (ii) λ = 1 (iii) λ ∈ (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) (iv) λ = 2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 29.
Properties of modulus function:
1. |a| = |–a| 2. |a – b| = |b – a| a
a
3. =
b b
4. |ab| = |a| · |b| 5. |a2| = |a|2 = a2
6. a2 = a

7. |f(x)| = f(x) ⇒ f(x) ≥ 0 8. |f(x)| = –f(x) ⇒f(x) ≤ 0 9. |a| = |b| ⇒ a = ±b

10. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| 11. |a + b| ≥ ǀ|a| – |b|ǀ 12. |x – a| < b

Equality holds when Equality holds when ⇒(x–a< b) ∩ (x – a > – b)
ab ≥ 0 ab ≤ 0

13. |x – a| > b 14. |a| represents 15. |a – b| represents

⇒(x–a>b) ∪ (x – a < – b) distance between distance between a
0 and a on number and b on number
line. line.

Q.1 Solve the equations:

(i) |x – 2| = 5
(ii) ||x – 1| – 2| = 3
(iii) (x – 4)2 + |x – 3| + 2 = 0
(iv) |x|2 – 3|x| – 10 = 0
(v) |x2 + 3x – 4| = |x2 – 1|
(vi) |x2 – 5x + 6| = 5x – x2 – 6
Sol. (i) x–2=5 or x–2=–5
x=7 or x=–3
(ii) |x – 1| – 2 = 3 or |x – 1| – 2 = – 3
|x – 1| = 5 or |x – 1| = – 1
x – 1 = 5, –5 or Not possible
x = 6, –4

Fundamental of Mathematics
(iii) (x – 4)2 ≥ 0, |x – 3| ≥ 0
∵ LHS ≥ 2
∴ No solution
(iv) |x|2 – 3|x| – 10 = 0
Let |x| = t
t2 – 3t – 10 = 0 ⇒ (t – 5) (t + 2) = 0
⇒ t = 5, t = – 2
⇒ |x|= 5, |x| = –2 (Not possible)
⇒ x = 5, –5
(v) x2 + 3x – 4 = x2 – 1, x2 + 3x – 4 = –(x2 – 1)
3x = 3, 2x2 + 3x – 5 = 0
x = 1, (2x + 5) (x – 1) = 0
x = –5/2, 1
(vi) |x2 – 5x + 6| = –(x2 – 5x + 6)
⇒ x2 – 5x + 6 ≤ 0
(x – 2) (x – 3) ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ [2, 3]

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 30.
Q.2 Solve the equations:
(i) |x| + |2x – 3| = 4
(ii) |2x + 1| + 3x = 11
Sol. (i) Case-I x ≥ 3/2
7
x + 2x – 3 = 4 ⇒ x =
3

Case-II 0 ≤ x < 3/2

x – (2x – 3) = 4 ⇒ x = –1
Case-III x<0
1
– x – (2x – 3) = 4 ⇒ x = −
3
1 7
∴ x= − ,
3 3
(ii) |2x + 1| = 11 – 3x … (1)
2x + 1 = 11 – 3x, 2x + 1 = 3x – 11
x=2 x = 12
(Not satisfying equation (1))
∴x=2

Q.3 Solve the equation:

(i) |x – 1| + |x + 1| = |2x|
(ii) ||2x – 3| – |x2 – 4x + 3|| = |x2 – 2x|
Sol. (i) |x – 1| + |x + 1| = |(x – 1) + (x + 1)|
∵ |a| + |b| = |a + b| ⇒ ab ≥ 0
∴ (x – 1) (x + 1) ≥ 0
x ∈ (–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞)
(ii) ||2x – 3| – |x2 – 4x + 3|| = |(x2 – 4x + 3) + (2x – 3)|
∵ ||a| – |b|| = |a + b| ⇒ ab ≤ 0
∴ (2x – 3) (x2 – 4x + 3) ≤ 0

Fundamental of Mathematics
(2x – 3) (x – 1) (x – 3) ≤ 0
– + – +

1 3/2 3

x ∈ (–∞, 1] ∪ [3/2, 3]

Q.4 Solve the inequalities:

(i) |x| < 3
(ii) |x – 2| > 5
(iii) |x + 5| < 0
(iv) |2x + 1| ≤ 7
Sol. (i) –3<x<3
⇒ x ∈ (–3, 3)
(ii) x – 2 < – 5 ∪ (x – 2) > 5
x < – 3∪ x > 7
⇒ x ∈ (–∞, –3) ∪ (7, ∞)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 31.
 (iii) |x + 5| cannot be negative
⇒x∈ϕ
(iv) –7 ≤ 2x + 1 ≤ 7
–8 ≤ 2x ≤ 6
x ∈ [–4, 3]

Greatest Integer Function (GIF)

Definition:
It represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x and denoted by
[x].
Example :
[2] = 2 [5] = 5 [0] = 0 [2.1] = 2
[2.99] = 2 [–1] = –1 [–1.9] = – 2 [–1.1] = – 2
 
2 ; 2≤x<3
 1 ; 1≤ x <2

x  =  0 ; 0≤x<1

 −1 ; −1 ≤ x < 0
−2 ; −2 ≤ x < −1
 

Q.1 Evaluate the value of ([·] represents GIF)

(i) [π] + [e]
(ii) [–e2] + [sin91°]
1 1  1 2  1 3   1 90 
(iii)  + + + + +  ++  + 
 3 90   3 90   3 90   30 90 
Sol. (i) ∵ π≈ 3.14, e ≈ 2.71

Fundamental of Mathematics
[π] + [e] = 3 + 2 = 5

(ii) –e2 ≃ –7.3, 0 < sin91° < 1

[–e2] + [sin91°] = – 8 + 0 = – 8
1 r 
(iii) Let f (=
r)  + 
 3 90 
∵ f(1) = f(2) = … = f(59) = 0
f(60) = f(61) = … = f(90) = 1
∴ Ans 0 + 0 + … + 0+ 1 + 1 + … + 1
59 terms 31 terms

= 31
Graph:
Let y = [x] → GIF
Domain: x ∈ R
Range: [x] ∈ I

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 32.
 y

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4

–1

–2

–3

Properties: ([·] → GIF)

1. [x + m] = [x] + m (m ∈ I)
 0 ; x ∈ I
2. x  + –x  =
−1 ; x ∉ I
Q.1 Solve the equations: ([·] → GIF)
(i) [x] = 2
(ii) [x + 1] = 0
(iii) [x] + [–x] = –x2
Sol. (i) [x] = 2
⇒ x ∈ [2, 3)

Fundamental of Mathematics
(ii) [x + 1] = 0
⇒ [x] + 1 = 0 ⇒ [x] = –1
⇒ x ∈ [–1, 0)

(iii) Case-I If x ∉ I then

0 = –x2 ⇒ x=0
Case-II If x ∈ I then
–1 = –x2 ⇒ x2 = 1
⇒ x = ±1 (Not possible)
∵x∉ I
Hence x = 0 only

Fractional Part Function (FPF)

Definition:
Fractional part of x denoted by {x} and it can be evaluated as
{x} = x – [x] (where [·] → GIF)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 33.
 Ex. {2} = 2 – [2] = 2 – 2 = 0
{1.7} = (1.7) – [1.7] = (1.7) – 1 = 0.7
{–1.7} = (–1.7) – [1.7] = (–1.7) – (–2) = 0.3
 
x − 2 ; x ∈ 2, 3 )

x − 1 ; x ∈  1, 2 )
{x} =x − x  = x
  ; x ∈ 0, 1)

x + 1 ; x ∈  −1, 0 )

x+2 ; x ∈  −2, −1)
 
Graph:
Let y = {x}
y

x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Domain: x ∈ R Range: {x} ∈ [0, 1)

Properties: ({·} → FPF, [·] → GIF)

1. {x + n} = {x}, n∈I
0 ; x ∈ I
2. {x} + {−x} =
 1 ; x ∉ I
3. {[x]} = [{x}] = 0

Fundamental of Mathematics
4. Any real number x = [x] + {x}
or x=I+f (I = [x], f = {x})

Q.1 Evaluate the value of ([·] → GIF, {·} → FPF)

(i) {π}
  1  1  1  1  
(ii)   1 +  + 2 +  + 3 +  +  +  100 + 
  2  3  4  101  
Sol. (i) π – [π] ⇒ π – 3
(ii) {Integer} = 0

Q.2 Solve the equation ([·] → GIF, {·} → FPF)

(i) {x} = ½
(ii) {x + 2} = 0
(iii) [x] + [–x] = {x} + {–x}
Sol. (i) x = [x] + {x} = ½, 1 + ½, 2 + ½, …
x=I+½

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 34.
 (ii) {x} = 0
⇒x∈I
(iii) Case-I if x ∈ I
0 = 0 true, hence x ∈ I
Case-II if x ∉ I
–1 = 1 false ⇒ x ∈ ϕ
hence, x ∈ I is the solution.

Identity Function
Definition:
It is a function which is defined by f(x) = x ∀ x ∈ R
It is also known as identity relation or identity map or identity
transformation.
Graph:
Let f(x) = x
f(x)

π/4
x
(0,0)

Domain: x ∈ R
Range: f(x) ∈ R

SIMILAR TRIANGELS
Two triangles ABC and DEF are similar if they follow the following
similarities.

Fundamental of Mathematics
A D

E F
B C

1. A-A-A :If ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F

then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
AB BC AC
2. S-S-S: If = = then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
DE DF DF
AB AC
3. S-A-S: If = and ∠A = ∠D then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
DE DF

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 35.
Theorems related to Triangles:
Theorem-1# (Basic Proportionality theorem)
In a triangle line drawn parallel to one side divides the other two
sides in the same ratio.
AD AC
If DE || BC then =
DB EC
A

D E

B C

Theorem-2# (Angle bisector theorem)

The bisector of vertical angle of triangle divides the base in the ratio
of other two sides.
If ∠BAD = ∠CAD
BD AB
then =
DC AC
A

B D C

Theorem-3#

Fundamental of Mathematics
If AC = BC
then ∠B = ∠A
Also, if ∠B = ∠A then AC = BC
A

B C
Theorem-4#
If a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior angle so formed is
equal to sum of the other two interior angles.
∠3 = ∠1 + ∠2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 36.
 A

3
2
B
C D

Theorem-5# (Mid-point theorem)

If the mid points of two sides of triangle are joined by a line
segment, then this segment is parallel to the third side and is equal
to half of it.
If AD = BD and AE = CE then DE || BC and DE = ½BC
A

D E

B C

Some useful results:

1. If in ∆ABC interior angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meets at point O
then
∠BOC = 90° + ½(∠A)
A

Fundamental of Mathematics
90°
1
+ (∠A)
B 2 C

2. If in ∆ABC exterior angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meets at point O

then
∠BOC = 90° – ½(∠A)
A

B C

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 37.
3. In ∆ABC if AD is median then
AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)
(Apollonius’s theorem)
A

B C
D

4. In ∆ABC if BC is produced to D and bisector of ∠ABC and ∠ACD

meets of E then
∠BEC = ½(∠BAC)
A E

B D
C
5. In an acute ∆ABC if AD ⊥ BC then
(B, D, C are collinear)
A

B C
D

Fundamental of Mathematics
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 – 2BD. BC (∠B < 90°)
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2BD. BC (∠B > 90°)
A

C
D B

6. In ∆ABC if ∠B = 90° D is point on AC such that BD ⊥ AC then

A

B C

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 38.
 AB.BC AB2
(i) BD= (ii) AD=
AC AC
BC2 1 1 1
(iii) CD= (iv) = +
AC BD 2
AB 2
BC2

7. In ∆ABC if ∠B = 90° and M is mid point of AC then

1
BM = ( AC )
2
A

B C

8. In ∆ABC
(i) If ∠B > ∠C then b > c
(ii) ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°
(iii) a + b > c
(iv) |a – b| < c

Quadrilaterals:
1. Parallelogram:
D C
d2
b
d1 ϕ

Fundamental of Mathematics
θ
A E a B

(i) Opposite side are parallel and equal.

(ii) Adjacent angles are supplementary.
(iii) Diagonals bisects each other.
1
(iv)
= Area ab= sinθ d d sinφ
2 1 2
2. Rhombus:
D C
d2

d1

A B

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 39.
 (i) All sides are equal.
(ii) Diagonals bisect at 90°.
(iii) Diagonals bisect angles.
1
(iv) Area = d1d2
2
3. Rectangle:

D C

d d

A
a B

(i) All internal angles are 90°.

(ii) Diagonals are equal.
(iii) a2 + b2 = d2
(iv) It is a cyclic quadrilateral.

4. Square:
D C

A B

(i) All sides are equal.

Fundamental of Mathematics
(ii) Diagonals are equal and bisect each other at 90°.
(iii) Diagonals are angle bisectors.

5. Trapezium:
D b
C

A E a B

(i) One pair of opposite sides is parallel.

1
(ii) Area
=
2
(a + b) h

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 40.
6. Kite:
C

d2

D B

d1

A
(i) One diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent
triangles.
(ii) Diagonals are ⊥.
1
(iii) Area = d1 ·d2
2
7. Cyclic Quadrilateral:
D C

A
B

(i) Vertices lie on circle.

(ii) ∠A + ∠C = ∠B + ∠D = 180°
(iii) AE·EC = BE·DE

Fundamental of Mathematics
(iv) AB·CD + BC·AD = AC·BD (PTolemy’s theorem)
8. PA·PB = PC·PD = PT2
D
C
P A
B

T
Circle:
(i) Equal chords subtend equal angles at centre and vice-versa.
(ii) Equal chords are equidistant from center and vice-versa.
(iii) Angle subtended by an arc at the center is double the angle
subtended at any point on the remaining part of the circle.
(iv) Angles subtended by any chord on the same side on the circle are
equal.
(v) The bigger chord will be closer to center.
(vi) A chord divides the circle into two segments.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 41.
Distance formula:
If A ( x 1 , y 1 ) and B ( x2 , y 2 ) are two points in co-ordinate geometry,
then distance between A and B

( x 1 − x2 ) + ( y 1 − y 2 )
2 2
AB =

Note: Sum of all interior angles of n-sided polygon is equal to (n – 2)π.

Q.1 In given figure AB || QR then find PB
P

A B
3 cm

Q R
9 cm

Sol. ∵ AB || QR
∴ ∆PAB ~ ∆PQR
AB PB 3×6
= ⇒ PB = cm = 2cm
QR PR 9
1 1 1
Q.2 In the given figure, PA, QB, RC are ⊥r to AC then prove that + =
x z y
P

R
x Q
z
y

Fundamental of Mathematics
A B C
Sol. ∆PAC ~ ∆QBC
PA QB x y y
= ⇒ = ⇒ BC = AC …(i)
AC BC AC BC A
∆RCA ~ ∆QBA
RC QB z y y
= ⇒ = ⇒ AB = AC …(ii)
AC AB AC AB z
y y
(i) + (ii) BC + AB =  +  AC
x 2
1 1 1
⇒ = + Hence proved.
y x z
Q.3 If side of a rhombus is 10 cm and one of the diagonals is 16 cm, then
find the length of other diagonal.
Sol. Let AB = 10 cm and AC = 16 cm ⇒ OA = 8 cm
In ∆AOB
∠AOB = 90°

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 42.
 D C
8

8 O

A 10 B

∴ OA2 + OB2 = AB2

82 + OB2 = 102
⇒ OB = 6 cm ⇒ BD = 12 cm (other diagonal)
Q.4 ABCD is a square F is midpoint of AB. BE is one third of BC. If area
of ∆FBE = 108 cm2, then find the length of AC.
Sol. Let side of square AB = x cm
x
Now FB = cm
2
x
BE = cm
3
ar(∆FBE) = 108 cm2
1
BE·FB = 108 cm2
2
1xx
· = 108 ⇒ x= 36
232
A D

Fundamental of Mathematics
B C
E

Now AC = AB2 + BC2 = x2 + x2 = 2x

AC = 36 2 cm
Q.5 Two concentric circles are of radii 5 cm and 3 cm. Find the length
of the chord of the larger circle which touches the smaller circle.
Sol. From the figure we know that

C B A

OA = 5 cm
OB = 3 cm

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 43.
Now, in ∆ OAB
∠OBA = 90°
OB2 + BA2 = OA2
32 + BA2 = 52 ⇒ BA = 4 cm
Length of chord = AC = 2AB = 8 cm

Fundamental of Mathematics

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 44.
 Logarithm
Meaning of Logarithm:
Logarithm is a rule which is used to solve complex algebraic expression.

Exponential Form:
Every positive real number can be expressed as N = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1, N > 0
a → base, x → exponent.

Illustrations:
Ex. Express 16 using exponential form with base 2, base 4 and base 16.
Sol. (i) N = 16, a1 = 2, Suppose x1 = power
x1 4
2 = 16 ⇒ 2 = 16
(ii) a2 = 4, power = x2
4x2 = 16 ⇒ 42 = 16
(iii) a3 = 16, power = x3
16x3 = 16 ⇒ 161 = 16
Ex. Express 81 using exponential form with base 3, base 9, and base 81.
Sol. (i) N = 81, a1 = 3, x1 = Power
3x1 = 81 ⇒ 34 = 81
(ii) a2 = 9, x2 = Power
9x2 = 81 ⇒ 92 = 81
(iii) a3 = 81, x3 = Power
81x3 = 81 ⇒ 811 = 81

Ex. Express 16 using exponential form with base ‘3’.

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol. It means, 3x = 16
We know that, 32 = 9 and 33 = 27
⇒ 2 < x < 3 ⇒ x ∈ (2, 3)

Note: (i) What if a =1.

Express 16 in exponential form with base a = 1
1x = 16 ⇒ there does not exist any ‘x’.
For which 1x = 16
So we can not take base a = 1.

(ii) What if a is negative.

Then for even root it will not be defined.
Hence for negative base it is not uniquely defined that with powers
it will give real number or not.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 45.
Logarithmic form:
Logarithm of a number to some base is the exponent by which the
base must be raised in order to get that number.

logaN = x ⟺ ax = N, N > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1

a → base, x → exponent, N → number

Illustrations:
Ex. Find values of following:
(i) log101000
Sol. Suppose log101000 = x ⟺ 10x = 1000
⇒ 10x = 103 (by comparing)
⇒x = 3
(ii) log232
Sol. Suppose log232 = y ⟺ 2y = 32
⇒ 2y = 25 (by comparing)
⇒y=5
(iii) log5625
Sol. Suppose log5625 = x ⟺ 5x = 625
⇒ 5x = 54 (by comparing)
⇒x=4
(iv) log√2 64
y
Sol. Suppose log√2 64 = y ⟺ �√2� = 64
y
⇒ 2 2 = 26
y
⇒ = 6 (by comparing)
2

Fundamental of Mathematics
⇒ y = 12
(v) log2√3 1728
x
Sol. Suppose log2√3 1728 = x ⟺ �2√3� = 1728 = 123
x 2 3
⇒ �2√3� = ��2√3� �
x 6
⇒ �2√3� ⇒ �2√3� (by comparing)
⇒x=6
(vi) log1632
Sol. Suppose log1632 = y ⟺ 16y = 32
⇒ (24)y = 25
⇒ 24y = 25
⇒ 4y = 5 (by comparing)
𝟓𝟓
⇒y=
𝟒𝟒
(vii) log 3√7 2401
x
Sol. Suppose log 3√7 2401 = x ⟺ � √7� = 2401
3

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 46.
 x
⇒ 73 = 74
x
⇒ = 4 (by comparing)
3
⇒ x = 12
(viii) log3 (log3 (27) 3)

Sol. First we will find the value of ; log3(27)3 = y

⇒ log3(33)3 = y
⇒ log339 = y
⇒y=9
Then it reduces to log39 and we know that log39 = 2
Hence, log3(log3(27)3) = 2

Ex. Find ‘x’ for which log(x – 1) (2x + 1) is defined.

–1
(A) x ϵ (1, ∞) (B) x ϵ � , ∞� – {2}
2
–1
(C) x ϵ (1, ∞) – {2} (D) x ϵ � , 1�
2
Sol. We will check when log(x – 1)(2x + 1) is defined.
x – 1 > 0 and (x – 1) ≠ 1 and (2x + 1) > 0
–1
⇒ x > 1 and x ≠ 2 and x >
2
–1
⇒ x ϵ (1, ∞) and x ≠ 2 and x ϵ � , ∞�
2
Intersection gives x 𝜖𝜖 (1, ∞) and x ≠ 2 ⇒ x 𝜖𝜖 (1, ∞) – {2}
It can also be written as
x 𝛜𝛜 (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
Hence ‘C’ is right option

Ex. Find complete set of real values of 'x' for which log(2x–3)(x2–5x–6) is
defined.

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol. 2x – 3 > 0 and (2x – 3) ≠ 1 and (x2 – 5x – 6) > 0
3 5
⇒x> and x ≠ and (x – 6) (x + 1) > 0
2 2
3 5
⇒ x > 2 and x ≠ 2 and x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (6, ∞)
3 5
⇒ x ∈ �2 , ∞� and x ≠ 2 and x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (6, ∞)
Intersection gives, 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (𝟔𝟔, ∞)

Ex. Let a = log1/216

b = log3(tan30°)
c = log2−√3 �2 + √3�
d = log2(log24)
then a + b + c + d is
7 9
(A) − (B) −
2 2
5
(C) − (D) –4
2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 47.
Sol. a = log1/216
1 a
⇒ � � = 16
2
⇒ 2–a = 24
⇒a=–4
b = log3(tan30°)
1
1
⇒ 3b = tan30° = = 3 −2
√3
1
⇒b= −
2

c = log2−√3 �2 + √3�
(2+√3)(2−√3)
⇒ (2 − √3)c =
(2−√3)

⇒ (2 − √3) = (4 − 3)(2 − √3)−1

c

c = –1
d = log2(log24)
we know that log24 = 2
so, d= log22 ⇒ d = 1
1 𝟗𝟗
then a + b + c + d = −4 − − 1 + 1 = −
2 𝟐𝟐
Hence 'B' is the right answer.

Important Deduction:

(i) logNN = 1
(ii) logN1 = 2
(iii) log1/N N = –1

(i) Proof : Suppose logNN = x ⇔ N x = N1 ⇒ x = 1

Fundamental of Mathematics
(ii) Proof : Suppose logN1 = y ⇔ N y = 1 = N 0 ⇒ y = 0
(iii) Proof : Suppose log 1 N = Z ⇔ �N1 �z = N ⇒ N −z = N1 ⇒ z = 1
N

Ex. Find values of following

(i) logsin30°cos60°
Sol. First simplify this, we get log1 �12�
2

so log1 �12� = 𝟏𝟏
2

(ii) log4/3 1. 3�
Sol. Let N = 1. 3� = 1.3333….
N = 1.3333…
10 N = 13.33333.......
– –
– 9N = –12

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 48.
 – 12 4
N = =
–9 3
We get log �43� = 𝟏𝟏
4
3

(iii) log5 �5�5√5 . . .

Sol. N = �5 �5√5
�� . .
���.��
N

N = √5 N
N2 = 5N
⇒ N2 –5N = 0
⇒ N(N–5) = 0
⇒ N = 0 or N = 5 but N = 0 is not possible
We get, log55 = 1

(iv) log2(sin2x + cos2x)

Sol. We know that sin2x + cos2 x = 1 ∵logN1 = 0
So we get, log21 = 0

(v) log(tan1°).log(tan2°).log(tan3°)…log(tan89°)
Sol. log(tan1°). log(tan2°)… log(tan45°)…log(tan89°)
= log(tan1°). log(tan2°)… log1…log(tan89°)
=0

(vi) log(tan1°.tan2°.tan3°... tan89°)

Sol. We get,

Fundamental of Mathematics
log(tan1°·tan2°·tan3°...tan43°·tan44°·tan45°·tan46°...tan89°)
= log(tan1°·tan2°... tan44°·tan45°·tan(99°–44°)...tan(90–1)°)
= log(tan1°·tan2°... tan44°·1·cot44°·cot43°...cot1°)
= log(tan1°·cot1°·tan2°cot2°...tan44°cot44°)
= log1 = 0

(vii) log2(log3(log3(27)3))
Sol. Let's assume
log3(27)3 = y
⇒ log3(33)3 = y
⇒ log339 = y
⇒y=9
Then it reduces to log2 (log
�����3 9) ⇒ log 2 2 = 𝟏𝟏
2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 49.
 (log100 10)(log2 (log4 2))log4 (log22 (256)2 )
(viii)
log4 8+log8 4

Sol. Let a = log10010

⇒ 100a = 10
⇒ (10)2a = 101
⇒ 2a = 1
1
⇒a=
2
Let x = log22 (256)2 ⇒ x = [log2(28 )2 ]2 ⇒ x = (log2 216 )2
⇒ x = 162 = 256

c = log4 (log22 (256)2 ) d = log48 e = log84

So, we get c = log4256 ⇒4 =8 d
⇒ 8e = 4
⇒ 4c = 4 4 ⇒ (22)d = 23 ⇒ (23)e = 22
⇒c=4 ⇒ 22d = 23 ⇒ 3e = 2
⇒ 2d = 3 ⇒e=
2
3
3
⇒d= 2

1
abc ( )(−1)(4) (−2)·6 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Then given expansion reduces to = 2
3 2 = =−
d+e + (9+4) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
2 3

Ex. If log2(log2(log3x)) = 0 = log2(log3(log2y)) then find x + y.

Sol. log2(log2(log3x) = 0 ⇔ log2(log3x) = 20 = 1 (Change it into exponential
form)
⇔ log3x = 21 = 2
⇔ x = 32 = 9

Fundamental of Mathematics
x=9
Similarly, log2(log3(log2y) = 0 ⇔ log3(log2y) = 20 = 1 (Change it into
exponential form)
⇔ log2y = 31 = 3
⇔ y = 23 = 8
Then x + y = 9 + 8 = 17

Fundamental Identify:
aloga N = N
Proof: Let logaN = x then it changes into
ax = N ⇔ logaN = x
So, we get alogaN = N

Ex. Find the value of following: 3log310

Sol. Using Identify, alogaN = N
We get 3log310 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 50.
Properties of logarithm:
* If m, n are positive real numbers, a > 0, a ≠ 1 then

(i) logamn = logam + logan

Proof:
Suppose logam = x and logan =y
ax = m and ay = n
then mn = ax.ay = ax + y
again change it into logarithmic form, x + y = logamn
we get logamn = logam + logan

Ex. Solve : log102 + log105

Sol. log102 + log105
= log10(2×5) (using P(1))
= log1010
=1
Note:
General version:
Suppose a > 0, a ≠ 1, N1, N2, N3, …, Nr > 0
loga(N1.N2.N3 ... Nr)
= logaN1 + logaN2 + logaN3 + …. + logaNr

Fundamental of Mathematics
m
(ii) log a   = logam – logan
n
Proof:
Given a > 0, a ≠ 1, m > 0, n > 0
Then suppose logam = x & logan = y
⇒ a x = m & ay = n

m ax
⇒ = = ax – y
n ay
Change it into logarithmic form,

m
x – y = log a  
n

m
⇒ logam – logan = log a  
n

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 51.
Ex. Solve log210 – log25
10
Sol. log210 – log25 = log 2 (using P(2))
5
= log22
=1

(iii) logamn = n logam

Proof:
Let’s say logam = α ⇔ aα = m
then mn = (aα)n = anα
Change it into logarithmic form, then
nα = logamn
nlogam = logamn

Ex. Solve log232

Sol. log232 = log225
= 5log22
=5

Ex. Find values of following :

(i) log3855 + log3857 + log38511
Sol. Using property logam + logan + logap = logamnp

Fundamental of Mathematics
We get log3855.7.11
= log385385
=1
(ii) log4(log2(log5625)))
Sol. log4(log2(log554))
= log4(log2(4log55))
= log4(log2(22 × 1))
= log4(2log22)
= log42
= 1/2

log 11 1331
(iii) log 11 (11)
log 11 1331
Sol. log 11 (11)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 52.
 log 11 113
= log 11 11
3log 11 11
= log 11 11 [Using logamn = nlogam]

= log11113
= 3log1111
=3

(iv) log210 – log25 + log28

Sol. log210 – log25 + log28
10
= log 2 + log 2 8 [Using P(1)]
5
= log22 + log223
= 1 + 3log22
=1+3
=4

(v) log2[log4(log10164 + log10258)]

Sol. log2[log4(log10164 + log10258)]
= log2[log4(log10164.258)]
= log2[log4(log1024×4.52×8)]
= log2[log4(log10(10)16)]
= log2[log4(16log1010)]
= log2[log442]

Fundamental of Mathematics
= log22(log44)
= log22 = 1
1023
 1
Ex. ∑ log 2  1 +  is equal to :
n
n= 1 
(A) 8 (B) 9
(C) 10 (D) 12
1023
n + 1
Sol. ∑ log  
 n 
2
n= 1

2 3 4  1024 

= log 2   + log 2   + log 3   + ... + log 2  
 1 2 3  1023 

 2 3 4 1024 
= log 2  . . ... 
 1 2 3 1023 
= log21024

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 53.
 = log2210
= 10log22 = 10

 16   25   81 
Ex. Find the value of log 10 2 + 16 log 10   + 12 log 10   + 7 log 10  .
 15   24   80 
Sol. log102 + 16log1016 – log1015 + 12log1025 – 12log1024 + 7log1081 – 7log1080
= log102 + 16log1024 – log10(3×5) + 12log1052
– 12log10(23.3) + 7log1034 – 7log10(24.5
= log102 + 64log102 – log103 – log35 + 24log105 – 36log102
– 12log103 + 28log103 – 28log102 – 7log105
= (1 + 64 – 36 – 28) log102 + (–16 – 12 + 28) log103
+ (–16 – 24 – 7) log105
= log102 + log105
= log1010 = 1

Base Changing theorem:

log c a
logba = , a > 0, b > 0, c > 0, a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, c ≠ 1
log c b

Proof:
Suppose logba = x ⇔ a = bx
logca = logcbx (By taking logarithm)

logca = xlogcb
log c a
= x = logba

Fundamental of Mathematics
log c b
log c a
⇒ logb a =
log c b
Note:

1
log a b =
logb a
Proof:
log c b 1
= (By using base Changing Theorem)
log c a log c a
log c b

log c b log c b
= (Both are equal to each other)
log c a log c a

Hence proved.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 54.
Ex. Prove the following: logba . logcb . logdc = logda
log a log b log c log a
Sol. logba . logcb . logdc = . . =
log b log c log d log d
= logda (Using Base-Changing Theorem)

Ex. If log23. log34 . log45...logn(n + 1) = 10. Find ‘n’.

Sol. log23. Log34 . log45...logn(n + 1) = 10

log 3 log 4 log 5 log(n + 1)

. . . ... . = 10
log 2 log 3 log 4 log n

log(n + 1)
⇒ = 10 (Using Base-Changing Theorem)
log 2

⇒ log2(n + 1) = 10
⇒ 210 = n + 1
⇒ n = 1024 –1 ⇒ n = 1023

Property of logarithm:
alogbc = c logba
Proof:
loga c
alogbc = alogab
1
= �aloga c�logab (Using Base-Changing theorem)
1
=(c) loga b = c logba

Fundamental of Mathematics
Hence alogbc = c logba

Property of logarithm:

n
logak (mn ) = loga m wherever defined
k

Proof:
logc mn nlogc m n
L.H.S.= = = loga m= R.H.S. (Using Base-changing theorem)
logc ak klogc a k

Hence proved.

Ex. The value of 7log35 + 3log57 − 5log37 − 7log53 is equal to

(A) 3 (B) 5
(C) 7 (D) 0

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 55.
Sol. 7log35 + 7log53 − 7log35 − 7log5 3 = 𝟎𝟎 (Using property 𝐚𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐜𝐜 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐛𝐛 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐜𝐜 𝐚𝐚)

Ex. Let x1 = log1632, x2 = log625125, x3 = log816, 𝑥𝑥4 = log√2 8

Find ∑4i=1 xi.
5 5
Sol. x1 = log24 25 = log2 2 =
4 4
3 3
x2 = log54 53 = log5 5 =
4 4
4 4
x3 = log23 24 = log2 2 =
3 3
3
x4 = log21⁄2 2 = 6log2 2 = 6
5 3 4 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
then ∑4i=1 xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = + + + 6 =
4 4 3 𝟑𝟑

−1
1 log3 7
Ex. Let A = � � , B = 2log1⁄27, C = 8log32, D = 4−log2 6
9
1 1 1 1
Find + − − .
A B C D
−2 1
Sol. A = (3−2 )log37 = 3log3(7) =
49
log�2−1 � 7 −1 1
B=2 = 2log27 =
7

−3 1
C = 23(−log2 3) = 2log23 =
27
−2 1
D = 2−2log26 = 2log26 =
36
1 1 1 1
+ − − = 49 + 7 – 27 – 36 = –7
A B C D

2
Ex. If plog37) = 81, then find value of p(log37) .
Sol. plog37.log37 = (plog37 )log3 7 = (81)log3 7

Fundamental of Mathematics
4
= 34log3 7 = 3log37 = 74 = 2401

Ex. If a, b, c are real positive numbers such that alog3 7 = 27, b log7 11 =
2 2 2
49, c log11 25 = √11, then find the value of a(log37) + b (log711) + c (log11 25) .
(A) 343 (B) 121
(C) 469 (D) 569
Sol. alog37.log3 7 + b log711.log711 + c log1125.log11 25
= (alog37 )log3 7 + (b log711 )log7 11 + (c log1125 )log1125
= (27)log3 7 + (49)log7 11 + (√11)log1125
= 33log3 7 + 72log711 + 11½log11 25
3 2 1⁄2
= 3log3 7 + 7log711 + 11log11(25)
= 73 + 112 + 5
= 343 + 121 + 5 = 469

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 56.
Ex. If logax = b for permissible values of a and x then identify the
statement(s) which can be correct?
(a) If a and b are two irrational numbers then x can be rational.
(b) If a rational and b irrational then x can be rational.
(c) If a irrational and b rational then x can be rational.
(d) If a rational and b rational then x can be rational.
Sol. Change this into exponential form
(a) x = ab
Suppose a = √2, b = log√2 3
First we will prove that log23 is not rational
Suppose log23 is rational, then log23 = p/q ⇒ 3 = 2p/q
⇒ 3q = 2p
It is not possible for any value of p, q except p = 0 and q = 0
So, log23 is irrational.
1
Hence log2 3 is irrational
2

So, we can say log√2 3 will be irrational

Then (√2)log√23 = 3 is rational.

(b) a = 2, b = log23
Then 2log23 = 3 is rational.
(c) a = √3, b = 2
(√3)2 = 3 is rational.
(d) a = 2, b = 3

Fundamental of Mathematics
Then (2)3 = 8 is rational.
Hence, (a), (b), (c), (d) are rational.

1 2 3 log3 12 log3 4
Ex. B= + − ,C= −
log3 2 log9 4 log27 8 log36 3 log108 3

Find B + C.
(A) 3 (B) 2
(C) 4 (D) 1
Sol. B = log23 + 2log49 – 3log827
= log2 3 + 2log22 32 − 3log23 33
= log23 + 2log23 – 3log23 = 0
log3 12 log3 4
C= −
log36 3 log108 3
C = log312 log336 – log34.log3108
C = log3(4×3).log3(4×9) – log34.log3(4×27)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 57.
 C = (log34 + log33)(log34 + log39) – log34(log34 + log327)
C = (log34 + 1)(log34 + 2) – log34.(log34 + 3)
Put log34 = t,
C = (t + 1)(t + 2) – t(t + 3) = t2 + 3t + 2 – t2 – 3t = 2
So, B + C = 0 + 2 = 2
Hence (B) is the right option.
1 1 1
Ex. A= + +
1+logb a+logb c 1+logc a+logc b 1+loga b+loga c

Where a > 0, a ≠ 1, b > 0, b ≠ 1, c > 0, c ≠ 1, abc ≠ 1, then A is :

1
(A) abc (B)
abc

(C) 1 (D) 0
1 1 1
Sol. + +
logb b+logb a+logb c logc c+logc a+logc b loga a+loga b+loga c
1 1 1
= + +
logb abc logc abc loga abc

= logabca + logabcc + logabca

= logabcabc = 1
Hence, ‘C’ is the right option.
Ex. Let a = log35, b = log1725 and c = log51000, d = log72058 then which
of the following is/are true?
(A) a > b (B) a < b
(C) c > d (D) c < d
1 2
Sol. a = log35 = and b = log1725 = log1752 = 2log175 =
log5 3 log5 17
1 1 1
Then a
= log5 3 and
b
= log5 17 = log5 √17
2

Fundamental of Mathematics
1 1
From here log5 √17 > log5 3 ⇒ >
b a

⇒a>b
c = log51000 and d = log7(2058)
 625 < 1000 < 3125

⇒ log5625 < log51000 < log53125

⇒ log554 < c < log555
⇒ 4<c<5
343 < 2058 < 2401
⇒ log7343 < log72058 < log72401
⇒ log773 < d < log774
⇒ 3<d<4
Hence c > d
(A), (C) are correct options.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 58.
Ex. Establish the trichotomy between:
(i) m = (log25)2 & n = log220
Sol. m – n = (log25)2 – (log220)
= (log25)2 – log2(5×4)
= (log25)2 – (log25 + 2log22)
= (log25)2 – log25 – 2
Let log25 = t
then, m – n = t2 – t – 2 = (t –2)(t + 1)
log25 > 2 ⇒ t > 2 hence m – n > 0 ⇒ m > n

(ii) a = logπ2 + log2π & b = 1

Sol. Suppose α = logπ2
1
Then a = α + > 2 and b = 1
α

So a > b

Ex. If log615 = α and log1218 = β, then find log2524 in terms of α, β.

log3 15 log3 (3×5) log3 3+log3 5
Sol. =α ⇒ =α⇒ =α
log3 6 log3 (2×3) log3 3+log3 2
1+log3 5
⇒ =α ... (i)
1+log3 2
log3 18 log3 (9×2) log3 9+log3 2
Also =β ⇒ =β ⇒ =β
log3 12 log3 (3×4) log3 3+log3 4
2+log3 2
=β ... (ii)
1+2log3 2
log3 24 log3 (8×3) 1+3log3 2
Now, log25 24 = = =

Fundamental of Mathematics
log3 25 log3 52 2log3 5

By equation (ii), 2 + log32 = β + 2βlog32

⇒ (log32)(1 – 2β) = β – 2
β−2
⇒ log3 2 =
1−2β
β−2
By equation (i), 1 + log35 = α(1 + log32) = α �1 + �
1−2β
1−2β+β−2 −1−β
⇒ 1 + log35 = α � � = α � 1−2β �
1−2β
−αβ−α−1+2β
⇒ log3 5 =
1−2β
β−2
1+3log3 2 1+3� �
Then log24 25 =
1−2β
= 2β−1−αβ−α
2log3 5 2� �
1−2β

𝟏𝟏−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐+𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑−𝟔𝟔 𝛃𝛃−𝟓𝟓
⇒ 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = =
𝟐𝟐(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏−𝛂𝛂𝛂𝛂−𝛂𝛂) 𝟐𝟐(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏−𝛂𝛂𝛂𝛂−𝛂𝛂)

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 59.
Ex. If log712 = a and log1224 = b then find the value of log54168 in terms
of a, b.
log2 12 log2 (4×3) 2+log2 3
Sol. Given, a = log7 12 = = = … (i)
log2 7 log2 7 log2 7
log2 24 log2 (8×3) 3+log2 3
and b = log1224 = = = … (ii)
log2 12 log2 (4×3) 2+log2 3
log2 168 log2 (7×3×8) 3+log2 7+log2 3
log54168 = = = … (iii)
log2 54 log2 (27×2) 1+3log2 3

From equation (ii), 3 + log23 = 2b + b log23

⇒ (1–b)log23 = 2b – 3
2b−3
⇒ log2 3 =
1−b

Replace this in equation (i),

2b−3
2+
1−b
a
= log2 7
2−2b+2b−3
⇒ a(1−b)
= log2 7
−1
⇒ log2 7 =
𝑎𝑎(1−𝑏𝑏)
2b−3 1
3+ −
Then from equation (iii), log54 168 = 1−b a(1−b)
2b−3
1+3� �
1−b

3a(1−b)+a(2b−3)−1
⇒ log54 168 = a[(1−b)+3(2b−3)]
3a−3ab+2ab−3a−1
⇒ log54 168 =
a[1−b+6b−9]
−𝟏𝟏−𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
⇒ 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 =
𝐚𝐚(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓−𝟖𝟖)

Ex. If log7 (log7 �7�7√7) = 1 – a log72 and

Fundamental of Mathematics
log15 (log15 �15�15�15√15) = 1 – b log152.

Find a + b.

Sol. Let x = log7 (log7 �7�7√7)

1
x = log7 � log7 7�7√7�
2

1
x = log7 �2 �log7 7 + log7 �7√7��

1 1
x = log7 �2 �1 + 2 log7 7√7��

1 1 1
x = log7 �2 �1 + 2 �log7 7 + 2 log7 7���

1 1 1
x = log7 � �1 + �1 + ���
2 2 2

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 60.
 1 1 3
x = log7 � �1 + . ��
2 2 2

1 7 7
x = log7 � � �� = log7
2 4 8
x = 1 – log78
x= 1 – 3log72

Compare it with x = 1 – a log72 then a = 3

Similarly, suppose y = log15 (log15 �15�15�15√15)

1
then y = log15 � log15 15�15�15√15�
2

1 1
y = log15 � �1 + log15 15�15√15��
2 2

1 1 1
y = log15 [2 (1 + 2 (1 + 2 log15 15√15))]

1 1 1 1
y = log15 �2 �1 + 2 �1 + 2 �1 + 2����

1 1 1 3
y = log15 � �1 + �1 + . ���
2 2 2 2
1 7 1 15
y = log15 � �1 + �� = log15 � . �
2 8 2 8

y = log1515 – log1524
y = 1 –4 log152, compare it with y = 1 – b log152
Hence b = 4 and a = 3

Fundamental of Mathematics
So a+b=4+3
a+b=7

log a log b log c

Ex. If = = , show that aa.bb.cc = 1.
b−c c−a a−b
log a log b log c
Sol. Assume, = = =k
b−c c−a a−b
then log a = k(b –c) ⇒ a log a = k (ab – ac) … (i)
log b = k(c –a) ⇒ b log b = k (bc – ab) … (ii)
log c = k(a –b) ⇒ c log c = k (ac – bc) … (iii)
(i) + (ii) + (iii)
⇒ log(aa.bb.cc) = k[ab – ac + bc – ab + ac – bc]
⇒ log(aa.bb.cc) = 0 (change it into exponential form)
⇒ a .b .c = 1
a b c

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 61.
Ex. If a, b, c are positive real numbers other than unity such that
a(b+c−a) b(c+a−b) c(a+b−c)
= = , prove that abba = bccb = caac.
log a log b log c
Sol. Assume,
a(b+c−a) b(c+a−b) c(a+b−c)
= = =k
log a log b log c
a(b+c−a)
⇒ log a = … (i)
k
b(c+a−b)
log b = … (ii)
k
c(a+b−c)
log c = … (iii)
k
ab(b+c−a) ab(c+a−b) c(a+b−c)
⇒ b log a = k
, a log b =
k
, log c =
k
ab(b+c−a)
⇒ log ab = … (iv)
k
ab(c+a−b)
log ba = … (v)
k

Add equations (iv) & (v)

ab 2abc
log (ab.ba) = [b + c – a + c + a –b] =
k k

Consider the base as ‘e’,

2abc
we get, ab ba = e k … (A)
Now multiply (ii) by c and (iii) by b, we get
bc(c+a−b)
c log b = … (vi)
k
bc(a+b−c)
and b log c = … (viii)
k

Add these two, we get

bc 2abc
log(bc . c b ) = [c +a – b + a + b – c] =
k k

Change this into exponential form, we get

Fundamental of Mathematics
2abc
bc . c b = e k … (B)
2abc
Similarly we get, c a . ac = e k … (C)
From equations (A), (B) and (C), we get
ab.ba = bc.cb = ca.ac

Logarithmic Equation
Ex. Find ‘x’ in following :
(i) x 2 + 7log7 x − 2 = 0
Sol. Using alogaN = N, we get
x2 + x – 2 = 0 and x > 0
⇒ x2 + 2x – x – 2 = 0
⇒ x(x + 2) –1(x + 2) = 0
⇒ (x + 2)(x–1) = 0
⇒ either x = 1 or x = –2
Since x > 0, so we get x = 1

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 62.
 2
(ii) 2log2(x ) − 3x − 4 = 0
Sol. Using property aloga N = N
We get x2 –3x – 4 = 0
⇒ x2– 4x + x – 4 = 0
⇒ x(x –4) + 1(x –4) = 0
⇒ (x –4)(x + 1) = 0
⇒ x = 4 and x = –1

log2 (9−2x )
(iii) 3−x
=1
Sol. log2(9–2x) = 3 – x (change it into exponential form)
⇒ 9–2 =2x 3–x

8
⇒ 9 – 2x = 23.2–x =
2x
⇒ Put 2x = t, we get
8
9–t=
t
⇒ 9t – t2 = 8
⇒ t2 – 9t + 8 = 0
⇒ t2 – 8t –t + 8 = 0
⇒ t(t –8) –1(t –8) = 0
⇒ t = 8, t = 1
⇒ 2x = 23 and 2x = 1
⇒ x = 3 and x = 0, but x ≠ 3, hence x = 0

(iv) (x + 1)log10(x+1) = 100(x + 1)

Sol. By taking logarithm both sides with base 10, we get
log10 (x + 1)log10 (x+1) = log10 100(x + 1)

Fundamental of Mathematics
⇒ log10(x + 1).log10(x + 1) = log10100 + log10(x + 1)
Consider, log10(x + 1) = t, we get
t2 = 2 + t
⇒ t2 – t – 2 = 0
⇒ t2 – 2t + t – 2 = 0
⇒ t(t –2) + 1(t –2) = 0
⇒ (t –2)(t + 1) = 0
⇒ t = 2, t = –1
log10(x + 1) = 2 and log10(x +1) = –1
1
⇒ x + 1 = 100 & (x + 1) =
10
1
⇒ x = 100 – 1 = 99 and x = −1
10
−9
⇒ x = 99 and x =
10
𝟗𝟗
⇒ x = 99 and x = − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 63.
(v) logx–14 = 1 + log2(x –1)
Sol. logx–122 = 1 + log2(x–1)
2
⇒ = 1 + log2 (x − 1)
log2 (x−1)
2
Consider log2(x –1) = t, we get =1+t
t
⇒ 2 = t + t2
⇒ t2 + t – 2 = 0
⇒ t2 +2t – t –2 = 0
⇒ t(t + 2) –1(t + 2) = 0
⇒ (t + 2)(t –1) = 0
⇒ t = –2, t = 1
⇒ log2(x –1) = –2 and log2(x –1) = 1
⇒ (x–1) = 2–2 and (x –1) = 21
1
⇒ x=1+ and x = 1 + 2 = 3
4
𝟓𝟓
⇒ x = 𝟒𝟒 and x = 3
1 1 1
(vi) 1 – log 5 = [log + log x + log 5]
3 2 3
Sol. Base is given as 10
1 1 1
log 10 – log 5 = [log + log x + log 5]
3 2 3
10 1 1⁄3
⇒ log = [−log 2 + log x + log 5 ]
5 3
⇒ 3 log 2 + log 2 = log x + log 51/3
⇒ 4 log 2 – log 51/3 = log x
16
⇒ log x = log
51⁄3
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 =
𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟏⁄𝟑𝟑
2
(vii) 3log3x + x (log3x) = 162

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol. (3log3x )log3x + x log3x − 162 = 0
⇒ x log3x + x log3 x − 162 = 0
⇒ 2x log3 x = 162
⇒ x log3x = 81
Take logarithm on both sides with base 3, we get
log3x.log3x = log381 = 4
⇒ (log3x)2 = 4
⇒ log3x = ±2
⇒ x = 3±2
𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟗𝟗,
𝟗𝟗
26
(viii) 51+log4 x
+ 5(log1⁄4x)−1 =
5
26
Sol. 51+log4 x
+5 −1−log4 x
=
5
Put 5 1+log4 x
= t, we get
1 26
t+ =
t 5

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 64.
 26t
⇒ t2 + 1 =
5
⇒ 5t + 5 = 26t
2

⇒ 5t2 – 26t + 5 = 0
⇒ 5t2 – 25t – t + 5 = 0
⇒ 5t(t –5) – 1 (t –5) = 0
⇒ (t –5)(5t –1) = 0
⇒ t = 5 & t = 1/5
1
⇒ 51+log4x = 51 and 51+log4 x = = 5−1
5
⇒ 1 + log4x = 1 and 1 + log4x = –1
⇒ log4x = 0 and log4x = –2
⇒ x = 1 and x = 4–2
𝟏𝟏
⇒ x = 1 and x =
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

1
(ix) log4(2log3(1 + log2(1 + 3log2x))) =
2
Sol. Change it into exponential form,
2log3(1 + log2(1 + 3log2x)) = 41/2 = 2
Again, 1 + log2(1 + 3log2x) = 3
log2(1 + 3log2x) = 2
Again, 1 + 3log2x = 4
⇒ 3log2x = 3
⇒ log2x = 1
⇒x=2

1
(x) log5 (51⁄x + 125) = log5 6 + 1 +
2x

Fundamental of Mathematics
1
Sol. log5(51/x + 125) = log56 + (1 + )log55
2𝑥𝑥
1
⇒ log5(51/x + 125) = log56 + log5 5(1+2x)
⇒ log5(51/x + 125) = log5(6×5×51/2x)
⇒ 51/x + 125 = 30×51/2x
Put 51/2x = t, then t2 + 125 = 30t
⇒ t2 – 30t + 125 = 0
⇒ t2 – 25t – 5t + 125 = 0
⇒ t(t –25) – 5(t –25) = 0
⇒ (t–25)(t –5) = 0
Either t = 25 or t = 5
⇒ 51/2x = 52 or 51/2x = 51
1 1
⇒ = 2 or =1
2x 2x
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐱𝐱 =
𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 65.
(xi) x 2+logx 4 = x 2 + 27
Sol. x 2 . x logx4 = x 2 + 27
⇒ x2.4 = x2 + 27
⇒ 3x2 = 27
⇒ x2 = 9
⇒ x = +3 or x = –3
As x > 0 and x ≠ 1, so we get x = 3

(xii) a2log2x = 5 + 4x log2 a

Sol. (alog2 x)2 = 5 + 4(alog2x ) (Using property alogc b = b logc a )
Put alog2x = t, we get
t2 = 5 + 4t
⇒ t2 – 4t – 5 = 0
⇒ t2 – 5t + t – 5 = 0
⇒ t(t –5) + 1(t–5) = 0
⇒ (t–5)(t + 1) = 0
⇒ t = 5 or t = –1
⇒ alog2x = 5 or alog2x = −1 (not possible)
⇒ log5a.log2x = log55
⇒ log2x.log5a = 1
1
⇒ log2 x =
log5 a

⇒ log2x = loga5
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝟐𝟐𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐚𝟓𝟓 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝟓𝟓𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐚𝟐𝟐

Common logarithm and Natural logarithm:

Fundamental of Mathematics
log10N is referred as a common logarithm. logeN is called as a natural
logarithm. It is also written as lnN.
Note: e is an irrational quantity lying between 2.7 to 2.8. Also elnx = x
Characteristics and Mantissa
Real number = Integer + Fraction
logaN = Characteristics + Mantissa
R=I+f
where R is a real number
I is an integer
f is a fraction i.e. 0 ≤ f < 1
Here, characteristics is an integer and mantissa is fraction, so
0 ≤ mantissa < 1

Ex. (i) 3.4 = 3 + 0.4

R = 3.4, I = 3 and f = 0.4

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 66.
 (ii) 5.1 = 5 + 0.1
R = 5.1, I = 5 and f = 0.1

(iii) –1.2 = –1 –0.2

–1.2 = –1 – 1 + 1 –0.2
–1.2 = –2 + 0.8
R = –1.2, I = –2, f = 0.8
(iv) –3.8 = –3 – 0.8
–3.8 = –3 –1 + 1 –0.8
–3.8 = –4 + 0.2
R = 3.8, I = –4, f = 0.2
(v) –6.2 = –7 + 0.8
R = –6.2, I = –7, f = 0.8

Note:
(i) Characteristic can be zero, positive and negative.
(ii) Mantissa is always non-negative and less than 1.

Finding Number of digits

* Number of digits = Characteristics + 1

Observation:
Range Taking log Characteristics Number of digits
1 ≤ N < 10 0 ≤ log10N < 1 0 1
10 ≤ N < 100 1 ≤ log10N < 2 1 2
100 ≤ N < 1000 2 ≤ log10N < 3 2 3

Fundamental of Mathematics
By observation, we can say that

Number of digits = Characteristics + 1

Remember the following values
log102 = 0.3010
log103 = 0.4771
log105 = 0.6989
log107 = 0.8450

Ex. Find number of digits in

(i) N = 650
Sol. Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
log10N = log10650 = 50 log106
= 50[log102 + log103]
= 50[0.3010 + 0.4771]

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 67.
 = 50[0.7781] = 38.905
log10650 = 38 + 0.905
Characteristics = 38, So Number of digits = 39
(ii) N = 525
Sol. Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
10
log10N = log10525 = 25log10 = 25[log1010 – log102]
2
log10N = 25[1–0.3010]
= 25[0.699]
log10525
= 17.475 = 17 + 0.475
Here characteristics = 17
Hence, Number of digits = 18
Number of zeroes after decimal before a significant digit starts:
Number of zeroes = |Characteristics + 1|

Observation:

Range Taking log Characteristics Number of zeroes

0.1 ≤ N < 1 –1 ≤ log10N < 0 –1 0
0.01 ≤ N < 0.1 –2 ≤ log10N < –1 –2 1
0.001 ≤ N < 0.01 –3 ≤ log10N < –2 –3 2

Hence by observation we can say that

Number of zeros = |Characteristics + 1|

Ex. Find number of zeroes after decimal point before a significant digit
starts in
(i) N = 3–50

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol. Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
log10N = log103–50 = (–50)log103
⇒ log10N = (–50) × (0.4771) = –23.855
⇒ log10N = –23 – 0.855 + 1 – 1 = –24 + 0.145
Here characteristics = –24
Hence Number of zeros = |–24 +1| = |–23| = 23
9 −100
(ii) N=� �
8
Sol. Taking logarithm on both sides with base ‘10’
9 −100 9
log10N = log10 � � = −100log10 � � = –100[2log3 – 3log2]
8 8
⇒ log10N = –100[2 × 0.4771 – 3 × 0.3010]
⇒ log10N = –100[0.9542 – 0.9030]
⇒ log10N = –5.12
Characteristics = –6
Number of zeros = |–6 + 1| = |–5| = 5

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 68.
Ex. Find ‘N’ for which characteristics in 2 and base is 10
(A) N ∈ [1000, 10000) (B) N ∈ [10, 100)
(C) N ∈ [100, 1000) (D) N ∈ [1, 10)
Sol. According to given condition,
⇒ 2 ≤ log10N < 3
⇒ 100 ≤ N < 1000
⇒ N ∈ [100, 1000)
Hence, (C) is the right option.

Ex. Find the number of integral values of N, for which characteristic is

5 under base 3.
Sol. According to given condition,
5 ≤ log3N < 6
⇒ 35 ≤ N < 36
⇒ 243 ≤ N < 729
Number of integral values of N = 729 – 243 = 486

Ex. Find ‘N’ for which characteristics is –5 under base 3.

Sol. According to given statement,
–5 ≤ log3N < –4
⇒ 3–5 ≤ N < 3–4
1 1
⇒ ≤N<
35 34
1 1
⇒ ≤N<
243 81
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝐍𝐍 ∈ � , �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

Fundamental of Mathematics
Significance of Modulus function in Logarithmic Equation:
Ex. Solve log4x2 =2
Sol. x2 =42
x2 = 16
x = ±4
Wrong method:
log4x2 = 2
⇒ 2log4x = 2
⇒ log4x = 1
⇒ x = 41
⇒x=4
Incomplete solution
That’s why
log(x2) = 2log |x|

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 69.
 Now it can be solved as
log4x2 = 2 ⇒ 2log4|x| = 2
⇒ log4|x| = 1
⇒ |x| = 41
⇒ x=±4
Note:
(i) logx2 = 2 log|x|
(ii) logx2m = 2m log|x|, m ∈ N
(iii) logx2m+1 = (2m +1) logx, m ∈ N
(iv) √x 2 = |x|
Absolute value function/modulus function
−x ; x < 0
Y = �x 2 = |x| = � 0 ; x = 0
x ; x>0
y

y = –x y=x

x
(0, 0)

Ex. Solve |x–5| = 10. Find ‘x’

Sol. x – 5 = ± 10
⇒ x – 5 = 10 or x – 5 = –10
⇒ x = 15 or x = –5
Ex. Find ‘x’ if |3x – 2| + x = 11

Fundamental of Mathematics
Sol.
– +
–∞ ∞
2
3
2
Case-(i) when x <
3
Then, –(3x –2) + x = 11
⇒ –3x + 2 + x = 11
⇒ –2x = 9
⇒ x = –2
⇒ x = –9/2
2
Case-(ii) When x ≥
3
(3x –2) + x = 11
⇒ 4x = 13
⇒ x = 13/4
Hence, x = –9/2 and x = 13/4 are the solution.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 70.
Ex. Find ‘x’ if |x – 3| +2|x + 1| = 4
Sol.
–∞ ∞
–1 3
Case-(i) When x <–1, then
–(x – 3) –2(x + 1) = 4
⇒ –x + 3 – 2x – 2 = 4
⇒ –3x = 3
⇒ x = –1, but x < –1 hence no solution.
Case-(ii) When –1 ≤ x < 3, then
–(x – 3) + 2(x + 1) = 4
⇒ –x + 3 + 2x + 2 = 4
⇒ x = –1 is a solution.
Case-(iii) When x ≥ 3, then
(x –3) +2(x +1) = 4
⇒ x –3 + 2x + 2 = 4
⇒ 3x = 5
5
⇒ x= but x ≥ 3
3
Hence no solution
So, x = –1 is the only solution.

Ex. Find 'x'

4
(i) 2log8(2x) + log8(x2 + 1 – 2x) =
3
4
Sol. 2log8 (2x) + log8 (x − 1) = 2
3
4
⇒ 2log8 (2x) + 2log8 |x − 1| = 3

Fundamental of Mathematics
2
⇒ log8 2x|x − 1| = (Change it into exponential form)
3
2
⇒ 2x|x − 1| = (8) = 43

⇒ x|x − 1| = 2
−∞ ∞
1

Case (i): When x < 1, then

–x (x – 1) = 2
⇒ x2 – x + 2 = 0
It's discriminant D = (–1)2 – 4 × 2 = 1 – 8 = –7 < 0
Hence, no real roots exist, so no solution.
Case (ii): When x ≥ 1, then
x (x – 1) = 2
⇒ x2 – x = 2
⇒ x2 – x – 2 = 0

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 71.
 ⇒ (x –2)(x + 1) = 0
⇒ x = – 1 or x = 2, but x ≥ 1
So, x = 2 is the only solution.
(ii) 2log3 (x − 2) + log3 (x − 4)2 = 0
Sol. 2log3 (x − 2) + 2log3 |x − 4| = 0
⇒ log3 (x − 2)|x − 4| = 0 (Change it into exponential form)
⇒ (x – 2) |x – 4| = 1
−∞ ∞
4
Case (i): When x < 4, then
−(x − 2)(x − 4) = 1
⇒ x 2 − 6x + 8 = −1
⇒ x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0
⇒ (x – 3)2 = 0 ⇒ x = 3
Case (ii): When x ≥ 4
(x − 2)(x − 4) = 1
⇒ x 2 − 6x + 8 = 1
⇒ x 2 − 6x + 7 = 0
6±√8
⇒x= 2

⇒ x = 3 + √2, x = 3 − √2
but x ≥ 4
So, x = 3 + √2
Hence, x = 3 or 𝐱𝐱 = 𝟑𝟑 + √𝟐𝟐 is the solution.
(iii) log4 (x2 − 1) − log4 (x − 1)2 = log4 �(4 − x)2
Sol. log4 (x2 − 1) − log4 (x − 1)2 = log4 |4 − x|

Fundamental of Mathematics
(x2 −1)
⇒ log4 = log4 |4 − x| = log4 |x − 4|
(x−1)2
(x2 −1)
⇒ = |x − 4|
(x−1)2
(x−1)(x+1)
⇒ (x−1)2
= |x − 4|
(x+1)
⇒ (x−1) = |x − 4|

−∞ ∞
4
Case (i): When x < 4
x+1
= −(x − 4)
x−1
⇒ −x − 1 = (x − 1)(x − 4)
⇒ –x – 1 = x2 – 5x + 4
⇒ x2 – 4x + 5 = 0, Since D < 0
Hence no real roots.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 72.
 Case(ii): When x ≥ 4
x+1
= (x − 4)
x−1
⇒ (x + 1) = (x − 4)(x − 1)
⇒ (x + 1) = x 2 − 5x + 4
⇒ x 2 − 6x + 3 = 0
⇒ x = 3 ± √6
⇒ x = 3 + √6 ,3 − √6
Since x ≥ 4 so 𝐱𝐱 = 𝟑𝟑 + √𝟔𝟔

2 −1
(iv) |x − 2|10x = |x − 2|3x
Sol. Comparing the powers,
10x2 − 1 = 3x
⇒ 10x2 − 3x − 1 = 0
⇒ 10x2 − 5x + 2x − 1 = 0
⇒ 5x(2x − 1) + (2x − 1) = 0
⇒ (2x − 1)(5x + 1) = 0
1 1
⇒x= or x = −
2 5
When base is equal to 1, we get
|x –2| = 1
⇒x–2=±1
⇒ x = 3 and x = 1

2 −10x+3
(v) |x − 3|3x =1
3x2 −10x+3
Sol. |x − 3| = |x − 3|0 (Comparing the powers)
⇒ 3x2 – 10x + 3 = 0

Fundamental of Mathematics
⇒ 3x2 – 9x – x + 3 = 0
⇒ 3x(x –3) –1(x –3) = 0
⇒ (x – 3)(3x – 1) = 0
1
⇒x= ,3
3
When base is equal to 1,
|x – 3| = 1
⇒x–3=±1
⇒ x = 4, 2
When x = 3, base is 0, so we reject this.
𝟏𝟏
So x = 4, 2, is the solution.
𝟑𝟑

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 73.
Graphs of logarithm:
f(x) = loga x , x > 0, a ≠ 1, a > 0
Case-1:
a>1
y

y = logax, when a > 0, a ≠ 0

x
(1, 0)

Ex. f(x) = log2 x = y

1
x= , y = –1
2
1
x= , y = –2
4
x = 1, y = 0
x = 2, y = 1
x = 4, y = 2
x = 8, y = 3
x = 16, y = 4
Case-2:
0<a<1
y
y =f(x) = logax
where 0 < a < 1

(1, 0)
x

Fundamental of Mathematics
Ex. f(x) = loga x = y
x = 2, y = – 1
x = 4, y = – 2
x = 8, y = – 3
x = 16, y = – 4
Note:
1. Whenever the number and base 2. Whenever the number and
are on the same side of unity then base are on the opposite side of
logarithm of that number to the unity then logarithm of that
same base is positive. number to the base is negative.

(i) y = f(x) = loga x > 0 ⇒ x, a are on the same side of unity.

(ii) y = f(x) = loga x < 0 ⇒ x, a are on the opposite side of unity.

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 74.
 17
Ex. Solve log4 (log3 x) + log1 (log1 y) = 0 and x 2 + y 2 = .
4 3 4

Sol. log4 (log3 x) + log1 (log1 y) = 0 .... (i)

4 3
17
x 2 + y2 = ....(ii)
4
log4 (log3 x) − log4 (log1 y) = 0
3

⇒ log4 (log3 x) = log4 (log1 y)

3

⇒ log3 x = log1 y
3
⇒ log3 x = − log3 y
1
⇒ log3 x = log3
y
1
⇒x=
y
1 17
Equation (ii), x 2 + x2 = 4
, put x2 = t
1 17
t+ =
t 4
2
t + 1 17
⇒ =
t 4
2
⇒ 4t + 4 = 17t
⇒ 4t 2 − 17t + 4 = 0
1
⇒ t = 4,
4
2 1
⇒ x = 4, 4
1 𝟏𝟏
⇒ x = ±2, ± but x > 0 ⇒ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝟐𝟐,
2 𝟐𝟐

Graphs of Exponential:

Fundamental of Mathematics
f(x) = ax a > 0, a≠1

Case-1: a>1
y
f(x) = ax
a > 0, a ≠ 1

(0, 1)
x

Ex. y = f(x) = 2x
x = 1, y=2
x = 2, y=4
x = 3, y=8 Increasing

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 75.
Case-2: 0<a<1

y = ax = f(x)
0<a<1

(0, 1)

1 x
Ex. f(x) = � �
2
1
x = 1, y= 2
1
x = 2, y= 4
1
x = 3, y= 8
Decreasing
x → ∞ ⇒ f(x) → 0
x → −∞ ⇒ f(x) → ∞

Logarithmic Inequalities
1. f(x) = log𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
(i) When a > 1 and x1 > x2 ⇔ loga x1 > loga x2
(ii) When 0 < a < 1 and x1 > x2 ⇔ loga x1 < loga x2
2. f(x) = a x

(i) When a > 1 and x1 > x2 ⇔ ax1 > ax2

(ii) When 0 < a < 1 and x1 > x2 ⇔ ax1 < ax2

Ex. Find 'x'

Fundamental of Mathematics
(i) log1 (2x + 1) > 0
2

Sol. log1 (2x + 1) > log1 1

2 2

⇒ (2x + 1) < 1
⇒x<0
and (2x + 1) > 0
1
⇒x>−
2
𝟏𝟏
By Intersection, 𝐱𝐱 ∈ �− , 𝟎𝟎�
𝟐𝟐
(ii) log2 (x + 2) > 0
Sol. log2 (x + 2) > log2 1
⇒ (x + 2) > 1
⇒x>1
and x + 2 > 0
⇒x>–2
By intersection, we get x > 1 or 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (𝟏𝟏, ∞).

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 76.
(iii) 23−6x > 1
Sol. 23−6x > 20
⇒ 3 – 6x > 0
⇒ 6x < 3
3
⇒x<
6
1
⇒x<
2
𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 ∈ �– ∞, �
𝟐𝟐
1 2x+1
(iv) �5� > 125
Sol. 5−(2x+1) > 53
⇒ −2x − 1 > 3
⇒ −2x > 4
⇒ x < −2
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (−∞, −𝟐𝟐)
(v) log 0.3 |x − 2| > 0
Sol. log0.3 |x − 2| > log0.3 1
⇒ |x – 2| < 1
⇒–1<x–2<1
⇒1<x<3
and |x –2| = 1 ⇒ x – 2 = ± 1 ⇒ x = 3 or 1
and |x – 2| ≠ 0 ⇒ x ≠ 2
By Intersection, 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐) ∪ (𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑) or 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (𝟏𝟏, 𝟑𝟑) – {𝟐𝟐}

(vi) log8 (x2 − 4x + 3) ≤ 1

Sol. log8 (x2 − 4x + 3) ≤ log8 8

Fundamental of Mathematics
⇒ x 2 − 4x + 3 ≤ 8 and x 2 − 4x + 3 > 0
⇒ x 2 − 4x − 5 ≤ 0 and x 2 − 4x + 3 > 0
⇒ x 2 − 5x + x − 5 ≤ 0 and x 2 − 3x − x + 3 > 0
⇒ x(x − 5) + 1(x − 5) ≤ 0 and x(x − 3) − 1(x − 3) > 0
⇒ (x − 5)(x + 1) ≤ 0 and (x − 3)(x − 1) > 0
⇒ x ∈ [−1, 5] and x ∈ (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞)
By intersection, 𝐱𝐱 ∈ [−𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏) ∪ (𝟑𝟑, 𝟓𝟓]
x2 +x
(vii) log1 �log6 � �� < 0
2 x+4

x2 +x 1 0
Sol. (i) log6 �
x+4
� > �2�
x2 +x
>6
x+4
x2 +x
(ii) log6 � x+4 � > 0
x2 +x
>1
x+4

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 77.
 x2 +x
(iii) >0
x+4
By intersection of (i), (ii) and (iii) we can clearly state that
x2 +x
>6
x+4
x2 +x
⇒ x+4
−6>0
x2 +x−6x−24
⇒ >0
x+4
x2 −5x−24
⇒ (x+4)
>0
(x−8)(x+3)
⇒ >0
(x+4)

⇒ 𝐱𝐱 ∈ (−𝟒𝟒, −𝟑𝟑) ∪ (𝟖𝟖, ∞)

3x+6
log1 �log2 � ��
x2+2
(viii) (0.3) 3 >1
3x+6
log1 �log2 � 2 �� 3x+6 3x+6
Sol. (0.3) 3
x +2
> (0.3)0 and log2 �
x2 +2
� > 0 and x2 +2
>0
3x+6 3x+6 3x+6
So, log1 �log2 �x2 +2�� < 0 and x2 +2
> 1 and
x2 +2
>0
3
3x+6
⇒ log2 � �>1
x2 +2
3x+6
⇒ x2 +2 > 2
By intersection, we get
3x+6
>2
x2 +2
⇒ 3x + 6 > 2(x2 + 2)
⇒ 2x2 + 4 < 3x + 6
⇒ 2x2 – 3x – 2 < 0
⇒ 2x2 – 4x + x – 2 < 0
⇒ 2x(x –2) + 1(x – 2) < 0

Fundamental of Mathematics
⇒ (x –2)(2x + 1) < 0
𝟏𝟏
⇒ x ∈ �− , 𝟐𝟐�
𝟐𝟐

3
1 x 1 x
Ex. Find the solution of the equation, 2log9 �2 � � − 1� = log27 �� � − 4� .
2 4
Also state whether the solution is rational or irrational.
1 x 1 x
Sol. Suppose �2� = t so �4� = t 2
2 3
log3 (2t − 1) = log3 (t 2 − 4)
2 3
⇒ 2t – 1 = t2 – 4
⇒ t2 – 2t – 3=0
⇒ (t–3)(t + 1) = 0
⇒ t = 3, t = – 1
1 x 1 x
⇒ � � = 3 or � � = – 1 (Not possible)
2 2
⇒ 2−x = 3

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 78.
 ⇒ – x log2 = log3
log 3
⇒x=−
log 2
𝟑𝟑
⇒ 𝐱𝐱 = −𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 which is irrational.
𝟐𝟐
(2020)x
Ex. If the product of all solutions of equation = (2020)logx2021can
2021
m
be expressed in the lowest form as . (m, n ∈ I) then find the value
n
of (m + n).
2020x
Sol. log2021 � 2021 � = logx (2021) · log(2021) (2020)
⇒ log2021 2020 + log2021 x − 1 = logx 2021 · log2021 2020
1
Suppose log2021 x = t then logx 2021 =
t
1
Then, log2021 2020 + t − 1 = log2021 2020
t
t ∙ log2021 2020 + t 2 − t − log2021 2020 = 0
⇒ (t – 1) log2021(2020) + t(t – 1) = 0
⇒ (t – 1) (log20212020 + t) = 0
⇒t=1 or t = –log20212020
⇒ log2021x = 1 or log2021x = log2021(2020)–1
1
⇒ x = 2021 or x=
2020
Product of solutions
m 2021
=
n 2020
m + n = 2021 + 2020 = 4041
Ex. The sum of the integral values(s) of a ∈ [-9, 9] so that equation
(x–2)log133 + log13(3x–7a) = log132 + 2log13 a has integral solution.
Sol. log13 3x−2 · (3x − 7a) = log13 (2 · a2 )
⇒ 3x−2 (3x − 7a) = 2a2

Fundamental of Mathematics
Put 3x = t, we get
t
(t − 7a) = 2a2
9
⇒ t 2 − 7at = 18a2
⇒ t 2 − 9at + 2at − 18a2 = 0
⇒ (t – 9a) (t + 2a) = 0
⇒ t = 9a or t = – 2a
⇒ 3 = 9ax
or 3x = – 2a
30, 31, 32, 33, ... = – 2a or 30, 31, 32, ... = 9a
1, 3, 9, 27, ... = –2a or 1, 3, 9, ... = 9a
1 3 9
No integral value of a a= , , ,…
9 9 9
1 1
a= , , 1, 3, 9, …
9 3
a = 1, 3, 9

Sum = 1 + 3 + 9 = 13

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 79.
Ex. For i = 1 to 6, let loga(logb(logcxi)) = 0, where a, b and c represent
every possible different arrangement of 2, 4 and 8. The product
x1x2x3x4x5x6 can be expressed in the form 2N. The value of N, is
(A) 20 (B) 28
(C) 33 (D) 50
Sol. loga(logb(logcxi)) = 0
⇒ logb(logcxi) = a0 = 1
⇒ logcxi = b'
⇒ xi = cb
a=2 a=4 a=8
x=4,88 4
x=2,8 8 2
x = 24, 42
x1x2x3x4x5x6 = 82 · 48 · 84 · 28 · 42 · 24 = 216 · 212 · 28 · 26 · 24 · 24 = 250

N = 50

  

Fundamental of Mathematics

IIT-JEE_MATHEMATICS 80.