Current Electricity 1

60
Chapter

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19
Current Electricity
Electric Current
(1) The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-

section is called current. i  Lim

ΔQ dQ
 . If flow is uniform
ID (5) For a given conductor current does not change with
change in cross-sectional area. In the following figure i1 = i2 = i3
U
Δt 0 Δt dt i1 i2 i3
Q
then i  . Current is a scalar quantity. It's S.I. unit is ampere
t Fig. 19.2
YG

(A) and C.G.S. unit is emu and is called biot (Bi), or ab ampere.

1A = (1/10) Bi (ab amp.) (6) Current due to translatory motion of charge : If n particle

(2) Ampere of current means the flow of 6.25  1018 each having a charge q, pass + +

+ +
electrons/sec through any cross-section of the conductor. nq
through a given area in time t then i  + +
t
D

(3) The conventional direction of current is taken to be the Fig. 19.3

direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is opposite to

If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per
U

the direction of flow of negative charge as shown below.

i i unit area, the current associated with cross-sectional area A is

  i  nqA
E E
ST

Fig. 19.1
If there are n particle per unit volume each having a charge

q and moving with velocity v, the current thorough, cross section

(4) The net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero. A is i  nqvA

Table : 19.1 Types of current

Alternating current (ac) Direct current (dc)

(i) (i) (Pulsating dc) (Constant dc)

i
i i
+

– t
t t
 2 Current Electricity
Magnitude and direction

both varies with time

ac  Rectifier  dc dc  Inverter  ac

(ii) Shows heating effect only (ii) Shows heating effect, chemical effect and magnetic effect of

60
current

(iii) It’s symbol is (iii) It’s symbol is + –

~

(7) Current due to rotatory motion of charge : If a point (1) Current density at point P is given by J 
di

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n
dA
charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v (frequency ˆ
dA
dA 
, angular speed  and time period T) then corresponding 
r q i P J i
J
q qv qω n
current i  q ν   
T 2 πr 2 π dA cos
Fig. 19.4 ID Fig. 19.5

(2) If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current,

U
(8) Current carriers : The charged particles whose flow in a but makes an angle  with the direction of current then

definite direction constitutes the electric current are called di

J  di  JdA cos  J .dA  i   J  dA
dA cos
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current carriers. In different situation current carriers are

(3) If current density J is uniform for a normal cross-
different.
i
section A then J 
(i) Solids : In solid conductors like metals current carriers A

are free electrons. (4) Current density J is a vector quantity. It's direction is
same as that of E . It's S.I. unit is amp/m2 and dimension [L–2A].
D

(ii) Liquids : In liquids current carriers are positive and

(5) In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-
negative ions.
i
section normal to it as i  nqvA  J   nqv .
U

(iii) Gases : In gases current carriers are positive ions and A

free electrons. (6) Current density relates with electric field as

E
ST

(iv) Semi conductor : In semi conductors current carriers J  E  ; where  = conductivity and  = resistivity or

are holes and free electrons. specific resistance of substance.

Current Density (J )
Drift Velocity
Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by
as a vector having magnitude equal to current per unit area free electrons inside a metal by the application of an electric
surrounding that point. Remember area is normal to the field which is responsible for current through it. Drift velocity is
very small it is of the order of 10–4 m/s as compared to thermal
direction of charge flow (or current passes) through that point. l
speed (~– 10 5 m / s) of electrons at room temperature.
A
vd
E

+ –
V
Fig. 19.6
 Current Electricity 1039

metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time

mean free path 
  . With rise in temperature
r.m.s. velocityof electrons v rms
vrms increases consequently  decreases.
(2) Mobility : Drift velocity per unit electric field is called
vd m2
mobility of electron i.e.   . It’s unit is .
E volt  sec
If suppose for a conductor Ohm's Law

60
n = Number of electron per unit volume of the conductor If the physical conditions of the conductor (length,
A = Area of cross-section temperature, mechanical strain etc.) remains some, then the
V = potential difference across the conductor current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to

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E = electric field inside the conductor
the potential difference across it’s two ends i.e. i  V 
i = current, J = current density,  = specific resistance,  =
V  iR where R is a proportionality constant, known as electric
 1
conductivity     then current relates with drift velocity as resistance.
 
i  neAv we can also write (1) Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substances, which

vd 
d

i

J

neA ne ne
E

E

V
ne  l n e
.

(1) The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is


ID
obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic substance.

(2) Graph between V and i for a metallic conductor is a

U
opposite to that of applied electric field (i.e. current density J ). straight line as shown. At different temperatures V-i curves are
v d  E i.e., greater the electric field, larger will be the drift different.
V V
velocity. T1
YG

1
(2) When a steady current flows through a conductor of T2
2
non-uniform cross-section drift velocity varies inversely with
 1 2
 1
area of cross-section  v d   vd 2 i i
 A (A) Slope of the line
i (B) Here tan1 > tan2
vd1 A1 < A2
V
D

so vd1  vd 2 = tan    R So R1 > R2

i i
A1 Fig. 19.9 i.e. T1 > T2
A2

Fig. 19.7
U
ST

(3) If diameter (d) of a conductor is doubled, then drift

velocity of electrons inside it will not change. +
+ V – V – (3) The device or substances which don’t obey ohm’s law

e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermoionic valve, transistors etc.

Less – d More – d
Same – vd Some – vd are known as non-ohmic or non-linear conductors. For these V-i
Crystal i
Fig. 19.8 rectifier
curve is not linear.

V 1
Static resistance R st  
i tan   
(1) Relaxation time () : The time interval between two
V
successive collisions of electrons with the positive ions in the Fig. 19.10
 1040 Current Electricity
V 1 gives R2 = R1 [1 +  (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate
Dynamic resistance R dyn  
I tan 
value.
Resistance Table 19.2 : Variation of resistance of some electrical material
(1) The property of substance by virtue of which it with temperature
opposes the flow of current through it, is known as the
Material Temp. coefficient of Variation of resistance
resistance.
resistance () with temperature rise
(2) Formula of resistance : For a conductor if l = length
of a conductor A = Area of cross-section of conductor, n = Metals Positive Increases

60
No. of free electrons per unit volume in conductor,  =
Solid non-metal Zero Independent
relaxation time then resistance of conductor
l m l Semi-conductor Negative Decreases
R  . ; where  = resistivity of the material of
A ne  A
2

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conductor Electrolyte Negative Decreases

(3) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is Volt/Amp. or Ohm (). Ionised gases Negative Decreases
8
1volt 10 emu of potential
Also 1 ohm   = 109 emu of Alloys Small positive value Almost constant
1 Amp 10 1 emu of current
resistance. It’s dimension is [ML2 T 3 A 2 ] .

(4) Dependence of resistance : Resistance of a conductor

depends upon the following factors.
ID Resistivity (), Conductivity () and Conductance (C)

(1) Resistivity : From R  

l
A
; If l = 1m, A = 1 m2 then
U
(i) Length of the conductor : Resistance of a conductor is
R   i.e. resistivity is numerically equal to the resistance of a
directly proportional to it’s length i.e. R  l and inversely
substance having unit area of cross-section and unit length.
1
YG

proportional to it’s area of cross-section i.e. R 

A (i) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is ohm  m and

(ii) Temperature : For a conductor dimension is [ML3 T 3 A 2 ]

Resistance  temperatur e . m
(ii) It’s formula :  
ne 2
If R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC
D

(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It

Rt = resistance of conductor at toC
is independent of shape and size of the body (i.e. l and A).
and ,  = temperature co-efficient of resistance
U

(iv) For different substances their resistivity is also

then Rt  R0 (1   t   t 2 ) for t > 300oC and
different e.g. silver = minimum = 1.6  10–8 -m and fused
Rt  R0
Rt  R0 (1  t ) for t  300oC
ST

or  
R0  t quartz = maximum  1016 -m

If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1oC and t2oC insulator   alloy   semi - conductor   conductor
1   t1
(Maximum for fused quartz) (Minimum for silver )
R
respectively then 1  .
R2 1   t2
(v) Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals
The value of  is different at different temperature. t  0 (1  t) i.e. resitivity increases with temperature.
Temperature coefficient of resistance
averaged over the
R 2  R1 (vi) Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical
temperature range t1oC to t2oC is given by   which
R1 (t 2  t1 ) stress.
 Current Electricity 1041

(vii) Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals Ratio of resistances before and after stretching
except iron, cobalt and nickel. R1 l A l 
2
A
2
 r
4
 d 
4

 1  2  1   2   2   2 
R2 l 2 A1  l 2 

A
 1


r
 1


d
 1


(viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium,
cadmium, sulphides is inversely proportional to intensity of light
2
R1  l1 
(1) If length is given then R  l 2   
falling upon them. R 2  l 2 


(2) Conductivity : Reciprocal of resistivity is called

4
1 R r 
(2) If radius is given then R   1   2 

60
1 r4 R 2  r1 
conductivity () i.e.   with unit mho/m and dimensions

Electrical Conducting Materials For Specific Use
[M 1 L3 T 3 A 2 ] .
(1) Filament of electric bulb : Is made up of tungsten which
(3) Conductance : Reciprocal of resistance is known as
has high resistivity, high melting point.

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1 1
conductance. C  It’s unit is or –1 or “Siemen”.
R  (2) Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser or
i press) : Is made up of nichrome which has high resistivity and

high melting point.

Fig. 19.11
V
ID (3) Resistances of resistance boxes (standard resistances)

: Are made up of alloys (manganin, constantan or nichrome)

these materials have moderate resistivity which is practically

U
independent of temperature so that the specified value of
Stretching of Wire
resistance does not alter with minor changes in temperature.
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If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of

(4) Fuse-wire : Is made up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
cross-section decreases so resistance increases but volume
lead). It should have low melting point and high resistivity. It is
remain constant.
used in series as a safety device in an electric circuit and is
Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length =
designed so as to melt and thereby open the circuit if the current
l1, area of cross-section = A1, radius = r1, diameter = d1, and
D

l1 exceeds a predetermined value due to some fault. The function

resistance R1  
A1 of a fuse is independent of its length.
U

Before stretching After stretching Safe current of fuse wire relates with it’s radius as

l1 l2 i  r 3/2 .
ST

 
(5) Thermistors : A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor

Volume remains constant i.e. A1l1 = A2l2 usually prepared from oxides of various metals such as nickel,
Fig. 19.12 copper, cobalt, iron etc. These compounds are also semi-

conductor. For thermistors  is very high which may be positive

or negative. The resistance of thermistors changes very rapidly

After stretching length = l2, area of cross-section = A2,
l2 with change of temperature.
radius = r2, diameter = d2 and resistance  R2  
A2 i

V
Fig. 19.13
 1042 Current Electricity
O Orange 3 103

Y Yellow 4 104

G Green 5 105

B Blue 6 106

V Violet 7 107
Thermistors are used to detect small temperature change
G Grey 8 108
and to measure very low temperature.
W White 9 109

60
Colour Coding of Resistance
To know the value of resistance colour code is used. These To remember the sequence of colour code following

code are printed in form of set of rings or strips. By reading the sentence should kept in memory.

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values of colour bands, we can estimate the value of resistance. B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife.
Grouping of Resistance
The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings or
(1) Series grouping
bands say A, B, C and D as shown in following figure.
A B C D
(i) Same current flows through each resistance but potential

Fig. 19.14
ID
difference distributes in the ratio of resistance i.e. V  R

i
R1

V1
R2

V2
R3

V3
U
+ –
V
Colour band A and B : Indicate the first two significant Fig. 19.15
YG

figures of resistance in ohm.

Band C : Indicates the decimal multiplier i.e. the number of

zeros that follows the two significant figures A and B. (ii) Req  R1  R 2  R 3 equivalent resistance is greater

Band D : Indicates the tolerance in percent about the than the maximum value of resistance in the combination.
D

indicated value or in other words it represents the percentage (iii) If n identical resistance are connected in series

accuracy of the indicated value. R eq  nR and potential difference across each resistance
U

V
The tolerance in the case of gold is  5% and in silver is  V' 
n
10%. If only three bands are marked on carbon resistance, then
ST

(2) Parallel grouping

it indicate a tolerance of 20%. i1
R1
i2
(i) Same potential difference
Table 19.3 : Colour code for carbon resistance i3 R2
appeared across each resistance i
R3
Letters as an Colour Figure Multiplier
but current distributes in the
aid to memory (A, B) (C) reverse ratio of their resistance V

B Black 0 10o 1 Fig. 19.16

i.e. i 
R
B Brown 1 101

R Red 2 102
 Current Electricity 1043

1 1 1 1
(ii) Equivalent resistance is given by   
R eq R1 R 2 R 3
R1 R 2 R 3
or R eq  (R11  R 21  R 31 )1 or R eq 
R1 R 2  R 2 R 3  R 2 R1

Equivalent resistance is smaller than the minimum value of

resistance in the combination. (1) Emf of cell (E) : The potential difference across the
terminals of a cell when it is not supplying any current is called
(iv) If two resistance in parallel
R1 R 2 Multiplication it’s emf.
 

60
R eq
R1  R 2 Addition (2) Potential difference (V) : The voltage across the
(v) Current through any resistance terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to external
 Resistance of oppositebranch  resistance is called potential difference or terminal voltage.
i'  i   
 Total resistance 
Potential difference is equal to the product of current and

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Where i = required current (branch current),
resistance of that given part i.e. V = iR.
i1 R1
i = main current
(3) Internal resistance (r) : In case of a cell the opposition
 R2  i
i1  i   of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called internal

 R1  R 2

 R1
and i2  i 
 R1  R 2






i2 R2

Fig. 19.17
ID
resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell depends

on the distance between electrodes (r  d), area of electrodes [r

 (1/A)] and nature, concentration (r  C) and temperature of

U
(vi) In n identical resistance are connected in parallel electrolyte [r  (1/ temp.)].
R i A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.
R eq  and current through each resistance i' 
n n
YG

Cell in Various Positions

Cell
(1) Closed circuit : Cell supplies a constant current in the
R
circuit.

V = iR
i
D

E, r
U

Fig. 19.19
ST

The device which converts chemical energy into electrical

energy is known as electric cell. Cell is a source of constant emf (i) Current given by the cell i 
E
Rr
but not constant current.
+ (ii) Potential difference across the resistance V  iR
A
Anode Cathode –
(iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir

+ – + – (iv) Equation of cell E  V  ir (E > V)

– E 
+ (v) Internal resistance of the cell r    1   R
Symbol of cell V 
Electrolyte
(vi) Power dissipated in external resistance (load)
Fig. 19.18
 1044 Current Electricity
V2  E 
2
(i) Maximum current (called short circuit current) flows
P  Vi  i 2 R    .R
R R r E
momentarily isc 
Power delivered will be maximum when Rr so r
2
Pmax 
E
. (ii) Potential difference V = 0
4r
This statement in generalised from is called “maximum
Grouping of Cells

power transfer theorem”.

Pmax = E2/4r

60
P

R=r
R

E3
Fig. 19.20

Group of cell is called a battery.

(vii) When the cell is being charged i.e. current is given to In series grouping of cell’s their emf’s are additive or
the cell then E = V – ir and E < V.

(2) Open circuit : When no current is taken from the cell it

is said to be in open circuit

ID subtractive while their internal resistances are always additive. If
dissimilar plates of cells are connected together their emf’s are
added to each other while if their similar plates are connected
R
U
together their emf’s are subtractive.
C D A B

E1 E2 E1 E2
YG

Eeq = E1 + E2 Eeq = E1 – E2 (E1 > E2)

E, r req = r1 + r2 req = r1 + r2
Fig. 19.21 Fig. 19.23

(1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is

D

(i) Current through the circuit i = 0

connected to cathode of other cell and so on. If n identical cells
(ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB = E E, r E, r E, r E, r
are connected in series
U

(iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0

i
(3) Short circuit : If two terminals of cell are join together by
ST

R
a thick conducting wire
R=0 Fig. 19.24

E, r
(i) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq  nE
Fig. 19.22
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance req  nr
nE
(iii) Main current = Current from each cell  i 
R  nr
(iv) Potential difference across external resistance V  iR
 Current Electricity 1045

V
(v) Potential difference across each cell V ' 
n
2
 nE 
(vi) Power dissipated in the external circuit    .R
 R  nr 
(vii) Condition for maximum power R  nr and
 E2 
Pmax  n  

 4r 
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr << R.

60
(2) Parallel grouping : In parallel grouping all anodes are (i) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq  nE

connected at one point and all cathode are connected together (ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination
nr
at other point. If n identical cells areEconnected
,r in parallel req 

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m
E, r (iii) Main current flowing through the load
nE mnE
E, r i 
nr mR  nr
R
i m
R

Fig. 19.25
ID (iv) Potential difference across load V  iR

(v) Potential difference across each cell V ' 

i
V
n

(vi) Current from each cell i ' 

U
n
nr
(vii) Condition for maximum power R
m
YG

(i) Equivalent emf Eeq = E

E2
and Pmax  (mn )
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance Req  r / n 4r

(iii) Main current i 

E (viii) Total number of cell = mn
R r/n
Kirchoff's Laws
(iv) potential difference across external resistance = p.d.
(1) Kirchoff’s first law : This law is also known as junction
D

across each cell = V = iR

i rule or current law (KCL). According to it the algebraic sum of
(v) Current from each cell i' 
n currents meeting at a junction is zero i.e. i = 0.
U

2
 E  i1
(vi) Power dissipated in the circuit P    .R
 R r/n  i4

(vii) Condition for max. power is and

ST

R  r/n i3
i2
E 2 
Pmax  n  
 Fig. 19.27
 4r 

(viii) This type of combination is used when nr >> R

In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents
(3) Mixed Grouping : If n identical cell’s are connected in
entering the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving
a row and such m row’s are connected in parallel as shown.
the junction. i1  i3  i2  i4
E, r E, r E, r
1 (ii) This law is simply a statement of “conservation of
1 2 n

2 charge”.

i
m

R
Fig. 19.26
 1046 Current Electricity
(2) Kirchoff’s second law : This law is also known as loop (iv) The change in voltage in traversing an inductor in the

rule or voltage law (KVL) and according to it “the algebraic sum direction of current is  L
di
while in opposite direction it is
dt
of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh L L
Adi i B A i B
L .
(closed loop) is zero”, i.e. V = 0 dt
di di
L L (B)
(i) This law represents “conservation of energy”. (A) dt dt

(ii) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of Fig. 19.31

independent equations in accordance with loop rule will be (n – 1).

60
(3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchoff’s law :

For the application of Kirchoff’s laws following sign convention

are to be considered Different Measuring Instruments

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(i) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in

the direction of current is – iR while in the opposite direction +iR

A R B A R B
i i

– iR Fig. 19.28 + iR
ID
U
(ii) The change in potential in traversing an emf source

from negative to positive terminal is +E while in the opposite

(1) Galvanometer : It is an instrument used to detect
direction – E irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit.
YG

small current passing through it by showing deflection.

A E B A E B Galvanometers are of different types e.g. moving coil

galvanometer, moving magnet galvanometer, hot wire
–E +E
Fig. 19.29 galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil galvanometer are
D

used.

(i) It’s symbol : G ; where G is the

(iii) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from
U

q total internal resistance of the galvanometer.

the negative terminal to the positive terminal is  while in
C
(ii) Full scale deflection current : The current required for
q
ST

opposite direction  .
C full scale deflection in a galvanometer is called full scale
C C
A B A B
– + – + deflection current and is represented by ig.
q q q
q
 
C C (iii) Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to
(A) (B)
Fig. 19.30 galvanometer coil, in order to control current flowing through the

galvanometer is known as shunt.

Table 19.4 : Merits and demerits of shunt

Merits of shunt Demerits of shunt

 Current Electricity 1047

i
To protect the galvanometer Shunt resistance decreases (c) To pass nth part of main current (i.e. ig  ) through
n
coil from burning the sensitivity of galvanometer. G
the galvanometer, required shunt S  .
It can be used to convert any
(n  1)

galvanometer into ammeter of (3) Voltmeter : It is a device used to measure potential

desired range. difference and is always put in parallel with the ‘circuit element’

across which potential difference

V
is to be measured.
(2) Ammeter : It is a device used to measure current and

60
is always connected in series with the ‘element’ through which
R
i
current is to be measured. R
+ –
V
i A

E3
Fig. 19.34

+ –
V
Fig. 19.32

(i) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than

ID (i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true

value.

(ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will

U
be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its resistance is
actual current in the circuit.
infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the circuit element for its
(ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate
YG

operation.
will be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if its
(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter : A
resistance r is zero.
galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by connecting
(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter : A R
a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer as shown
G
galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by connecting in the figure. Vg = igG (V – Vg)
D

a low resistance (called shunt S) in parallel to the galvanometer ig

S
G as shown in figure. V
U

i – ig Fig. 19.35
i
G
ig
ST

Ammeter
Fig. 19.33
(a) Equivalent resistance of the combination = G + R

(b) According to ohm’s law V = ig (G + R); which gives

V  V 
GS Required series resistance R  G  1G
(a) Equivalent resistance of the combination  ig  
GS  Vg 

(b) G and S are parallel to each other hence both will (c) If nth part of applied voltage appeared across
V
have equal potential difference i.e. ig G  (i  ig )S ; which gives galvanometer (i.e. Vg  ) then required series resistance
n

Required shunt S 
ig
G R  (n  1) G .
(i  i g )
 1048 Current Electricity
(4) Wheatstone bridge Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a

: Wheatstone bridge is an B given cell and to compare emf’s of cells. It is also used to
P K1 Q
arrangement of four measure internal resistance of a given cell.
A C
resistance which can be G
(1) Circuit diagram : Potentiometer consists of a long
used to measure one of R S resistive wire AB of length L (about 6m to 10 m long) made up
them in terms of rest. Here + – D K2
of mangnine or constantan and a battery of known voltage e
arms AB and BC are called Fig. 19.36 and internal resistance r called supplier battery or driver cell.

60
ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate arms Connection of these two forms primary circuit.

One terminal of another cell (whose emf E is to be

(i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced measured) is connected at one end of the main circuit and the

E3
when deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current flows other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a
through the galvanometer or in other words VB = VD. In the R
galvanometer G. This eforms
,r theKsecondary circuit.
h
Other details
P R
balanced condition  , on mutually changing the position Primary
Q S are as follows
circuit J
of cell and galvanometer this condition will not change. A B

(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current

will flow from D to B if VD > VB i.e. (VA  VD )  (VA  VB ) which
ID Secondary
circuit
E
G

Fig. 19.38
gives PS > RQ.
U
(iii) Applications of wheatstone bridge : Meter bridge, post
office box and Carey Foster bridge are instruments based on
YG

the principle of wheatstone bridge and are used to measure

unknown resistance. J = Jockey
(5) Meter bridge : In case of meter bridge, the resistance
K = Key
wire AC is 100 cm long. Varying the position of tapping point B,
bridge is balanced. If in balanced position of bridge AB = l, BC R = Resistance of potentiometer wire,
D

Q (100  l) P R (100  l)
(100 – l) so that  . Also   S  R  = Specific resistance of potentiometer wire.
P l Q SS l
R R.B.
Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current
U

G through the wire AB

P B Q (i) The specific resistance () of potentiometer wire must

C
ST

A
l cm (100 – l) cm
be high but its temperature coefficient of resistance () must be
E K
low.
Fig. 19.37

(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and

secondary circuits must be connected together at point A and all

lower potential points must be connected to point B or jockey.

Potentiometer
 Current Electricity 1049

(iii) The value of known potential difference must be

greater than the value of unknown potential difference to be

measured.

(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this

the current in the primary circuit must remain constant and the

jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire.

If V > E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in

60
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform
one direction
everywhere.
If V < E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in
(2) Potential gradient (x) : Potential difference (or fall in
opposite direction

E3
potential) per unit length of wire is called potential gradient i.e.
  If V = E then no current will flow in galvanometer circuit
V volt e
x where V  iR   .R .

L m  R  R h  r  this condition to known as null deflection position, length l is

V iR iρ e R known as balancing length.

So x    .
L L A (R  R h  r) L

(i) Potential gradient directly depends upon

(a) The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer

ID In balanced condition E  xl

or E  xl 
V
L
l
iR
L

l  
e  R
.  l

 R  Rh  r  L
U
x1 L l
wire. If V is constant then L  l   1  1
x 2 L2 l2
(b) The radius of potentiometer wire (i.e. Area of cross- (6) Standardization of potentiometer : The process of
YG

section) determining potential gradient experimentally is known as

(c) The specific resistance of the material of standardization of potentiometer.

potentiometer wire (i.e. ) e, r K Rh

(d) The current flowing through potentiometer wire ( i)

J
D

(ii) potential gradient indirectly depends upon A B

G
(a) The emf of battery in the primary circuit ( i.e. e) E0
U

(b) The resistance of rheostat in the primary circuit ( i.e.

E
Rh)
Fig. 19.40
ST

(3) Working : Suppose jocky is made to touch a point J on

wire then potential difference between A and J will be V  xl

At this length (l) two potential difference are obtained

Let the balancing length for the standard emf E0 is l0 then
(i) V due to battery e and
E0
by the principle of potentiometer E0 = xl0  x 
(ii) E due to unknown cell l0

e, r K Rh

l
J1 J J2
A B

G G G
E
Fig. 19.39
 1050 Current Electricity
(7) Sensitivity of potentiometer : A potentiometer is said to

be more sensitive, if it measures a small potential difference (i) Initially in secondary circuit key K' remains open and
more accurately. balancing length (l1) is obtained. Since cell E is in open circuit

(i) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its so it’s emf balances on length l1 i.e. E = xl1 …. (i)

potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely proportional to the (ii) Now key K is closed so cell E comes in closed circuit. If
potential gradient. the process of balancing repeated again then potential

(ii) In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer difference V balances on length l2 i.e. V = xl2

60
(a) The resistance in primary circuit will have to be …. (ii)

decreased. E 
(iii) By using formula internal resistance r    1  . R '
V 
(b) The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased

E3
l l 
so that the length may be measured more accuracy. r   1 2  . R'

 l2 
Table 19.5 : Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer
(2) Comparison of emf’s of two cell : Let l1 and l2 be the
Voltmeter Potentiometer balancing lengths with the cells E1 and E2 respectively then E1 =
It’s resistance is high but finite

It draws some current from

Its resistance is infinite

It does not draw any current from

ID
xl1 and E2 = xl2 
E1 l1

e, r

E 2 l2 K Rh

source of emf the source of unknown emf

U
J
The potential difference The potential difference A B
measured by it is lesser than measured by it is equal to G
YG

E1 1
the actual potential difference actual potential difference

Its sensitivity is low Its sensitivity is high

E2
2

It is a versatile instrument It measures only emf or Fig. 19.42

potential difference
D

It is based on deflection It is based on zero deflection

method method
U

Let E1 > E2 and both are connected in series. If balancing

Application of Potentiometer length is l1 when cell assist each other and it is l2 when they
ST

(1) To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell oppose each other as shown then :
K Rh
e, r
E1 E2 E1 E2
+ – + – + – – +

J B
A
G (E1  E 2 )  xl 1 (E1  E 2 )  xl 2
E
E1  E 2 l E1 l l
R K   1 or  1 2
E1  E 2 l2 E 2 l1  l2
Fig. 19.41
 Current Electricity 1051

(3) Comparison of resistances : Let the balancing length for (iv) x  i 

iR
 e
iRl
where L = length of
L L
resistance R1 (when XY is connected) is l1 and let balancing
potentiometer wire,  = resistance per unit length, l = balancing
length for resistance R1 + R2 (when YZ is connected) is l2.
length for e
K Rh
(5) Calibration of ammeter : Checking the correctness of
ammeter readings with the help of potentiometer is called
J
A B calibration of ammeter.
G

60
X Y Z
(i) In the process of calibration of an ammeter the current

R1 flowing in a circuit is measured by an ammeter and the same

i R2
current is also measured with the help of potentiometer. By
Rh
K1 comparing both the values, the errors in the ammeter readings

E3
1
e K1
Fig. 19.43
are determined. + –
+
A B
E1
+ –
1
2 G
R 2 l2  l1
Then iR1 = xl1 and i(R1 + R2) = xl2

(4) To determine thermo emf

+ – K

R1

Rh

l1 ID 1

+ –
3

K2
+

Fig. 19.45
A
–
U
R A
A HRB
YG

B
G
+ –
G
E0 1 2 3 (ii) For the calibration of an ammeter, 1  standard
Cold ice Hot sand
resistance coil is specifically used in the secondary circuit of the
Fig. 19.44
D

potentiometer, because the potential difference across 1  is

equal to the current flowing through it i.e. V = i.

U

(iii) If the balancing length for the emf E0 is l0 then E0 = xl0

(i) The value of thermo-emf in a thermocouple for ordinary x 
E0
(Process of standardisation)
l0
temperature difference is very low (10–6 volt). For this the
ST

potential gradient x must be also very low (10–4 V/m). Hence a (iv) Let i ' current flows through 1 resistance giving
high resistance (R) is connected in series with the potentiometer potential difference as V '  i' (1)  xl1 where l1 is the balancing
wire in order to reduce current. E0
length. So error can be found as i  i  i'  i  xl1  i   l1
l0
(ii) The potential difference across R must be equal to the

emf of standard cell i.e. iR = E0  i 

E0 (6) Calibration of voltmeter
R
(i) Practical voltmeters are not ideal, because these do not
(iii) The small thermo emf produced in the thermocouple e =
have infinite resistance. The error of such practical voltmeter
xl
 1052 Current Electricity
can be found by comparing the voltmeter reading with conductor is zero.

calculated value of p.d. by potentiometer.

(ii) If l0 is balancing length for E0 the emf of standard cell by

connecting 1 and 2 of bi-directional key, then x = E0/l0.

(iii) The balancing length l1 for unknown potential difference

V is given by (by closing 2 and 3) V '  xl1  (E0 / l0 )l1 . 1

e K1 Rh  For a given conductor JA = i = constant so that J 
A

60
+ –
i.e., J1 A1 = J2 A2 ; this is called equation of continuity
+
A B
E0 1 C
+ –
2
+ – G
V 3

E3
RB

+ –
K2
Rh
Fig. 19.46
 The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the

ID frequent collisions suffered by electrons.

 The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount

of electric current, due to the presence of extremely large
If the voltmeter reading is V then the error will be ( V – V)
U
number of free electrons in a conductor.
which may be + ve, – ve or zero.
The propagation of current is almost at the speed of light
YG

and involves electromagnetic process. It is due to this reason

that the electric bulb glows immediately when switch is on.

 In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons

between successive collisions are straight line while in
D

 Human body, though has a large resistance of the order of presence of electric field the paths are generally curved.
k (say 10 k), is very sensitive to minute currents even as
N Ax d
low as a few mA. Electrocution, excites and disorders the
 Free electron density in a metal is given by n 
U

A
nervous system of the body and hence one fails to control the where NA = Avogadro number, x = number of free electrons
activity of the body. per atom, d = density of metal and A = Atomic weight of
ST

 dc flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of metal.

conductor while ac mainly flows through the outer surface  In the absence of radiation loss, the time in which a fuse will
area of the conductor. This is known as skin effect. melt does not depends on it’s length but varies with radius as

 It is worth noting that electric field inside a charged t  r4 .

conductor is zero, but it is non zero inside a current carrying  If length (l) and mass (m) of a conducting wire is given
V l2
conductor and is given by E  where V = potential then R  .
l m
difference across the conductor and l = length of the V
 Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is R  , while it’s
conductor.
+ + + + + field out side the l current carrying
+Electric i
i
J1 + J2 –
Ein = 0 Ein = V/l
i
+ + + + + A+1 A2
 Current Electricity 1053

microscopic form is J =  E.

 After stretching if length increases by n times then

resistance will increase by n2 times i.e. R 2  n 2 R1 . Similarly 5
The longest diagonal (EC or AG)  R
1 6
if radius be reduced to times then area of cross-section
n
3
1 The diagonal of face (e.g. AC, ED, ....)  R
decreases times so the resistance becomes n times i.e.
4 4
n2
7
R 2  n 4 R1 . A side (e.g. AB, BC.....) 

60
R
12
 After stretching if length of a conductor increases by x%  Resistance of a conducting body is not unique but
then resistance will increases by 2x % (valid only if x < 10%) depends on it’s length and area of cross-section i.e. how the

 Decoration of lightning in festivals is an example of potential difference is applied. See the following figures

E3
series grouping whereas all household appliances connected c
c
in parallel grouping. 
 b
b
 Using n conductors of equal resistance, the number of
a
possible combinations is 2n – 1.

 If the resistance of n conductors are totally different, then

ID a

the number of possible combinations will be 2n.

U
 If n identical resistances are first connected in series and
then in parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is given Length = a Length = b
YG

Rp n2 Area of cross-section = b  c Area of cross-section = a  c

by  .
Rs 1  a   b 
Resistance R     Resistance R    
bc ac
 If a wire of resistance R, cut in n equal parts and then
 Some standard results for equivalent resistance
these parts are collected to form a bundle then equivalent
R1 R2
D

R
resistance of combination will be .
n2 A B
R5
 If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and
U

parallel be Rs and Rp respectively then

R3 R4
R1   Rs  Rs2  4 Rs R p  and R2   Rs  Rs2  4 Rs R p  .
1 1
ST

2   2  

 If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistance each R1 R2 (R3  R4 )  (R1  R2 )R3 R4  R5 (R1  R2 ) (R3  R4 )
R AB 
R5 (R1  R2  R3  R4 )  (R1  R3 )(R2  R4 )
having resistance R then the net resistance across
H G
R1 R2
E
F
A B
D R3
C

A B
R2 R1
 1054 Current Electricity
present in that branch. In practical situation it always happen

because we can never have an ideal cell or battery with zero

resistance.
2 R1 R2  R3 (R1  R2 )
R AB 
2 R3  R1  R2
 In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly
connected then it will cancel out the effect of two cells e.g. If
R1 R1 R1 R1
A
in the combination of n identical cells (each having emf E and

R3 R3 R3 R3  internal resistance r) if x cell are wrongly connected then

60
B equivalent emf Eeq  (n  2 x ) E and equivalent internal
R2 R2 R2 R2
resistance req  nr .

 Graphical view of open circuit and closed circuit of a cell.

E3
R AB 
1
2
1

(R1  R2 )  (R1  R2 )2  4 R3 (R1  R2 )
2
1/2
 V
Vmax =E; i = 0

R1 R1 R1 R1
A

B
R2 R2 R2  
ID imax =E/r ; V = 0 i
U
 If n identical cells are connected in a loop in order, then
1  R  emf between any two points is zero.
R AB  R1 1  1  4  2  E, r
YG

2  
  R1 
E, r E, r
 It is a common misconception that “current in the circuit Close

will be maximum when power consumed by the load is E, r loop

E, r
maximum.”
D

n cell
Actually current i  E /(R  r) is maximum (= E/r) when R =

min = 0 with PL  (E / r)2  0  0 min . while power consumed

U

by the load E2R/(R + r)2 is maximum (= E2/4r) when R = r and

 In parallel grouping of two identical cell having no
i  (E / 2r)  max(  E / r). internal resistance
R R
ST

 Emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit and

E E
depends upon the nature of electrolyte of the cell while
E E
potential difference depends upon the resistance between the

two points of the circuit and current flowing through the

circuit.
E eq  E E eq  0
 Whenever a cell or battery is present in a branch there
 When two cell’s of different emf and no internal
must be some resistance (internal or external or both)
resistance are connected in parallel then equivalent emf is

E1
 Current Electricity 1055

indeterminate, note that connecting a wire with a cell with no

resistance is equivalent to short circuiting. Therefore the total

current that will be flowing will be infinity.

60
 In the parallel combination of non-identical cell's if they
are connected with reversed polarity as shown then

E3
i1 E1,r1
equivalent emf

i i2 E2, r2
E1r2  E2r1
Eeq 
r1  r2
R
ID
U
 Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive if all the arms of
bridge have equal resistances i.e. P = Q = R = S
YG

 If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right

gap of metre bridge is increased, then the balancing length
decreases and the jockey moves towards left.

 In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the

battery key should be pressed first and the galvanometer key
D

afterwards.

 The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is

U

not affected by the internal resistance of the cell.

 In case of zero deflection in the galvanometer current

ST

flows in the primary circuit of the potentiometer, not in the

galvanometer circuit.

 A potentiometer can act as an ideal voltmeter.