Basic Calculus

Integral Calculus
Calculus has two main Branches: Differential Calculus - which deals
with the problems of finding the rate at which a known but varying,
quantity changes: and Integral Calculus - which deals with the problem
of finding a quantity, given that we know the rate at which it is changing.
Integral calculus (that is splitted into two - indefinite and definite
integral) is the reciprocal of differential calculus. Given the rate of change
f '(x), by integral calculus we can find the original function f(x).
Indefinite Integral

Consider the following example

f(x) = 5
F(x) = 5x +c
F'(x) = 5

Because the derivative of a constant is zero, once an antiderivative of a

function is found, another antiderivative of the same function can be
formulated simply by adding a non zero constant to the first derivative.
Thus, F(x), by it self is not unique; it is only one member of a family of
antiderivatives for some specified function, each of these antiderivatives
for some specified function, each of these anti-derivatives differing from
the others only by an arbitrary constant C. Thus, if F(x) is an
antiderivative of f(x), the general expression F(x) + C is called the
ANTIDERIVATIVE of f(x), or the INDEFINITE INTEGRAL, and is denoted
by the symbol f(x)dx.

Given F(x, an antiderivative of f(x), the indefinite integral of

f(x) is defined to be F(x)+c = f(x)dx read as the indefinite
integral of function f(x) with respect to the variable x.
 - Integral sign
- indicates that the operation of anti differentiation
(integration) is to be performed.
f(x) - Integrand
dx - indicates integration is to be performed with respect to the
variable X.
C - Constant of integration
The process for finding f(x)dx is called indefinite integration.

E.g. Find the indefinite integral for the following

1. f(x) = 10x 2. f(x) = 3x - 10
f(x)dx = 5x +c
2
f(x)dx = 3/2x2-10x+c

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 Basic Calculus

3. Find the function that has a slope of 10x 4 at each point and that
passes through the point (2, 74).
f(x) = 10x4
f(x)dx = 10x4dx = 2x5+c Therefore, F(x) = 2x5+10
5
Y = 2(2 ) + C
74 = (2 x 32) + C
C = 10
Basic Rules for Integration
The determination of anti-derivatives by trial and error is cumbersome.
So many rules for integration have been developed from the
corresponding theorems concerning derivatives. The most common are:
1. Constant Rule
f(x) = K f(x) = 3 f(x) = 0
f(x)dx = Kx+C 3dx = 3x+C 0dx = 0+c =C
2. Power Rule
f(x) = xn f(x) = x f(x) = x2
x n+1 x2 x3
+C +C
f(x)dx = n+1 ; n-1 f(x)dx = 2 + C f(x)dx = 3
If n = -1, x -1 = ln x + C; this is because logarithmic functions are not
defined for negative values of x.
3. Constant Multiplier Rule
f(x) = kg(x) f(x) = 5x

if f(x) exists, f(x)dx = 5 +C

2
x
f(x)dx = Kg(x)dx+c = 5( 2 ) + C
5 x2
+C
f(x) = = 2
1
f(x)dx = 2 x2dx + C

1 x3
( )+C
= 2 3
x3
( )+C
= 6
4. Sum or Difference Rule
f(x) = h(x)  g(x) , if h(x)dx and g(x)dx exist

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 Basic Calculus

f(x) = h(x)dx  g(x)dx

E.g. f(x) = 3x+6
f(x) = 3xdx + 6dx
3 2
( x + C 1 )+(6 x +C2 )
2
=
3 2
x + 6 x +C
2
= ; where C = C1 + C2
5. Product Rule1
f(x) = (x+2)2
= x2+4x+4
x3 4 x 2
+ + 4x +C
f(x)dx = 3 2

x3
+ 2 x2 + 4 x + C
= 3
NB. The integral of a product is not equal to the product of the
integrals.
6. Quotient Rule+
3 x3
f ( x )=
5 x2
3 x3 2
= 2+ 2
5x 5x
3 2
= x + x−2
5 5
∫ f ( x )dx=310 x 2−25 x +C

* + There are no general rules for the integration of

1

Products and Quotients

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 Basic Calculus

Business Applications of Indefinite Integral

Finding Total Functions
Exercises
1. The marginal revenue function for a company product is given by the
function f(x) = 50,000 - x; where x is the number of units produced and
sold. Moreover, TR = 0 when no units are produced and sold. Find the
company's TR function.
f(x) - marginal revenue
TR = the integration of MR
= F(x)dx = (50,000 - x)dx
= 50,00dx - xdx
= 50,000x - x2/2 + C
0= 50,000(0) - (0/2) + C
0=C
R(x) = 50,000x - x2/2
2. The function describing the MC of producing a product is f(x) = x+100,
where x = the number of units produced. It is also known that TC =
40,000 Birr when x is 100 units. Determine the total cost function.
Solution.
MC = x + 100
TC = MC
= (X+100) dx
= xdx + 100dx
= x2/2 + 100x + C
40,000 = (1002/2) + 100(100) +C
=15,000 + C
C = 25,000
C(x) = x2/2 + 100x + 25,000

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 Basic Calculus

3. The function describing the marginal profit from producing and selling a
product is f(x) = - 6x+750 where x = the number of units produced and
sold. Moreover, when 100 units are produced and sold, total profit equals
Birr 25,000. Determine the total profit function.
Solution
MP = - 6x+750 = -3x2+750x+c
TP = MP dx 25,000 = -3(1002) + 750(100) + C
= (-6x + 750)dx 25,000 = 45,000 + C
= -6xdx + 750dx + C C = -20,000
= -6x/2 + 750x + C P(x) = -3x2+750x-20,000

4. The marginal propensity to save, S'(x), is a function of a nation's income,

x (in billions of Birr), as defined by the equation: S'(x) = .5 - .12x- 1/2 (x>0).
If S = 0 when x = 81, then
a. Find the equation defining total savings, S(x).
b. Find the total savings at a national income of Birr 144 billion.

Solution
S(x) = S'(x) dx S(x) = .5x - .24x1/2 - 38.34
= (.5 - .12x-1/2) dx S(144) = .5(144) - .24(1441/2) - 38.34
= .5dx - .12x-1/2dx = 72 - .24(12) - 38.34
= .5x - .12x (-1/2 +1)/1/2 + C = 72 - 41.22
= .5x - .24x1/2 + C = Birr 30.78 billion
0 = .5(81) - .24(811/2) + C
= 40.5 - 2.16 + C
= 38.34 + C
C = - 38.34
S(x)= .5x - .24x1/2 - 38.34

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 Basic Calculus

Definite Integral
The second class of Integral calculus is definite integral. Definite
integral basically deals with problems of how to find the area of a
region under a curve and above the x-axis between two points on
the axis. The solution of such geometrical problems will be used to
solve certain classes of problems. The advantage of examining
those problems from a geometrical point of view is that the
explanation is simple.

Consider the function f(x) = x2

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

One approach is to approximate the area by computing the areas of a set

of rectangles, which are contained within the shaded area.

9
9

6
6

3
3

1 2 3 1 2 3

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 Basic Calculus

In the first diagram the width of each rectangle equals 1 and the height
are respectively f(1) and f(2). And in the second diagram the width of
each rectangle is 0.5 and the heights are respectively f(1), f(1.5), f(2),
f(2.5) and f(3).

Therefore A* = f(1)* (1) + f(2)*(2) in the first diagram and f(1)*

(0.5) + f(1.5)*(0.5) + f(2)*(0.5) + f(2.5)*(0.5) in the second
diagram.

Where A* is area of the rectangles

The error introduced in this estimation is indicated by the shaded region.

Note that as we increase the width of the rectangles, more rectangles are
to be developed. And the error is reduced whereas the area of interest is
better approximated.

Let’s try to look at this process in a more general sense. Consider the
graph below. Suppose we are interested in determining the area beneath
the curve but above the x-axis between x = a and x = b. Further suppose
that the interval has been subdivided into n rectangles.

Assume the width of rectangle i is Δxi and the height is f(xi).

f(x) f(n)

f(x2)

f(x1)

…………..

x1=a x2 x3 ……… xn-1 xn x=b


It is not necessary to assume that the width of each rectangle is the same.

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 Basic Calculus

Likewise, we can approximate the area of interest by summing the areas

of the n rectangles, or

A* = f(x1)Δx1 + f(x2)Δx2 + …. + f(xn)Δxn

= Σ f(xi)Δxi
where i runs from 1 to n

As we observed for the function f(x) = x2, the approximation becomes

more and more accurate as the width of the rectangles becomes smaller
and smaller, or concurrently with the number of rectangles becoming
larger and larger. We can formalize this observation by stating that:

lim Σ f(xi)Δxi = A
n ∞

That is, the actual area under the curve A is the limiting value of
the sum of the areas of the n rectangles as the number of
rectangles approaches infinity.

Just as this summation sign Σ applies when the sum of discrete

elements is desired, the definite integral implies summation for
continuous functions. And it can be shown that (as in the case
above) the area can be defined as the definite integral of f(x)
between x = a and x = b, or

ba f(x)dx = lim Σ f(xi)Δxi = A

n ∞

 The left side of the above equation presents the notation of the
DEFINITE INTEGRAL.
 The values of a and b which appear, respectively below and
above the integral signs are called the limits of integration. The

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 Basic Calculus

lower limit of integration is a and the upper limit of integration is

b.
 The notation ba f(x)dx can be verbalized as “the definite integral
of f(x) between a lower limit x = a and an upper limit x = b.” or
more simply “the integral of f(x) between a and b.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS

If a function f(x) is continuous over an interval and F(x) is any

antiderivative of f(x), then for any points x = a and x = b on the
interval, where a ≤ b,

ba f(x)dx = F(b) – F(a)

According to the theorem above, the definite integral can be

evaluated by
1. Determining the indefinite integral F(x) + c and
2. Computing F(b) – F(a), sometimes denoted by F(x)]ba
a) Example: Evaluate 30 x2 dx.

Solution: F(x) = x3/3 + c

Now = 30 x2 dx = (x3/3 + c)]30

= (33/3 + c) – (03/0 + c)

= (9 + c) – c

= 9

When evaluating definite integrals, we always subtract the value of

the indefinite integral at the lower limit of integration from the
value at the upper limit of integration. The constant of integration
will always drop out in this computation, as it did in the example
above. Thus there is no need to include the constant in evaluating
definite integrals.
Example: Find the area of the region enclosed between the curves and y=x 2 and y=x .
Solution we know that y=x 2 is the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the
y-axis and vertex is origin. y = x is the equation of the straight line passing through the
origin and making an angle of 45° with the x-axis.

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 Basic Calculus

A sketch of the region shows that the lower boundary is y=x 2and the upper boundary is
the line y = x. These two curves intersect at two points O and A. Solving these two
equations, we get
2
x =x
x (x − 1)=0
x=0 , 1
2
Here f ( x )=x , g ( x )=x
a=0∧b=1
Therefore, the required area
1

∫ ( x − x 2 ) dx
0

[ ]
1
x2 x3
−
2 3 0
1 1 1
− = Square Units
2 3 6

Example: Find the area bounded by the curves y 2=4 x∧ y=x

Solution: We know that y 2=4 x the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about
the x-axis and origin is the vertex. y=x is the equation of the straight line passing
through origin and making an angle of 45° with the x-axis.
A sketch of the region shows that the lower boundary is y = x and the upper boundary is
2
y =4 x . These two curves intersect at two points O and A. Solving these two equations,
we get.
2
y
− y=0
4
y ( y − 4)=0
y=0 , 4
Wℎen y=0 , x=0∧wℎen y=4 , x=4
1
2
Here f ( x )=4 x , g ( x )=x
a=0∧b=4

Therefore, the required area is

∫(2 x )
4 1
2
− x dx
0

[ ]
3 4
2
4 2 x
x −
3 2 0

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 Basic Calculus

32 8
−8= SquareUnits
3 3

Business applications of Integral Calculus

Exercises

1. An automobile manufacturer estimates that the annual rate of

expenditure r(t) for maintenance on one of is models is represented
by the function

r(t) = 100 + 10t2

where t = age of the automobile stated in years.

a) What is the expected maintenance cost for the first 4 years?

b) What is the expected maintenance cost for the second year,
third year, fourth year?

Solution
a) 40(100 + 10t2) dx = 100t +10t3/3]40
= [100(4) + 10(4)3/3] - [100(0) +
10(0)3/3]
= Birr 613.33

b) 21(100 + 10t2) dx = 100t +10t3/3]21

= [100(2) + 10(2)3/3] - [100(1) +

10(1)3/3]
= Birr 123.33

32(100 + 10t2) dx = 100t +10t3/3]32

= [100(3) + 10(3)3/3] - [100(2) +

10(2)3/3]
= Birr 163.33

43(100 + 10t2) dx = 100t +10t3/3]43

= [100(4) + 10(4)3/3] - [100(3) +

10(3)3/3]
= Birr 223.33

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 Basic Calculus

 As expected, the older the automobile, the more the cost of

maintenance
2. A state civic organization is conducting its annual fund raising
campaign for its summer camp program for the disadvantaged.
Campaign expenditures will be incurred at a rate of 10,000 birr per
day. The function describing the rate at which contributions are
received is:

c(t) = -100t2 + 20,000

Where t = the day of the campaign and c(t) is measured in birr
per day.

a) Determine how long the campaign should be conducted in

order to maximize net proceeds.
b) What are the total campaign expenditures expected to equal?
c) What are total contributions expected to equal?
d) What are the net proceeds (total contribution less total
expenditures) expected to equal?

Solution:

a) For proceeds to be maximized rate of contributions and rate of

expenditure should be equated

e(t) = 10,000
c(t) = -100t2 + 20,000
c(t) = e(t)
-100t2 + 20,000 = 10,000
-100t2 = -10,000
t = 10 days

b) 100 10,000 dx = 10,000t]100

= [10000(10) – 10000(0)]
= 100,000 birr

c) 100 (-100t2 + 20,000) dx = -100t3/3 + 20,000t]100

= [-100(10)3/3 + 20,000(10)] –
[-100(0)3/3 + 20,000(0)]
= 166,666.67 birr

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 Basic Calculus

d) Net proceeds = Contributions – Expenditure

= 166,666.67 – 100,000
= 66,666.67 birr

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