Time and motion study

A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is a business

efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick
Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth (the same couple as is best known through the biographical
1950 film and book Cheaper by the Dozen). It is a major part of
scientific management (Taylorism). After its first introduction, time
study developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while
Original Films Of Frank B. Gilbreth
motion study evolved into a technique for improving work methods.
(Part I)
The two techniques became integrated and refined into a widely
accepted method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work
systems. This integrated approach to work system improvement is known as methods engineering[1] and it is
applied today to industrial as well as service organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals.[2]

Time studies
Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping device (e.g., decimal minute
stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape camera) to record the time taken to
accomplish a task[3] and it is often used in at least one of the following applies:[4]

There are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration.

A wide variety of dissimilar work is performed.
Process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.

The Industrial Engineering Terminology Standard, defines time study as "a work measurement technique
consisting of careful time measurement of the task with a time measuring instrument, adjusted for any observed
variance from normal effort or pace and to allow adequate time for such items as foreign elements, unavoidable
or machine delays, rest to overcome fatigue, and personal needs."[5]

The systems of time and motion studies are frequently assumed to be interchangeable terms that are
descriptive of equivalent theories. However, the underlying principles and the rationale for the establishment of
each respective method are dissimilar, despite originating within the same school of thought.

The application of science to business problems and the use of time-study methods in standard setting and the
planning of work were pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor.[6] Taylor liaised with factory managers and
from the success of these discussions wrote several papers proposing the use of wage-contingent performance
standards based on scientific time study.[7] At its most basic level time studies involved breaking down each job
into component parts, timing each part and rearranging the parts into the most efficient method of working.[8]
By counting and calculating, Taylor wanted to transform management, which was essentially an oral tradition,
into a set of calculated and written techniques.[9][10]

Taylor and his colleagues placed emphasis on the content of a fair day's work and sought to maximize
productivity irrespective of the physiological cost to the worker.[11] For example, Taylor thought unproductive
time usage (soldiering) to be the deliberate attempt of workers to promote their best interests and to keep
employers ignorant of how fast work could be carried out.[12] This instrumental view of human behavior by
Taylor prepared the path for human relations to supersede scientific management in terms of literary success and
managerial application.

Direct time study procedure

Following is the procedure developed by Mikell Groover for a direct time study:[13]

1. Define and document the standard method.

2. Divide the task into work elements.

These first two steps are conducted prior to the actual timing. They familiarize the analyst
with the task and allow the analyst to attempt to improve the work procedure before
defining the standard time.

3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task.
4. Evaluate the worker's pace relative to standard performance (performance rating), to determine
the normal time.

Note that steps 3 and 4 are accomplished simultaneously. During these steps, several
different work cycles are timed, and each cycle performance is rated independently.
Finally, the values collected at these steps are averaged to get the normalized time.

5. Apply an allowance to the normal time to compute the standard time. The allowance factors that
are needed in the work are then added to compute the standard time for the task.

Conducting time studies

According to good practice guidelines for production studies [14] a comprehensive time study consists of:

1. Study goal set

2. Experimental design;
3. Time data collection;
4. Data analysis;
5. Reporting.

Easy analysis of working areas

The collection of time data can be done in several ways, depending on study goal and environmental
conditions. Time and motion data can be captured with a common stopwatch, a handheld computer or a video
recorder. There are a number of dedicated software packages used to turn a palmtop or a handheld PC into a
time study device. As an alternative, time and motion data can be collected automatically from the memory of
computer-control machines (i.e. automated time studies).

Criticisms

In response to Taylor's time studies and view of human nature, many strong criticisms and reactions were
recorded. Unions, for example, regarded time study as a disguised tool of management designed to standardize
and intensify the pace of production. Similarly, individuals such as Gilbreth (1909), Cadbury[15] and
Marshall[16] heavily criticized Taylor and pervaded his work with subjectivity. For example, Cadbury[17] in
reply to Thompson[18] stated that under scientific management employee skills and initiatives are passed from
the individual to management,[19] a view reiterated by Nyland.[20] In addition, Taylor's critics condemned the
lack of scientific substance in his time studies,[21] in the sense that they relied heavily on individual
interpretations of what workers actually do.[22] However, the value in rationalizing production is indisputable
and supported by academics such as Gantt, Ford and Munsterberg, and Taylor society members Mr C.G.
Renold, Mr W.H. Jackson and Mr C.B. Thompson.[23] Proper time studies are based on repeated observation,
so that motions performed on the same part differently by one or many workers can be recorded, to determine
those values that are truly repetitive and measurable.

Motion studies
In contrast to, and motivated by, Taylor's time study methods, the Gilbreths proposed a technical language,
allowing for the analysis of the labor process in a scientific context.[24] The Gilbreths made use of scientific
insights to develop a study method based upon the analysis of "work motions", consisting in part of filming the
details of a worker's activities and their body posture while recording the time.[25] The films served two main
purposes. One was the visual record of how work had been done, emphasizing areas for improvement.
Secondly, the films also served the purpose of training workers about the best way to perform their work.[26]
This method allowed the Gilbreths to build on the best elements of these workflows and to create a standardized
best practice.[27]

Taylor vs. Gilbreths

Although for Taylor, motion studies remained subordinate to time studies, the attention he paid to the motion
study technique demonstrated the seriousness with which he considered the Gilbreths' method. The split with
Taylor in 1914, on the basis of attitudes to workers, meant the Gilbreths had to argue contrary to the trade
unionists, government commissions and Robert F. Hoxie[28] who believed scientific management was
unstoppable.[29] The Gilbreths were charged with the task of proving that motion study particularly, and
scientific management generally, increased industrial output in ways which improved and did not detract from
workers' mental and physical strength. This was no simple task given the propaganda fuelling the Hoxie report
and the consequent union opposition to scientific management. In addition, the Gilbreths credibility and
academic success continued to be hampered by Taylor who held the view that motion studies were nothing
more than a continuation of his work.

Both Taylor and the Gilbreths continue to be criticized for their respective work, but it should be remembered
that they were writing at a time of industrial reorganization and the emergence of large,complex organizations
with new forms of technology. Furthermore, to equate scientific management merely with time and motion
study and consequently labor control not only misconceives the scope of scientific management but also
misinterprets Taylor's incentives for proposing a different style of managerial thought.[30]

Health care time and motion study

A health care time and motion study is used to research and track the efficiency and quality of health care
workers.[31] In the case of nurses, numerous programs have been initiated to increase the percent of a shift
nurses spend providing direct care to patients. Prior to interventions nurses were found to spend ~20% of their
time doing direct care. After focused intervention, some hospitals doubled that number, with some even
exceeding 70% of shift time with patients, resulting in reduced errors, codes, and falls.[32][33]

Methods
External observer: Someone visually follows the person being observed, either
contemporaneously or via video recording. This method presents additional expense as it
 usually requires a 1 to 1 ratio of research time to subject time. An advantage is the data can be
more consistent, complete, and accurate than with self-reporting.
Self-reporting: Self-reported studies require the target to record time and activity data. This can
be done contemporaneously by having subjects stop and start a timer when completing a task,
through work sampling where the subject records what they are doing at determined or random
intervals, or by having the subject journal activities at the end of the day. Self-reporting
introduces errors that may not be present through other methods, including errors in temporal
perception and memory, as well as the motivation to manipulate the data.
Automation: Motion can be tracked with GPS. Documentation activities can be tracked through
monitoring software embedded in the applications used to create documentation. Badge scans
can also create a log of activity.

See also
Ergonomics
Human factors
Methods-time measurement
Memo motion
Predetermined motion time system
Standard time
Industrial Engineering
Evolutionary economics

References
1. Zandin 2001, Section 4, Chapter 1, p.2
2. Ben-Gal et al. 2010
3. Groover 2007
4. Salvendy 2001, Section IV.C, Chapter 54
5. IIE, ANSI 1982
6. Krenn, M 2011, ‘From Scientific Management to Homemaking: Lillian M. Gilbreth's Contributions
to the Development of Management Thought’, Management & Organisational History, vol. 6, no.
2, pp. 145-161
7. Payne, S.C., Youngcourt, S.S. & Watrous, K.M. 2006, ‘Portrayals of F.W. Taylor Across
Textbooks’, Journal of Management History, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 385-407
8. Payne, S.C., Youngcourt, S.S. & Watrous, K.M. 2006, ‘Portrayals of F.W. Taylor Across
Textbooks’, Journal of Management History, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 385-407
9. Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic
Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
10. Gowler, D & Legge, K 1983, ‘The Meaning of Management and the Management of Meaning: A
View from Social Anthropology’, Perspectives on Management, cited in Karsten, L 1996, ‘Writing
and the Advent of Scientific Management: The Case of Time and Motion Studies’, Scandinavian
Journal of Management, vol. 12, issue. 1, pp. 41-55.
11. Karsten, L 1996, ‘Writing and the Advent of Scientific Management: The Case of Time and
Motion Studies’, Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 12, issue. 1, pp. 41-55.
12. Thompson, C.B. 1914, ‘The Literature of Scientific Management’, The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 506-557
13. Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work,
Pearson Education International
14. Magagnotti, N., Spinelli, R., 2012, Good practice guidelines for biomass production system,
COST Action FP-0902, WG 2 Operations research and measurement methodologies, 50 pages,
Italy, ISBN 978-88-901660-4-4, available on internet:
http://forestenergy.org/observer:get_page/observer/action/details/itemid/113?
PHPSESSID=5157c9d7f7bbbb319764c33e4a28112b&viewportheight=933&viewportwidth=1887
15. Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against
Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
16. Marshall, A 1919, Industry and Trade, MacMillan, London, cited in, Caldari, K 2007, ‘Alfred
Marshall's Critical Analysis of Scientific Management’, European Journal of the History of
Economic Thought’, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 55-78
17. Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against
Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
18. Thompson, C.B. 1914, ‘The Literature of Scientific Management’, The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 506-557
19. Cadbury, E. 1914 ‘Some Principles of Industrial Organization: The Case For and Against
Scientific Management’, Sociological Review, vol. 7, pp. 99-125
20. Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic
Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016.
21. Caldari, K 2007, ‘Alfred Marshall's Critical Analysis of Scientific Management’, European
Journal of the History of Economic Thought’, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 55-78
22. Wrege, C.D. & Perroni, A.G. 1974, ‘Taylor's Pig-Tale: A Historical Analysis of Frederick W.
Taylor's Pig-Iron Experiments’, Academy of Management, vol. 17, no. 1
23. Cadbury, E 1914, 'Mr. Cadbury's Reply', The Sociological Review, vol. a7, issue 4, pp. 327-331,
October
24. Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the
Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
25. Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the
Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
26. Baumgart, A & Neuhauser, D 2009, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Scientific Management in the
Operating Room’, Quality Safety Health Care, vol. 18, pp. 413-415
27. Price, B 1989, ‘Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and the Manufacture and Marketing of Motion Study,
1908-1924’, Business and Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2
28. Hoxie, R 1915, ‘Why Organised Labour Opposes Scientific Management’, Quarterly Journal of
Economics, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 62-85
29. Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic
Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
30. Nyland, C 1996, ‘Taylorism, John R. Commons, and the Hoxie Report’, Journal of Economic
Issues, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 985-1016
31. Lopetegui, Marcelo; Yen, Po-Yin; Lai, Albert; Jeffries, Joseph; Embi, Peter; Payne, Philip (June
2014). "Time motion studies in healthcare: What are we talking about?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4058370). Journal of Biomedical Informatics. 49: 292–299.
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s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4058370). PMID 24607863 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/24607863).
32. RN, Rachael Zimlich (13 August 2014). "Hospitals resolve to increase nurses' time at the
bedside" (http://healthcaretraveler.modernmedicine.com/healthcare-traveler/content/modernmed
icine/modern-medicine-feature-articles/hospitals-resolve-increa). Healthcare Traveler. Retrieved
2 June 2017.
33. Hendrich, Ann (1 June 2008). "A 36-Hospital Time and Motion Study: How Do Medical-Surgical
Nurses Spend Their Time?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3037121). The
Permanente Journal. 12 (3): 25–34. doi:10.7812/TPP/08-021 (https://doi.org/10.7812%2FTPP%
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