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Q1. Explain all layers of OSI model with its functions, protocol, advantages and disadvantages. (diagram)
Ans:

User

Physical layer:-
 Specifications for the physical components of the network.
Functions of Physical Layer:
 Bit representation – encode bits into electrical or optical signals
 Transmission rate – The number of bits sent each second
 Physical characteristics of transmission media
 Synchronizing the sender and receiver clocks
 Transmission mode – simplex, half-duplex, full duplex
 Physical Topology – how devices are connected – ring, star, mesh, bus topology

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Data Link Layer

• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer
interface.
• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and re-assemble the received frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
• Implement flow control.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Functions of Data Link Layer

• Framing-
• Divides the stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing-
• Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
• Flow control-
• Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.Synchronization between fast sender and slow receiver.
• Error control-
• Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames (CRC).
• Access control-
• Determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
• Link establishment and termination:
• Establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
• Frame sequencing:
• Transmits/receives frames sequentially.
• Frame acknowledgment:
• Provides/expects frame acknowledgments.

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DLL is divided into two Sub-Layers

• LLC Sub Layer
• MAC Sub Layer

Logical Link Control Sub Layer

• It is upper portion of the Data Link layer.

• Performs Flow control and management of connection errors.
• LLC supports three types of connections:
1. Unacknowledged connectionless service:
• does not perform reliability checks or maintain a connection, very
fast, mostcommonly used
2. Connection oriented service:
• once the connection is established, blocks of data can be transferred
betweennodes until one of the node terminates the connection.
3. Acknowledged connectionless service:
• provides a mechanism through which individual frames can be
acknowledged.
Media Access Control Sub Layer

• This sub layer contains methods to regulate the timing of data signals and
eliminatecollisions.
• The MAC sub layer determines where one frame of data ends and the next one
starts -
frame synchronization.
• There are four means of frame synchronization:
• Time based,
• Character counting,
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• Byte stuffing and

• Bit stuffing.

Network Layer:-
Main functions of this layer are:

 Responsible for delivery of packets across multiple networks

 Routing – Provide mechanisms to transmit data over independent networks that are linked
together.
 Network layer is responsible only for delivery of individual packets and it does not
recognize anyrelationship between those packets

Transport Layer:-
Main functions of this layer are:

 Responsible for source-to destination delivery of the entire message

 Segmentation and reassembly – divide message into smaller segments, number them and
transmit.Reassemble these messages at the receiving end.
 Error control – make sure that the entire message arrives without errors – else retransmit.

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Session Layer:-
Main functions of this layer are:

• Dialog control – allows two systems to enter into a dialog, keep a track of whose turn it is to transmit
• Synchronization – adds check points (synchronization points) into stream of data.

Presentation Layer:-
Responsibilities of this layer are:

 Translation
• Different computers use different encoding systems (bit order translation)
• Convert data into a common format before transmitting.
• Syntax represents info such as character codes - how many bits to represent data – 8 or 7 bits
 Compression – reduce number of bits to be transmitted Encryption – transform
data into anunintelligible format at the sending end for data security

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 Decryption – at the receiving end

Application Layer:-
•Contains protocols that allow the users to access the network (FTP, HTTP, SMTP, etc)

• Does not include application programs such as email, browsers, word processing applications, etc.
• Protocols contain utilities and network-based services that support email via SMTP, Internet
access viaHTTP, file transfer via FTP, etc

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Q2. Explain all layers of TCP model with its functions, protocol, advantages and disadvantages. (diagram)

Ans:

The TCP/IP model, often referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a conceptual model
used to understand the functions of networking protocols. It consists of four layers, each
with its own set of protocols, functions, advantages, and disadvantages. Let's break
down each layer:

1. Application Layer:

 Function: This layer interacts directly with the end-user applications. It provides
interfaces and protocols for communication between applications.
 Protocols: HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS, Telnet, etc.
 Advantages: High-level abstraction, supports a wide range of applications and services.
 Disadvantages: Can be less efficient for some types of communication due to the
overhead of higher-level protocols.
 Diagram: (Application) <-> HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS, Telnet

2. Transport Layer:

 Function: Responsible for end-to-end communication between the sender and receiver.
It ensures that data is reliably delivered, and it manages flow control and error
correction.
 Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 Advantages: Reliable data transmission with error checking, flow control, and congestion
control (TCP). Lightweight and fast for real-time applications (UDP).
 Disadvantages: Overhead for reliability and error correction in TCP might introduce
latency and reduce throughput.
 Diagram: (Transport) <-> TCP, UDP

3. Internet Layer:

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 Function: Handles the movement of data packets between networks. It is responsible for
IP addressing, routing, and packet forwarding.
 Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 Advantages: Enables global communication by routing packets across interconnected
networks.
 Disadvantages: Lack of built-in security features in IP, which can be addressed by
additional protocols like IPSec.
 Diagram: (Internet) <-> IP, ICMP

4. Link Layer (also known as Network Access Layer):

 Function: Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium. It
defines how data is formatted for transmission and how access to the network is
controlled.
 Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
 Advantages: Efficient and reliable transmission over physical media.
 Disadvantages: Limited in scope to specific types of physical connections, such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
 Diagram: (Link) <-> Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP

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Each layer of the TCP/IP model plays a crucial role in facilitating communication across
networks, from the high-level applications down to the physical transmission of data. By
dividing the networking process into these distinct layers, the TCP/IP model enables
interoperability, scalability, and flexibility in network design and implementation.

Q3. Explain Bluetooth architecture with diagram,(piconet and scatternet).

Ans:

Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is an open specification for short range wireless transmission of voice and
data. It provides a simple, Low cost seamless wireless connectivity between personal digital
assistants, cellular phone laptops, and other portable handheld devices.
Bluetooth is low power consuming technology with transmission distances of up to 30 feet and
a throughput of about 1 Mbps.
 Bluetooth defines two types of networks: 1. Piconet 2. Scatternet

1. Piconet:

 Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active
secondary (slave) nodes.
 All Slave stations are synchronized with Master.
 Thus, piconet can have up to eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations
withinthe distance of 10 meters.
 There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
 The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or
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one-to-many.
 All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is
notpossible.

 In addition to seven active slave stations, a piconet can have up to 255 parked nodes.
These parked nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in
communication until itis moved from parked state to active state.
2. Scatternet :

 Scatternet is formed by combining various piconets.

 A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
 Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and deliver
themessage to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node is also called
bridgeslave.
 Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
 A station cannot be a master in two piconets.

Q4. Describe in detail IEEE 802.11 standard with its subtype.

Ans:

IEEE Wireless Standards

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 Wireless networks are standardized by IEEE.

 Under 802 LAN MAN standards committee.
The 802.11 standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines an over-
the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family −
 802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1 - or 2-Mbps transmission in the
2.4-GHz band using either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-
sequencespread spectrum (DSSS).
 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as fast
as
54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless
LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5,
2, and 1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b
specification uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the
original
802.11 standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to hard-
wired Ethernet connections.
 802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.
 802.11n — 802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple
input multiple-output (MIMO). The additional transmitter and receiver antennas allow
forincreased data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range by
exploiting the spatial diversity through coding schemes like Alamouti coding. The real
speed would be 100 Mbit/s (even 250 Mbit/s in PHY level), and so up to 4-5 times
faster than 802.11g.
 802.11ac — 802.11ac builds upon previous 802.11 standards, particularly the
802.11n standard, to deliver data rates of 433Mbps per spatial stream, or 1.3Gbps in
a three- antenna (three stream) design. The 802.11ac specification operates only in
the 5 GHz frequency range and features support for wider channels (80MHz and
160MHz) and beamforming capabilities by default to help achieve its higher wireless
speeds.

Q5. Compare IPV4 and IPV6. (Any 8 points.)

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Ans:

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual and DHCP It supports Auto and renumbering address

address configuration configuration

In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is

integrity is Unachievable Achievable

It can generate The address space of IPv6 is quite large it

4.29×109 address space can produce 3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the

dependent on the application IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is Address Representation of IPv6 is in

in decimal hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by

Sender and forwarding routers the sender

In IPv6 packet flow identification are

In IPv4 Packet flow identification
Available and uses the flow label field in the
is not available
header

Q6. Describe different connecting devices used in computer network. (4 mark each)

(working, advantages, disadvantage, diagram) either do comparision.

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1. HUB

2. Switch

3. Router

4. Reapter

5. Bridge

Ans:

Hub:

 Working: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a

network. When a device sends data to the hub, it broadcasts the data to all other
devices connected to the hub. Essentially, it acts as a central point for network
connections.
 Advantages: Simple to set up and inexpensive.
 Disadvantages: Inefficient data transmission because it broadcasts data to all devices,
leading to network congestion and collisions. Offers no intelligence to manage traffic.
 Diagram:
+-------------------+

| Devices |

+---------+---------+

[Hub]

+---------+---------+

| Devices |

+-------------------+

Switch:
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 Working: A switch is an intelligent device that connects devices in a network and

forwards data only to the device it is intended for. It builds a table of MAC addresses to
direct traffic only to the appropriate port.
 Advantages: Efficient data transmission as it reduces unnecessary traffic. Provides full-
duplex communication.
 Disadvantages: More expensive than hubs. Limited scalability compared to routers.
 Diagram:
+-------------------+

| Devices |

+---------+---------+

[Switch]

+---------+---------+

| Devices |

+-------------------+

Router:

 Working: A router is a networking device that connects multiple networks and forwards
data packets between them based on IP addresses. It determines the optimal path for
data transmission.
 Advantages: Efficient routing of data between networks. Provides security features like
Network Address Translation (NAT) and firewall.
 Disadvantages: More complex configuration compared to switches and hubs. Higher
cost.
 Diagram:

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+-------------------+

| Network A |

+---------+---------+

[Router]

+---------+---------+

| Network B |

+-------------------+

Repeater:

 Working: A repeater is a simple device that regenerates and amplifies signals to extend
the range of a network. It receives weak signals, strengthens them, and retransmits
them.
 Advantages: Extends the reach of a network by boosting signal strength.
 Disadvantages: Can introduce latency and signal degradation if used excessively.
Limited in terms of the number of times it can repeat a signal.
 Diagram:
+-------------------+

| Devices |

+---------+---------+

[Hub]

+---------+---------+

| Devices |

+-------------------+
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Bridge:

 Working: A bridge connects multiple network segments and filters traffic based on
MAC addresses. It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
 Advantages: Segments network traffic, reducing congestion and collisions. Helps in
dividing large networks into smaller, more manageable segments.
 Disadvantages: Limited scalability compared to switches. Does not route traffic
between different IP networks.
 Diagram:
+-------------------+

| Network A |

+---------+---------+

[Bridge]

+---------+---------+

| Network B |

+-------------------+

These connecting devices play crucial roles in networking by facilitating the communication
between devices, segments, and networks, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages.

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Q7. Describe working advantages and disadvantages multiplexing techniques (diagram).

Ans:

Advantages of Multiplexing

 If no multiplexing is used between the users at two different sites that are distance apart, then
separate communication lines would be required as shown in fig.

 This is not only costly but also become difficult to manage. If multiplexing is used then, only one line is
required. This leads to the reduction in the line cost and also it would be easier to keep track of one line
than several lines.

 More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

 The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Q8. Compare FDM and TDM (diagram)

Ans:

FDM TDM
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a 1. TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.
scheme in which numerous signals are combined
for transmission on a single communications line
or channel.

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2. It is analog technique. Each signal is assigned a 2. In TDM, the channel/link is divided on the basis
different frequency (sub channel) within the main of time.
channel.
3. FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link 3. Total time available in the channel is divided
should be greater than the combined bandwidths between several users. Each user is allotted a
of the various signals to be transmitted. Thus particular a time interval called time slot or time
each signal having different frequency forms a slice during which the data is transmitted by that
particular logical channel on the link and follows user.
this channel only. These channels are then
separated by the strips of unused bandwidth
called guard bands. These guard bands prevent
the signals from overlapping
4. In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be 4. Thus each sending device takes control of
analog signals. Thus digital signals need to be entire bandwidth of the channel for fixed amount
converted to analog form, if they are to use FDM. of time.
5. A typical analog Internet connection via a 5. Each user is allotted a particular time interval
twisted pair telephone line requires called time slot or slice.
approximately three kilohertz (3 kHz) of
bandwidth for accurate and reliable data
transfer.
6. Twisted-pair lines are common in households 6. In TDM the data rate capacity of the
and small businesses. But major telephone transmission medium should be greater than the
cables, operating between large businesses, data rate required by sending or receiving
government agencies, and municipalities, are devices.
capable of much larger bandwidths.

Q9. Describe message switching and packet switching and circuit switching techniques with neat
diagram.(4 marks each).

Ans:

Message Switching

 With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations.

 When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.

 The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.

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 Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message
to the next node.

 This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.

• A message-switching node is typically a computer.

• The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages.

• A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to store- and-forward time, plus the time
required to find the next node in the transmission path.

Packet Switching

 In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets, each of which includes a header with
source, destination and intermediate node address information.

 Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the advantages of message and circuit
switching.

 There are two methods of packet switching:

o Datagram and

o virtual circuit.

 In packet switching methods, a message is broken into small parts, called packets.

 Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.

 Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored in main memory instead of
disk, therefore access delay and cost are minimized.

 Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.

 With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come, first-served
basis.

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Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

 It establishes a logical connection between the sending and receiving devices called Virtual circuit.

 The sending device starts the conversation by communicating with the receiving device and agreeing
as communication parameters, such as maximum message size and the path to be taken.

 Once this virtual circuit is established; the two devices use it for the rest of the conversation.

 All packets travel through the logical connection established between the sending device and the
receiving device.

 Similar to circuit switched network, there are setup and teardown phases along with the data transfer
phase.

 Virtual circuit is established in the data link layer.

 Virtual Circuit Identifier(VCI) is a small number which is used by a frame between two switches.

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Q10. Explain simplex, half duplex and full duplex modes in data communication with neat diagram.

Ans:

Communication Modes Based on whether the system communicates only in one direction or otherwise,
the communication systems are classified as

 Simplex systems

 Half duplex systems

 Full duplex systems

1. Simplex Systems

 In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.

 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.

 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output.

 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Simplex mode of Communication

2. Half Duplex Systems

 In Half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. :

 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are
traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire

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capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-
talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Half Duplex mode of Communication

3. Full-Duplex

 In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the
other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals traveling in both directions.

 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

 When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

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Full Duplex mode of Communication

Q11. Explain the process of DHCP server configuration.

Ans:

Configuring a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server involves setting up the
server to automatically assign IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, DNS servers, and
other network configuration parameters to client devices on a network. Here's a step-by-step
process for configuring a DHCP server:

1. Installation of DHCP Server Software:

 Choose and install DHCP server software compatible with your operating system. Common
DHCP server software includes ISC DHCP (Internet Systems Consortium DHCP) for
Linux/Unix and Windows Server DHCP for Windows environments.

2. Network Configuration:

 Ensure that the server is connected to the network where DHCP service will be provided. Assign
a static IP address to the DHCP server to avoid potential conflicts.

3. Access DHCP Server Configuration:

 Access the configuration interface or configuration files of the DHCP server software. This can
typically be done through a command-line interface or a graphical user interface depending on
the DHCP server software you are using.

4. Define DHCP Scope:

 Define the DHCP scope, which is a range of IP addresses that the DHCP server can assign to
client devices. This includes specifying the starting IP address and ending IP address of the
range.

5. Configure IP Address Parameters:

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 Set other IP address parameters within the DHCP scope, such as subnet mask, default gateway
(router), and DNS server(s). These parameters will be provided to client devices along with their
assigned IP addresses.

6. Lease Duration Configuration:

 Configure the lease duration, which determines how long an IP address lease is valid for a client
device. After the lease expires, the client device must renew its lease to continue using the same
IP address.

7. Additional DHCP Options:

 Optionally, configure additional DHCP options such as domain name, domain name servers,
NTP (Network Time Protocol) servers, and WINS (Windows Internet Name Service) servers.

8. Activate DHCP Service:

 Activate the DHCP service on the server to start offering IP addresses and other network
configuration parameters to client devices on the network.

9. Testing:

 Test the DHCP server configuration by connecting client devices to the network and ensuring
they receive appropriate IP addresses and network configuration settings from the DHCP server.

10. Monitoring and Maintenance:

 Regularly monitor the DHCP server for any issues, such as address conflicts or exhausted
address pools, and perform maintenance tasks as needed, such as updating lease durations or
expanding IP address ranges.

By following these steps, you can effectively configure a DHCP server to automate the
assignment of IP addresses and network configuration parameters on your network, simplifying
network management and reducing the likelihood of configuration errors.

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Q12. Draw and explain block diagram of communication system.

Ans:

A block diagram of a communication system illustrates the flow of information through

various components of the system. Here's a simplified block diagram and an explanation
of each component:

1. Source:

 This represents the origin of the information or data that needs to be communicated. It
could be a microphone capturing audio, a camera capturing video, or a computer
generating digital data.

2. Transmitter:

 The transmitter processes the information from the source and converts it into a suitable
format for transmission. This involves encoding, modulation (if the transmission is
wireless), and amplification to prepare the signal for transmission over the
communication channel.

3. Channel:

 The channel is the medium through which the signal travels from the transmitter to the
receiver. It could be a physical medium like a wire, fiber optic cable, or wireless medium
like radio waves or light waves.

4. Receiver:

 The receiver is responsible for capturing the transmitted signal from the channel and
converting it back into a format that can be understood by the destination device. This
process involves demodulation, decoding, and amplification.

5. Destination:

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 The destination is where the information or data is intended to be received and utilized.
It could be a speaker for audio communication, a display for video communication, or
another device for processing digital data.

Now, let's represent this in a block diagram:

+-----------+ +------------+ +------------+

| Source |-----> | Transmitter|-----> | Receiver |

+-----------+ +------------+ +------------+

| |

| |

+-------+ +------------+

| Channel| | Destination|

+-------+ +------------+

In this diagram:

 The source provides the original information.

 The transmitter processes and prepares the information for transmission.
 The channel is the medium through which the signal travels.
 The receiver captures and decodes the transmitted signal.
 The destination receives and utilizes the information.

This block diagram provides a simplified overview of the components involved in a

communication system, illustrating how information flows from the source to the
destination through various stages of processing and transmission.

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Q13. Explain different types of Network topologies with advantages disadvantages and diagram.

(start, ring, mesh, hybrid, bus, tree)

Ans:Star Topology:

 Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
Communication between devices occurs through the hub.
 Advantages:
 Centralized management and easy troubleshooting.
 Failure of one device does not affect others.
 Disadvantages:
 Dependency on the central hub; failure of the hub disrupts the entire network.
 Requires more cabling compared to other topologies.
 Diagram:
+-----+

----->| |

| | Hub |

| | |

| +-----+

+-----+

| |

| PC1 |

+-----+

| |

| PC2 |

+-----+

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Ring Topology:

 Description: In a ring topology, each device is connected to two other devices, forming
a closed loop. Data circulates around the ring until it reaches its destination.
 Advantages:
 Simple and easy to install.
 Equal data distribution among devices.
 Disadvantages:
 Failure of one device or connection can disrupt the entire network.
 Limited scalability.
 Diagram:
+-----+

/ \

PC1 ----> PC2

| \ / |

| +---+ |

+-----------+

Mesh Topology:

 Description: In a mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device in the
network, creating multiple redundant paths.
 Advantages:
 High redundancy and fault tolerance; no single point of failure.
 High data transfer rates and scalability.
 Disadvantages:
 Expensive to implement due to the high number of connections required.

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 Complex to manage and configure.

 Diagram:
+-----+ +-----+ +-----+

| PC1 |-----| PC2 |-----| PC3 |

+-----+ +-----+ +-----+

1. Hybrid Topology:

 Description: A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different types of

topologies, such as star-ring, star-bus, or others.
 Advantages:
 Offers flexibility to meet specific network requirements.
 Can leverage the advantages of multiple topologies.
 Disadvantages:
 Complex to design and manage.
 Costlier compared to simpler topologies.
 Diagram: Depends on the combination of topologies.

Bus Topology:

 Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single backbone cable.
Data is transmitted along the cable, and each device receives the data but only
processes data addressed to it.
 Advantages:
 Simple and inexpensive to set up.
 Requires less cabling compared to star topology.
 Disadvantages:

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 Single point of failure; if the backbone cable fails, the entire network is affected.
 Limited scalability and data transmission speed decrease as more devices are added.
 Diagram:
+-----+

| PC1 |

+-----+

| PC2 |

+-----+

| PC3 |

+-----+

Tree Topology:

 Description: A tree topology combines characteristics of both star and bus topologies.
It consists of multiple star-configured networks connected to a bus backbone cable.
 Advantages:
 Scalable and allows for easy expansion.
 Provides a hierarchical structure, suitable for large networks.
 Disadvantages:
 Dependency on the root node; failure of the root node disrupts the entire network.
 Complex to manage and troubleshoot.
 Diagram:
+-----+

----->| |

| |Root |

| | |

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| +-----+

+-----+

| |

| Hub |

+-----+

| |

| Hub |

+-----+

| |

| PC |

+-----+

These are the main types of network topologies, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages, suited for different network requirements and scenarios.

Q14. Describe construction of coaxial cable with its advantages and disadvantages (diagram).

Ans: Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that transmitted
signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds.

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• The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.

• Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable television industry and is also widely
used for computer networks, such as Ethernet

• Coaxial cable has two wires of copper.

• The core/inner copper wire in centre and is made of solid conductor. It is enclosed in an insulating
sheath.

• The second/outer copper wire is wrapped around, and is used to protect from external
electromagnetic interference (Noise).

• This all is covered by plastic cover used to protect the inner layers from physical damage such as fire or
water.

Coaxial Cable Standards

• Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG number
denotes a unique set of physical specifications

• 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

• 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet

• 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television

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Advantages of Co-axial Cable:

 Low cost due to less total footage of cable, hubs not needed.

 Lower attenuation than twisted pair.

 Supports high bandwidths.

 Can support high data rates.

Disadvantages of Co-axial Cable:

 Limited in network speed.

 Limited in size of network.

 One bad connector can take down entire network.

 Coax is among the most expensive types of wire cables.

Q15. Describe construction of fiber optic cable with its advantages and disadvantages(diagram).

Ans:

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• A fibre optic cable is made of high quality of thin glass or plastic and is used to transfer digital data
signals in the form of light up to distance of thousands of miles.

• Fibre optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.

• Fibre optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light generated by small lasers or light-
emitting diodes (LEDs).

• The cable consists of one or more strands of glass, each only slightly thicker than a human hair. The
centre of each strand is called the core, which provides the pathway for light to travel. The core is
surrounded by a layer of glass called cladding that reflects light inward to avoid loss of signal and allow
the light to pass through bends in the cable. No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective
cladding.

Advantages of Optical Fibre:-

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• Fibre optic cables have a much High bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can
carry more data.

• Smaller Size and Lighter weight.

• low attenuation

• Not affected electromagnetic interference (No EMI interference)

• Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

• Suitable for industrial and noisy areas

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre:-

• Optical fibre cables are expensive

• Difficult to install

• Maintenance is expensive and difficult

Q16. Draw and explain neat diagram of twisted pair cable and state its types.

Ans:

Twisted Pair Cable

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• A twisted pair cable is a pair of copper wires.

• Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good
performance at low costs.

• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together to form a single media.

• Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground
reference.

• To identify every cable, these cables are colour coated.

• The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and
crosstalk.

• This type of cable is used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.

Types of Twisted Pair

The two types of twisted pairs are:

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Q17. Define following term:

1. Computer network

2. Protocol

3. Bit rate

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4. Baud rate

5. CRC and LRC

6. Bandwidth

Ans:

1. Computer network : A computer network is a system comprised of interconnected computers

and other devices that are able to communicate with each other and share resources. These
resources can include data, applications, hardware devices like printers and scanners, and
internet access. Computer networks are established to facilitate the sharing of information and
resources among users, regardless of their physical locations. They enable efficient
communication, collaboration, and resource utilization, and can range from small, local networks
within a single building or home (such as a Local Area Network or LAN) to large-scale, global
networks like the Internet. The fundamental purpose of computer networks is to enable devices
to exchange data and access shared resources, thereby enhancing productivity, connectivity, and
access to information.

2. Protocol : A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. In computer networks,
communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or
receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to
be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.

3. Bit rate : Bit rate can be defined as the number of bit intervals per second. And bit interval is referred
to as the time needed to transfer one single bit. In simpler words, the bit rate is the number of bits sent
in one second, usually expressed in bits per second (bps). For example, kilobits per second (Kbps),
Megabits per second (Mbps), Gigabits per second (Gbps), etc.

4. Baud rate : Baud rate is defined as the number of signal units per second. It is always less than or
equal to bit rate. It is represented as bauds or symbols/second. Baud rate is expressed in the number of
times a signal can change on transmission line per second. Usually, the transmission line uses only two
signal states, and make the baud rate equal to the number of bits per second that can be transferred.

5. CRC and LRC :

6. Bandwidth : Bandwidth is measured as the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to
another within a network in a specific amount of time. Typically, bandwidth is expressed as a bitrate and
measured in bits per second (bps). The term bandwidth refers to the transmission capacity of a
connection and is an important factor when determining the quality and speed of a network or the
internet connection.

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Q18. Describe the components of data communication with neat diagram.

Ans:

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

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Q19. Explain LRC with example.

Ans:

LRC, or Longitudinal Redundancy Check, is a simple error detection technique used in data
communication to detect errors that occur in the transmission of data. It involves adding an extra parity
bit to each character or block of characters being transmitted.

Here's how LRC works with an example:

Suppose we have a message that we want to transmit: "1011".

1. **Calculation of Parity Bit**:

- For LRC, we calculate the parity bit for each character or block of characters in the message. The
parity bit is set so that the total number of ones (including the parity bit itself) in the character is either
even or odd.

- In our example, let's calculate the parity bit for each character:

- For the character "1", there is one '1', so the parity bit would be '0' to make the total number of
ones even.

- For the character "0", there are two '0's, so the parity bit would be '1' to make the total number of
ones odd.

- The message becomes: "10110" (with the added parity bit).

2. **Transmission**:

- The message "10110" (with the calculated parity bit) is transmitted over the communication channel.

3. **Reception and Error Detection**:

- At the receiving end, the received message "10110" is checked for errors by recalculating the parity
bit for each character or block of characters.

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- If the recalculated parity bit for any character does not match the received parity bit, an error is
detected.

4. **Example of Error Detection**:

- Let's say during transmission, the message "10110" is received with an error, changing it to "10010".

- When the parity bits are recalculated:

- For the first character "1", there are two '1's, so the parity bit would be '1'.

- For the second character "0", there is one '0', so the parity bit would be '0'.

- The recalculated message becomes: "11010".

- Upon comparing the recalculated parity bits with the received parity bits, a mismatch is detected,
indicating an error in transmission.

In this example, the LRC helped detect the error in the received message by comparing the recalculated
parity bits with the received parity bits. However, it's important to note that LRC can detect errors but
cannot correct them. It's a simple and efficient error detection technique used in situations where the
probability of errors is relatively low, or when more sophisticated error correction techniques are not
feasible or necessary.

Q20. Describe various mobile generations in detail. Or compare (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G)

Ans:

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Q21. Explain satellite communication and Line of sight with the help of neat diagram.

Ans:

*Satellite Communication:*

Satellite communication uses satellites in space to send and receive data like phone calls, TV signals, and
internet data. It works by beaming information from a ground station up to a satellite, which then sends
it back down to another ground station elsewhere on Earth. This allows communication over long
distances without physical cables.

*Line of Sight:*

Line of sight means there's a direct, unobstructed path between two points, like from a transmitting
antenna to a receiving antenna. It's important for good communication because obstacles like buildings
or mountains can block the signal. Clear line of sight ensures that radio waves can travel directly
between antennas without interference, enabling reliable communication.

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Q22. Describe the process of DHCP server configuration

Ans:

Configuring a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server involves these steps:

1. *Installation*: Install DHCP server software on a server or network device.

2. *Settings Configuration*: Define IP address range, subnet mask, default gateway, DNS servers, lease
duration, and other parameters.

3. *Create Address Pool*: Specify the range of available IP addresses for assignment.

4. *Configure DHCP Options*: Set additional network configuration parameters like domain name, NTP
servers, and DNS search suffixes.

5. *Activation*: Enable the DHCP server to start leasing IP addresses to client devices.

6. *Testing and Monitoring*: Verify DHCP functionality and monitor server logs for any issues.

By completing these steps, you can set up a DHCP server to automatically assign IP addresses and
network settings to devices on your network.

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Q23. Explain ARP, subnetting and supernetting with example.

Ans:

*ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):*

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It's used to map IP addresses to MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses on a local network. When a device wants to send data to another device within the
same network, it needs to know the MAC address of the destination. ARP helps in this process by
resolving the IP address to its corresponding MAC address.

Example:

Suppose a computer with IP address 192.168.1.10 wants to send data to another computer with IP
address 192.168.1.20. Before sending the data, the source computer sends an ARP request broadcast
message on the network, asking "Who has IP address 192.168.1.20?". The computer with IP address
192.168.1.20 responds with its MAC address, allowing the source computer to send the data directly to
the destination.

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*Subnetting:*

Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller sub-networks (subnets). It helps in
efficiently utilizing IP addresses and managing network traffic by logically grouping devices into smaller
segments.

Example:

Consider a network with IP address range 192.168.1.0/24. Here, /24 indicates that the network has 24
bits dedicated to the network portion (192.168.1) and 8 bits for host addresses (0-255). With subnetting,
you can further divide this network into smaller subnets. For instance, you can create two subnets:

- Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/25 (with addresses 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.127)

- Subnet 2: 192.168.1.128/25 (with addresses 192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.255)

By subnetting, you can efficiently allocate IP addresses and manage network traffic within each subnet.

*Supernetting:*

Supernetting (or route aggregation) is the opposite of subnetting. It involves combining multiple smaller
IP address ranges (subnets) into a larger range, reducing the number of routing table entries and
improving routing efficiency.

Example:

Suppose you have two smaller IP address ranges: 192.168.1.0/25 and 192.168.1.128/25. These can be
combined into a single supernet:

- Supernet: 192.168.1.0/24

In this example, both smaller subnets fit within the larger supernet range of 192.168.1.0/24. This
simplifies routing information and reduces the number of entries in routing tables.

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Q24. Name the Protocols used in i) Data Link Layer ii) Network Layer iii) Transport Layer iv) Presentation
Layer

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Ans:

i) Data Link Layer:

• Framing-

• Divides the stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.

• Physical addressing-

• Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.

• Flow control-

• Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver. Synchronization

between fast sender and slow receiver.

• Error control-

• Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames (CRC).

• Access control-

• Determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

• Link establishment and termination:

• Establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.

• Frame sequencing:

• Transmits/receives frames sequentially.

• Frame acknowledgment:

• Provides/expects frame acknowledgments.

ii) Network Layer:

 Responsible for delivery of packets across multiple networks

 Routing – Provide mechanisms to transmit data over independent networks that are linked together.

 Network layer is responsible only for delivery of individual packets and it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.

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iii) Transport Layer:

 Responsible for source-to destination delivery of the entire message

 Segmentation and reassembly – divide message into smaller segments, number them and transmit.
Reassemble these messages at the receiving end.

 Error control – make sure that the entire message arrives without errors – else retransmit.

iv) Presentation Layer:

 Translation

• Different computers use different encoding systems (bit order translation)

• Convert data into a common format before transmitting.

• Syntax represents info such as character codes - how many bits to represent data – 8 or 7 bits

 Compression – reduce number of bits to be transmitted Encryption – transform data into an

unintelligible format at the sending end for data security

 Decryption – at the receiving end.

Q25. Define IP addressing. List IP address classes with their range of addresses

Ans:

IP addressing is a method used to uniquely identify devices (like computers, smartphones, or servers) on
a network using Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. An IP address is a numerical label assigned to each
device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.

There are five classes of IP addresses: A, B, C, D, and E. Classes A, B, and C are commonly used for
assigning IP addresses to devices on networks. Each class has a specific range of IP addresses based on
the first few bits of the address.

Here are the IP address classes with their range of addresses:

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1. *Class A Addresses (1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255):*

- First Octet Range: 1-126

- Network ID is in the first octet, and the host ID is in the last three octets.

- Example: 10.0.0.0, 100.0.0.0

2. *Class B Addresses (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255):*

- First Octet Range: 128-191

- Network ID is in the first two octets, and the host ID is in the last two octets.

- Example: 172.16.0.0, 150.0.0.0

3. *Class C Addresses (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255):*

- First Octet Range: 192-223

- Network ID is in the first three octets, and the host ID is in the last octet.

- Example: 192.168.0.0, 200.100.50.0

4. *Class D Addresses (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255):*

- Reserved for multicast groups, used for one-to-many communication.

- Example: 239.255.255.255

5. *Class E Addresses (240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255):*

- Reserved for experimental purposes and not used for general addressing.

- Example: 255.255.255.255

The IP address class determines the range of possible IP addresses available for use in a network. The
specific range of addresses within each class allows for flexibility in assigning IP addresses based on the
size and requirements of the network.

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Q26. Differentiate any six point between LAN and WAN and MAN.

Ans:

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Full Form LAN is an acronym for MAN is an acronym for WAN is an acronym for Wide
Local Area Network. Metropolitan Area Network. Area Network.

Definition and LAN is a network that MAN is a comparatively The WAN network spans to an
Meaning usually connects a small wider network that covers even larger locality. It has the
group of computers in a large regions- like towns, capacity to connect various
given geographical area. cities, etc. countries together. For example,
the Internet is a WAN.

Network The LAN is private. The MAN can be both The WAN can also be both
Ownership Hospitals, homes, private or public. Many private or public.
schools, offices, etc., may organizations and telecom
own it. operators may own them.

Maintenance Very easy to design and Comparatively difficult to Very difficult to design and
and Designing maintain. design and maintain. maintain.

Speed LAN offers a very high MAN offers a moderate WAN offers a low Internet speed.
Internet speed. Internet speed.

Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high propagation delay.
Propagation propagation delay. propagation delay.

Q27. Compare OSI and TCP/IP network model (any six point each)

Ans:

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Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Transmission Control
Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacing the tools is not
Replacement changes can easily be done in
easy as it is in OSI Model.
this model.

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
Model. Model.

Q28. Explain SMTP, HTTP protocol in detail.

Ans:

*SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):*

SMTP is like a post office for emails. When you send an email, your email client (like Gmail or Outlook)
uses SMTP to communicate with the email server. It's responsible for sending your email from your
computer or phone to the recipient's email server. SMTP ensures that your email gets delivered to the
right place on the internet.

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*HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):*

HTTP is how web browsers and servers communicate on the internet. It's like a language they use to
understand each other. When you type a web address (like "www.example.com") into your browser, it
sends an HTTP request to the server hosting that website. The server then responds with the webpage
you want to see. HTTP defines how this request and response process works, allowing you to access and
interact with websites.

Q29. Your company has the network id 165.130.0.0. You are responsible for creating subnets on the
network, and each subnet must provide at least 1000 host ids. What subnet mask meets the
requirement for the minimum number of host ids and provides the highest number of subnets?

Ans:

The given network id 165.130.0.0 is class B (Range of class B is 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255) with
subnet mask of 255.255.252.0 creates 62 subnets with 1022 host each. In binary format subnet mask
reads:

11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000. To calculate the number of host ids available for each subnet
is based on the number of digits remaining in the network address. The number of possible host ids in
each subnet ranges from 00000001 through 11111110. So, in the network 165.130.0.0/22, host
addresses can range from 165.130.0.1 through 165.130.254

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Q30. Consider a network with 8 computer, which network architecture should be used peer to peer or
Client Server ? Justify the answer.

Ans:

Reasons to Choose Client-Server:

1. Centralized Management: In a client-server setup, a dedicated server manages resources (like files,
printers, and databases) for all connected client computers. This makes network management easier
and more efficient, especially as the network grows.

2. Enhanced Security: Centralized servers allow for better implementation of security measures, such as
user authentication, access controls, and data encryption, which is important for protecting sensitive
information.

3. Scalability: Client-server architectures can scale more effectively than P2P networks. As the
organization grows or more resources are needed, additional servers can be added to handle increased
demand without affecting network performance.

4. Reliable Performance: Servers are designed to handle multiple requests simultaneously, providing
reliable performance for network services like file sharing and centralized backups.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network:

Limitations for 8 Computers:

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1. Decentralized Management: P2P networks lack centralized management, requiring each computer to
act as both a client and a server. This can lead to challenges in resource management and coordination,
especially as the network size increases.

2. Security Concerns: P2P networks typically have weaker security controls compared to client-server
architectures, making them less suitable for organizations that require secure data handling.

3. Scalability Challenges: While P2P networks are simple and cost-effective for small-scale
environments, they may struggle to maintain performance and efficiency as the number of nodes
(computers) grows.

Q31. Calculate CRC for the frame 110101011 and generator Polynomial X4 + X + 1 and write the
transmitted frame.

• Original Frame: 110101011

• Generator Polynomial: x4+x+1=10011x4+x+1=10011

• CRC Calculation: Perform polynomial division (XOR operations) to compute the CRC remainder.

• Final Remainder (CRC): 1001

• Transmitted Frame: 110101011 (original frame) ∣∣ 1001 (CRC)

• Therefore, the transmitted frame with CRC appended will be: Transmitted Frame:
1101010111001Transmitted Frame: 1101010111001

• (calculate using division method and then write CRC n then transmit frame

Q32. To identify and correct errors in the given bit stream encoded with VRC (Vertical Redundancy
Check), LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check), and even parity, let's analyze the frames and perform the
necessary parity checks.

11000011

11110011

10110010

00001010

00101010

00101011
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10100011

01001011

11100001

```

Step 1- Each line represents a frame consisting of 8 bits.

11000011

11110011

10110010

00001010

00101010

00101011

10100011

01001011

11100001

```

### Step 2: Perform Parity Checks

#### VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check)

- Calculate parity for each bit position (1 to 8):

```

Bit 1: Even (Count of 1s = 4) - correct

Bit 2: Even (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct

Bit 3: Even (Count of 1s = 3) - Incorrect (Should be even)

Bit 4: Odd (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct

Bit 5: Even (Count of 1s = 3) - Incorrect (Should be even)

Bit 6: Even (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct

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Bit 7: Odd (Count of 1s = 5) - Incorrect (Should be even)

Bit 8: Even (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct

```

#### LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check)

- Compute LRC (XOR all bits in each frame):

```

LRC(Frame 1): 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 0 (even)

LRC(Frame 2): 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 3): 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 4): 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 5): 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 = 1 (Odd)

LRC(Frame 6): 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 7): 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 8): 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 = 0 (Even)

LRC(Frame 9): 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 = 0 (Even)

```

#### Even Parity Check

- Check each frame for even parity (total count of 1s including the parity bit):

```

Frame 1: 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct (Odd)

Frame 2: 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 (Count of 1s = 7) - Incorrect (Should be even)

Frame 3: 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct (Even)

Frame 4: 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 (Count of 1s = 2) - Correct (Even)

Frame 5: 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 (Count of 1s = 3) - Incorrect (Should be even)

Frame 6: 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct (Even)

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Frame 7: 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct (Even)

Frame 8: 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 (Count of 1s = 4) - Correct (Even)

Frame 9: 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 (Count of 1s = 5) - Incorrect (Should be even)

```

### Step 3: Correcting Errors

Based on the parity checks:

- Frame 2, Frame 5, and Frame 9 have incorrect parity (odd count of 1s).

- Adjust the bits in these frames to correct the parity (flip necessary bits to make the total count of 1s
even).

### Corrected Frames:

```

Frame 2 (Corrected): 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 (Even)

Frame 5 (Corrected): 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 (Even)

Frame 9 (Corrected): 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 (Even)

```

### Step 4: Reconstruct Transmitted Bit Stream

Combine the corrected frames to reconstruct the transmitted bit stream:

```

11000011

11110010

10110010

00001010

00101011

00101011

10100011

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01001011

11100000 Ethernet

Q32. Draw suitable network layout with star topology for a computer lab with 10 hosts and a wireless
printers. List all components in the Layout.

Components Needed:
H11. Switch or
H2Hub: Central
H3 networking
H4 device to
H5connect allH6
hosts and the
H7 printer. H8 H9 H10
2. Ethernet Cables: To connect each host to the switch/hub.

3. Wireless Access Point (WAP): To enable wireless connectivity for the printer.

4. Wireless Printer: Network printer that supports wireless connectivity.

5. Power Outlets: To provide power to the networking

Wireless access devices
point and hosts.

Wireless printer

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