Computer

Networks
 Computer network
? It is possible to connect a number of computers and other
electronic devices to form what is called a computer
network.
? The computers and devices which are part of the network can
"talk" to each other and exchange information. In addition to
the computers and devices which are connected, other
devices are often needed for the network to operate
properly.
? Examples for such devices include hubs and switches. A
network using one technology can be connected to another
one using a different technology with a component which is
known as router.
? A network is a group of two or more computer
systems linked together through communication channels .
Computer network
How Network
works??
▪ To understand how networks work, let's break down the
basic components and concepts involved:
• Devices: A network consists of various devices, such
as computers, servers, printers, switches, routers,
and more.
• Data Transmission: Networks transmit data in the
form of packets. A packet is a unit of information that
contains both the actual data being sent and control
information required for routing and error detection.
• Protocols: Networks rely on protocols, which are a
set of rules and standards that govern how devices
communicate and exchange data.
• Physical Infrastructure: Networks require physical
infrastructure to connect devices. This infrastructure
can include cables (such as Ethernet cables) or
wireless technologies like radio waves or optical
fibers.
 How
networks
works?
Types Of • 1.LAN
Networking • 2.MAN
• 3.WAN
LAN(Local Area
Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of

computers connected to each
other in a small area such as
building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or
more personal computers through
a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with
inexpensive hardware such as
hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an
extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
Local Area Network provides higher
security
PAN(Personal Area
Network)
• Personal Area Network is a
network arranged within an
individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used
for connecting the computer
devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area
Network.
• Personal Area Network covers
an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices
that are used to develop the
personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.
PAN(Personal Area
Network)
MAN(Metropo
litan Area
Network)
• A metropolitan area network
is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use
MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are
connected to each other
through a telephone
exchange line.
WAN(Wide
Area
Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a
network that extends over a
large geographical area such
as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is not
limited to a single location,
but it spans over a large
geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic
cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the
biggest WAN in the world.
Client/server model
? In the client/server model, the device requesting the
information is called a client and the device
responding to the request is called a server. The
client and server machines are connected by a
network, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Client/server model
? The most popular realization is that of a Web
application, in which the server generates Web
pages based on its database in response to
client requests that may update the database.
? The client-server model is applicable when the
client and server are both in the same building
(and belong to the same company), but also
when they are far apart.
Client/server model
? If we look at the client-server model in detail, we see that two
processes (i.e., running programs) are involved, one on the
client machine and one on the server machine.
Communication takes the form of the client process sending
a message over the network to the server process. The client
process then waits for a reply message. When the server
process gets the request, it performs the requested work or
looks up the requested data and sends back a reply. These
messages are shown in Figure 1.3.
Peer-to-Peer network
? In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are
connected via a network and can share resources (such as
printers and files) without having a dedicated server.

? Every connected end device (known as a peer) can function

as either a server or a client. One computer might assume
the role of server for one transaction while simultaneously
serving as a client for another.
Peer-to-Peer network

? Unlike the client/server model, which uses dedicated servers, peer-to-peer networks
decentralize the resources on a network. Instead of locating information to be shared on
dedicated servers, information can be located anywhere on any connected device.
? It is difficult to enforce security and access policies in networks containing more than just a few
computers.
 Uses of Computer Networks
? Communication is almost as important to us as our reliance on air,
water, food, and shelter.
Applications help us to
◦ Chatting
◦ Download Files
◦ Purchasing
◦ Read News
◦ See & speak to others
◦ Education
◦ Sharing
◦ Many other things
Uses of Computer Networks
? In the simplest of terms, one can imagine a company’s
information system as consisting of one or more databases
with company information and some number of employees
who need to access them remotely., This called client/server
model.

? In this model, the data are stored on powerful computers

called servers. Often these are centrally housed and
maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the
employees have simpler machines, called clients, on their
desks, with which they access remote data.
Uses of Computer Networks
1- Business Applications
? Most companies have a substantial number of computers. For
example, a company may have a computer for each worker
and use them to design products, write brochures, and do
the payroll.
? The goal is to make all programs, equipment, and especially
data available to anyone on the network without regard to
the physical location of the resource or the user as shown in
Figure 1.1.
Uses of Computer Networks
2- Home Applications
? Home users can access information, communicate with other
people, and buy products and services with e-commerce.

? Information available includes the arts, business, cooking,

government, health, history, hobbies, recreation, science,
sports, travel, and many others.

? Popular model for accessing information that goes by the

name of Peer-to-Peer communication.
Uses of Computer Networks
3- Mobile Users
? People on the go often want to use their mobile devices to
read and send email, tweet, watch movies, download music,
play games, or simply to surf the Web for information. They
want to do all of the things they do at home and in the office.
Naturally, they want to do them from anywhere on land, sea
or in the air.
? Connectivity to the Internet enables many of these mobile
uses. Since having a wired connection is impossible in cars,
boats, and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless
networks.
? Example: Smart phones, GPS, mobile-commerce, Sensor
networks .
Uses of Computer Networks
4- Social Issues
? Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a
host of other applications allow people to share their views
with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects are
restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not
too many problems will arise. These problems such as
Copyright, versus, cookies, spam, …etc.
 Networks
? A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links.
? A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

? Most networks use distributed processing, in which a

task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of
one single large machine being responsible for all aspects
of a process, separate computers (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.
 The Elements of Computer
Network

? The devices must be interconnected. Network

connections can be wired or wireless. In wired
connections, the medium is either copper, which
carries electrical signals, or optical fiber, which
carries light signals. In wireless connections, the
medium is the Earth's atmosphere, or space, and the
signals are microwaves.
 The Elements of Computer
Network Devices

? Devices interconnected by medium to provide services

must be governed by rules, or protocols.
? The Protocols are the rules that the networked devices
use to communicate with each other. The industry
standard in networking today is a set of protocols called
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).
The TCP model stands for Transmission Control Protocol, whereas IP stands for Internet
Protocol. A number of protocols that make the internet possibly comes under the TCP/IP
model.This model is highly used.
Computer Network Devices
 Networking Devices

Common Network Connectivity Devices: - Because these devices connect

network entities, they’re known as connectivity devices. Here’s a list of the
devices.
1. Hub
2. Repeater
3. Modem
4. Network Interface Card (NIC)
5. Bridge
6. Basic Switch
7. Wireless access point (AP)
8. Basic router
9. Basic firewall
10. Basic Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
1. Hub
A hub is the device that connects all the segments of the
network together in a star topology Ethernet network. Every
device in the network connects directly to the hub through a single
cable and is used to connect multiple devices without segmenting a
network. Any transmission received on one port will be sent out all
the other ports in the hub, including the receiving pair for the
transmitting device, so that Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) on the transmitter can monitor for
collisions.
Hub
Definition:
• A central device that connects multiple computers on a single
network.
• A network hub has I/O ports that can be used to link several
network devices together.
• A signal would enter the hub through one port and the hub will
broadcast it on every other port except the port the data came in through.
There are very few practical applications for a hub today, given the affordability of the
much more advanced switch.
• At the bottom of the networking used hubs.
• Hubs are used in networks that use twisted- pair cabling to connect devices.
• Hubs can also be joined together to create larger networks.
• Hubs are simple devices that direct data packets to all devices connected to the
hub.
• This makes them inefficient devices and can create a performance on busy
networks.
Hub The following fig Shows Hubs
1. Switches: - Switches connect multiple segments of a
network together much like hubs do, but with three
significant differences—a switch recognizes frames and
pays attention to the source and destination MAC address
of the incoming frame as well as the port on which it was
received.
 Switches:-
Definition:-
A switch is a computer networking device that connects
network segments or network devices together.
Much like a hub, a switch has I/O ports that connect
devices together.
Unlike a hub though, switches are smart enough to
know which device data packets are meant for and only
sends to that device.
The use of a switch is practical for many more
applications than a hub.
The following shows Switches
Switches:-
● Many business and even homes use switches to link their network devices.
● Like hubs, switches are the connectivity points of an Ethernet network.
● Devices connect to switches via twisted-pair cabling, one cable for each
device.
● The difference between hubs and switches is in how the devices deal with the
data that they receive.By forwarding data only to the connection that should
receive it, the switch can improve network performance in two ways.
● by creating a direct path between two devices and controlling their
communication, it can greatly reduce the number of collisions on the network.
● Collisions occur on Ethernet networks when two devices attempt to transmit
at exactly the same time.
● In addition, the lack of collisions enables switches to communicate with
devices in full-duplex mode.
● In a full-duplex configuration, devices can send and receive data from the
switch at the same time.
1. Bridge: - A bridge—specifically, a transparent
bridge—is a network device that connects two
similar network segments together. Its primary
function is to keep traffic separated on either side
of the bridge, breaking up collision domains, as
pictured in Figure below.
Bridges:-
Definition:-
A bridge device filters traffic at a network boundary. Bridges
reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two
segments.

Bridges are similar in nature to switches, but a bridge inspects all

incoming data and decides what to do with it.
Data can be discarded or forwarded by the bridge, eliminating
unnecessary incoming traffic.

Bridges can have many uses, but the most practical uses I can
think of for use in my home would be for a media bridge.
These smart devices can monitor incoming traffic to your
media devices and prioritize audio and video data.

Bridges are used to divide larger networks into smaller sections.

Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a

larger logical LAN.
Bridges:-
1. Repeater:-
A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming signal
from the sender before retransmitting it to the receiver. It is also known as a signal booster, and it
helps in extending the coverage area of networks. The Incoming data can be in optical, wireless or
electrical signals.

(Figure below shows a repeater being used to connect two unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
connectors. This configuration will provide an extension to your Ethernet segment and give you a
gain of another 100 meters (328 feet).)
Repeaters:-
A repeater (generator) is a device that operates only on the
physical layer.
A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it
become too weak or corrupted, regenerates the original bit
pattern .
A repeater allow to extend the physical length of the network
Data signals weaken as they travel down a particular medium.
This is known as Attenuation.
To increase the distance a signal can travel, you can use
repeaters.
Coaxial cable used for network configurations.
So the function of the repeater is to generates the data signals
so that they can travel greater distance.
The Following Fig. Shows Repeaters
1. Modem: - A modem is a device that modulates digital data onto an
analog carrier for transmission over an analog medium and then
demodulates from the analog carrier to a digital signal again at the
receiving end. The term modem is actually an acronym that stands for
MOdulator/DEModulator.
When you hear the term modem, three different types should come to
mind:
∙ Traditional (plain old telephone service [POTS])
∙ DSL
∙ Cable
 Routers
Definition:-
A device that allows packets of data to be moved efficiently
between two points on a network
Routers are used to transfer data packets on a network.
Routers are much smarter than switches in that they route
packets based on routing protocols which allows them to more
efficiently route data.
Routers can be found in a good percentage of homes and
businesses.
Routers assign local IP addresses to devices that are connected
to it, and offer a very efficient way for devices to communicate
on the network.
Another benefit of a router is that it restricts outside computers
from initiating a connection within your local network.
You can make exceptions of course by changing some of the
router firewall settings.
routers are used to create larger networks by joining two network
segments.
A router can be a dedicated hardware device or a computer
system with more than one network interface and the
appropriate routing software.
All modern network operating systems include the functionality
to act as a router.
The Following Fig Shows Routers
1. Network Interface Card (NIC):- A Network Interface Card (NIC), also known as
an Ethernet Card or Network Adapter, is a computer expansion card that allows your
PC, laptop, or server to connect to a network via an ethernet cable

2. NIC is installed in computer to connect, or interface, computer to the network.

It provides the physical, electrical, and electronic connections to the network
media. Figure below shows a typical 100Mbps Ethernet NIC.
 Gateways:-
Definition:-
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another
network.
Any device that translates one data format to another is called a
gateway.
A gateway can convert data packets from one protocol to
another.
Additionally it is a network node equipped for interfacing with
another network that uses different protocols.
gateways include a router that translates data from one network
protocol to another.
The Following Fig Shows Gateways
The key point about a gateway is that only the data format is
translated , not the data itself.
In many cases, the gateway functionality is incorporated into
another device.
AT&T for instance provides a residential gateway to their Uverse
customers.
This is because there are different protocols for TV, phone, and
internet.
The gateway can convert these protocols to the correct format.
 Firewall
A firewall is a network device or
software for controlling network
security and access rules.
Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks and
potentially insecure external networks
such as the Internet.
Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
Data Flow & transmission mode
Contrast this with half-duplex communication, in which
communication can occur in only one direction at a time.

Full-duplex transmission speeds are double that of a standard,

half-duplex, connection.

So, a 10Mbps connection becomes 20Mbps, and a 100Mbps

connection becomes 200Mbps.
Network Criteria
a) Performance
? Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
? Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.
? Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
? The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Network Criteria
? Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput
and delay.
? We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because
of traffic congestion in the network.
Network Criteria
b) Reliability
? In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
c) Security
? Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
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