Chapter 27

Current
And
Resistance

Dr. Awos Alsalman 1

Electric Current
⚫ Electric current is the rate of flow of charge
through some region of space
⚫ The SI unit of current is the ampere (A)
⚫ 1A=1C/s
⚫ The symbol for electric current is I

2
Average Electric Current
⚫ Assume charges are
moving perpendicular
to a surface of area A
⚫ If Q is the amount of
charge that passes
through A in time t,
then the average
current is
Q
I avg =
t
3
Instantaneous Electric Current
⚫ If the rate at which the charge flows varies
with time, the instantaneous current, I, can be
found
dQ
I
dt

4
Direction of Current
⚫ The charges passing through the area could be
positive or negative or both
⚫ It is conventional to assign to the current the same
direction as the flow of positive charges
⚫ The direction of current flow is opposite the direction
of the flow of electrons
⚫ It is common to refer to any moving charge as a
charge carrier

5
Current and Drift Speed
⚫ Charged particles move
through a conductor of
cross-sectional area A
⚫ n is the number of
charge carriers per unit
volume
⚫ nAΔx is the total
number of charge
carriers

6
Current and Drift Speed, cont
⚫ The total charge is the number of carriers
times the charge per carrier, q
⚫ ΔQ = (nAΔx)q
⚫ The drift speed, vd, is the speed at which the
carriers move
⚫ vd = Δx / Δt and x = vd t
⚫ Rewritten: ΔQ = (nAvd Δt)q
⚫ Finally, current, Iave = ΔQ/Δt = nqvdA

7
Charge Carrier Motion in a
Conductor
⚫ The zigzag black lines
represents the motion of a
charge carrier in a
conductor
⚫ The net drift speed is small
⚫ The sharp changes in
direction are due to
collisions
⚫ The net motion of electrons
is opposite the direction of
the electric field
⚫ Use the active figure to
change the field and
observe the effect
PLAY 8
ACTIVE FIGURE
Motion of Charge Carriers,
cont.
⚫ In the presence of an electric field, in spite of
all the collisions, the charge carriers slowly
move along the conductor with a drift velocity,
vd
⚫ The electric field exerts forces on the
conduction electrons in the wire
⚫ These forces cause the electrons to move in
the wire and create a current

9
Motion of Charge Carriers,
final
⚫ The electrons are already in the wire
⚫ They respond to the electric field set up by the
battery
⚫ The battery does not supply the electrons, it only
establishes the electric field

10
Drift Velocity, Example
⚫ Assume a copper wire, with one free electron
per atom contributed to the current
⚫ The drift velocity for a 12-gauge copper wire
carrying a current of 10.0 A is
2.23 x 10-4 m/s
⚫ This is a typical order of magnitude for drift
velocities

11
Current Density
⚫ J is the current density of a conductor
⚫ It is defined as the current per unit area
⚫ J = I / A = nqvd
⚫ This expression is valid only if the current density is
uniform and A is perpendicular to the direction of the
current
⚫ J has SI units of A/m2
⚫ The current density is in the direction of the positive
charge carriers

12
Example:
An 18-guage copper wire (the size usually used for
lamp cords) has a nominal diameter of 1.02 mm.
This wire carries a constant current of 1.67 A to a
200-watt lamp. The density of free electrons is
8.5  10 28 electrons per cubic meter. Find the
magnitudes of a) the current density and b) the drift
velocity.

13
Conductivity
⚫ A current density and an electric field are
established in a conductor whenever a
potential difference is maintained across the
conductor
⚫ For some materials, the current density is
directly proportional to the field
⚫ The constant of proportionality, σ, is called
the conductivity of the conductor

14
Ohm’s Law
⚫ Ohm’s law states that for many materials,
the ratio of the current density to the electric
field is a constant σ that is independent of the
electric field producing the current
⚫ Most metals obey Ohm’s law
⚫ Mathematically, J = σ E
⚫ Materials that obey Ohm’s law are said to be
ohmic

15
Ohm’s Law, cont.
⚫ Not all materials follow Ohm’s law
⚫ Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to
be nonohmic
⚫ Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law of nature
⚫ Ohm’s law is an empirical relationship valid
only for certain materials

16
Georg Simon Ohm
⚫ 1789 -1854
⚫ German physicist
⚫ Formulated idea of
resistance
⚫ Discovered the
proportionalities now
known as forms of
Ohm’s Law

17
Resistance
⚫ In a conductor, the voltage applied across the
ends of the conductor is proportional to the
current through the conductor
⚫ The constant of proportionality is called the
resistance of the conductor
V
R
I

18
Resistance, cont.
⚫ SI units of resistance are ohms (Ω)
⚫ 1Ω=1V/A
⚫ Resistance in a circuit arises due to collisions
between the electrons carrying the current
with the fixed atoms inside the conductor

19
Resistivity
⚫ The inverse of the conductivity is the
resistivity:
⚫ ρ=1/σ
⚫ Resistivity has SI units of ohm-meters (Ω . m)
⚫ Resistance is also related to resistivity:

R=ρ
A

20
Resistivity
Values

21
Resistance and Resistivity,
Summary
⚫ Every ohmic material has a characteristic resistivity
that depends on the properties of the material and
on temperature
⚫ Resistivity is a property of substances
⚫ The resistance of a material depends on its
geometry and its resistivity
⚫ Resistance is a property of an object
⚫ An ideal conductor would have zero resistivity
⚫ An ideal insulator would have infinite resistivity

22
Ohmic Material, Graph
⚫ An ohmic device
⚫ The resistance is
constant over a wide
range of voltages
⚫ The relationship
between current and
voltage is linear
⚫ The slope is related to
the resistance

23
Nonohmic Material, Graph

⚫ Nonohmic materials
are those whose
resistance changes
with voltage or current
⚫ The current-voltage
relationship is
nonlinear
⚫ A junction diode is a
common example of a
nonohmic device

24
Examples:
The 18-gauge copper wire in example 25.1 has a diameter of
1.02 mm and a cross-sectional area A = 8.2  10 −7 m 2 . It carries
a current I=1.67 A. Find a) the electric-field magnitude in the
wire; b* the potential difference between two points in the wire
50 m apart; c) the resistance of a 50 m length of this wire.

25
Exercise:
The figure here shows three cylindrical copper
conductors along with their face areas and lengths.
Rank them according to the current through them,
greatest first, when the same potential difference V
is placed across their lengths.

26
Resistance and Temperature
⚫ Over a limited temperature range, the
resistivity of a conductor varies
approximately linearly with the
temperature
ρ = ρo [1 + α (T − To )]
⚫ ρo is the resistivity at some reference
temperature To
⚫ To is usually taken to be 20° C
⚫ α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity
▪ SI units of α are oC-1

27
Temperature Variation of
Resistance
⚫ Since the resistance of a conductor with uniform
cross sectional area is proportional to the resistivity,
you can find the effect of temperature on resistance
R = Ro[1 + α(T - To)]
⚫ Use of this property enables precise temperature
measurements through careful monitoring of the
resistance of a probe made from a particular
material

28
Examples:
Suppose the resistance of the wire is 1.05 Ω at a temperature of
20 °C. Find the resistance at 0 °C and at 100 °C.

29
Resistivity and Temperature,
Graphical View
⚫ For some metals, the
resistivity is nearly
proportional to the
temperature
⚫ A nonlinear region always
exists at very low
temperatures
⚫ The resistivity usually
reaches some finite value
as the temperature
approaches absolute zero

30
Residual Resistivity
⚫ The residual resistivity near absolute zero
is caused primarily by the collisions of
electrons with impurities and imperfections
in the metal
⚫ High temperature resistivity is
predominantly characterized by collisions
between the electrons and the metal
atoms
⚫ This is the linear range on the graph
31
Semiconductors
⚫ Semiconductors are materials that exhibit a
decrease in resistivity with an increase in
temperature
⚫ α is negative
⚫ There is an increase in the density of charge
carriers at higher temperatures

32
Superconductors
⚫ A class of materials and
compounds whose
resistances fall to
virtually zero below a
certain temperature, TC
⚫ TC is called the critical
temperature
⚫ The graph is the same
as a normal metal
above TC, but suddenly
drops to zero at TC

33
Superconductors, cont
⚫ The value of TC is sensitive to:
⚫ chemical composition
⚫ pressure
⚫ molecular structure
⚫ Once a current is set up in a superconductor,
it persists without any applied voltage
⚫ Since R = 0

34
Superconductor Application
⚫ An important
application of
superconductors is a
superconducting
magnet
⚫ The magnitude of the
magnetic field is
about 10 times
greater than a normal
electromagnet
⚫ Used in MRI units
35
Electrical Power
⚫ Assume a circuit as
shown
⚫ As a charge moves from
a to b, the electric
potential energy of the
system increases by QV
⚫ The chemical energy in
the battery must
decrease by this same
amount
⚫ Use the active figure to
adjust the voltage or
resistance, observe
current and power
PLAY 36
ACTIVE FIGURE
Electrical Power, 2
⚫ As the charge moves through the resistor (c
to d), the system loses this electric potential
energy during collisions of the electrons with
the atoms of the resistor
⚫ This energy is transformed into internal
energy in the resistor
⚫ Corresponds to increased vibrational motion of
the atoms in the resistor

37
Electric Power, 3
⚫ The resistor is normally in contact with the air, so its
increased temperature will result in a transfer of
energy by heat into the air
⚫ The resistor also emits thermal radiation
⚫ After some time interval, the resistor reaches a
constant temperature
⚫ The input of energy from the battery is balanced by the
output of energy by heat and radiation

38
Electric Power, 4
⚫ The rate at which the system loses potential
energy as the charge passes through the
resistor is equal to the rate at which the
system gains internal energy in the resistor
⚫ The power is the rate at which the energy is
delivered to the resistor

39
Electric Power, final
⚫ The power is given by the equation:
 =IV
⚫ Applying Ohm’s Law, alternative expressions can be
found:
( V )
2

= I  V = I 2
R=
R
⚫ Units: I is in A, R is in Ω, V is in V, and is in W

40
Some Final Notes About
Current
⚫ A single electron is moving at the drift velocity
in the circuit
⚫ It may take hours for an electron to move
completely around a circuit
⚫ The current is the same everywhere in the
circuit
⚫ Current is not “used up” anywhere in the circuit
⚫ The charges flow in the same rotational
sense at all points in the circuit
41
Electric Power Transmission
⚫ Real power lines have
resistance
⚫ Power companies
transmit electricity at
high voltages and low
currents to minimize
power losses

42
43
44
45