EN7230

Instrumentation and Automatic Control

Lecture 3 – Modelling & Transfer Functions

Contents
Objective ........................................................................................................................................... 2
What is a model? Why do we need one? ............................................................................. 2
Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems ................................................................................... 4
TIME INVARIANT.......................................................................................................................... 4
LINEARITY ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Recap on Laplace Transforms ................................................................................................. 6
Transfer function of a first order ODE ................................................................................. 6
Capacitor........................................................................................................................................ 11
First Order Resistor Capacitor (RC) network ................................................................ 11
Transfer function for a second order ODE ...................................................................... 15
Second order RLC circuit ........................................................................................................ 17
Higher Order Systems .............................................................................................................. 19
Poles and zeros ........................................................................................................................... 19
Remarks on behaviour ............................................................................................................ 20
Summary........................................................................................................................................ 21
Exercises ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Objective

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to

1) Understand and differentiate between a transfer function and a signal.

2) Derive a transfer function representation for simple systems.
3) Represent transfer functions in a block diagram.

What is a model? Why do we need one?

We use the term model to refer to a set of mathematical equations used to
represent a physical system, relating the system’s output signal to its input
signal.

A model is required in order to:

1. Understand system behavior (analysis).

2. Design a controller (synthesis).

KEY POINT: It is necessary to understand how the system works naturally in

order to know how to be able to change how it works using a feedback
controller.

Developing a reasonable mathematical model is the most important part of

the entire analysis. It is also often the most difficult, amounting to ≈ 80%–90%
of the effort in designing a controller.

There are two basic approaches to modeling:

1. Analytic system modeling—we focus on these methods.

2. Empirical system identification. (In practice, there is always an

empirical component to system modeling.)

It is important to realize that no model is ever exact! Inaccuracies arise

because of

1. Unknown parameter values, or

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 2. Unmodeled dynamics (to make simpler model).

There is always a tradeoff between simplicity and accuracy. It’s often possible
to improve the accuracy of a mathematical model by increasing its complexity.
Simplification often means ignoring some inherent physical properties, e.g.,
ignore nonlinearities in linear, lumped-parameter models.

In general, it’s desirable to start with a simplified model to get a “general feel,”
increasing complexity only if the controlled system does not meet
performance requirements.

Simplifications often ignore some high-frequency behaviors, which requires

that the controllers must operate with slower transient-response
requirements in order to be robust.

KEY POINT: “All models are wrong, but some are useful”

(George E. P. Box, statistician.)

Example: Consider a 1Ω 2W resistor

Ohm’s Law (model) says: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑅. Apply 1 V. What happens?

• 1A of current is predicted to flow.

• Power dissipated = V 2/R = 1W.

Model should be accurate. Now apply 10V.

• 10 A of current is predicted to flow.

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• Power dissipated = V 2/R = 100W!

Model will no longer be accurate.True behavior depends on input signal

level—nonlinear.

Model is accurate only in certain range of input-signal values. Ohm’s law is

definitely useful, but it is “wrong” in the sense that it applies only under
certain conditions, and even then is an averaged version of what is truly
happening at the microscopic scale.

Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems

This example shows that it is important to know the properties of your model,
as well as the model itself. I claimed that the resistor exhibited “nonlinear”
behavior, in some sense.

In the next sections, we look at two critical properties of systems:

• Whether the system is “linear” (or not),

• Whether the system is “time invariant” (or not).

This course teaches methods to control linear-time-invariant (LTI) systems.

Again, none exist! But, many are “close enough” for the techniques developed
here to work very well.

TIME INVARIANT
The first system property that we look at is that of time invariance.

 A system is either time-varying or time-invariant, not both.

 A time-invariant system does not change its fundamental behavior over
different periods of time. Its parameter values are constant.
 A time invariant system satisfies the property (for any 𝑥(𝑡), 𝜏 )
𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏) → 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝜏)
when 𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡).

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We can test a system for this property using ideas from the figure.

A time-invariant system will have 𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑡 − 𝜏) for all 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝜏 .

TEST: To test for time-invariance, we must

 Input 𝑥1 (𝑡) to the system and measure the output 𝑦1 (𝑡)

 Input 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡 − 𝜏) to the system and measure 𝑦2 (𝑡).
 If 𝑦2 (𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑡 − 𝜏)for all possible delays τ and signals 𝑥1 (𝑡), then the
system is time-invariant.

LINEARITY
The second property that we look at is linearity.

For linear systems, if 𝑥1 (𝑡)→ 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 → 𝑦2 (𝑡), then

𝑥3 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝛽𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑦3 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝛽𝑦2 (𝑡) ,

for any such 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡), α, β.

TEST: To test for linearity, we must

 Input 𝑥1 (𝑡) to the system and measure the output 𝑦1 (𝑡)

 Input 𝑥2 (𝑡) to the system and measure 𝑦2 (𝑡)

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  Input 𝑥3 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝛽𝑥2 (𝑡) to the system and measure 𝑦3 (𝑡)
 If 𝑦3 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝛽𝑦2 (𝑡)for all possible α and β values, and 𝑥1 (𝑡) and
𝑥2 (𝑡), then the system is linear.

Recap on Laplace Transforms

The last lecture covered the use of Laplace transform to solve a linear
constant coefficient differential equation by transforming it into an
algebraic equation. The resulting algebraic equation is solved and then the
transform is reversed to find the solution of the differential equation in
terms of the original variable. The Laplace transform can also be used to
calculate transfer functions.

Transfer function of a first order ODE

A transfer function is a Laplace transform which describes the relationship

between a system input and a system output. Consider the following input
output first order differential equation:

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑇 + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transforms (ignore initial conditions) gives:

Rearranging gives:

 K 
y ( s)   u ( s)  y ( s)  G(s)u (s)
 Ts  1 

Where K
G( s) 
Ts  1
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From the above expression, the Laplace transform of the output signal 𝑦̅(𝑠) is
given by the transfer function representation of the system 𝐺(𝑠) multiplied
by the Laplace transform of the input signal 𝑢
̅ (𝑠). The transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)
provides us with a simple representation of process dynamics and provides a
direct relationship between inputs and outputs which is needed for control
design and analysis.

The transfer function provides us with a multiplicative link between the

input/output signals and the components of the process dynamics. This will
be invaluable since block diagrams can easily be represented as will be shown
in subsequent sections.

First Order Mass-damper

Simple example of a mass damper is a mass on which a force is causing

acceleration but friction acts to slow down the velocity (for example, wind and
road provide friction or drag.). This may represent a simple car model where
the engine provides the force ‘𝑓’ and the friction (or drag) depends upon the
speed.

How do we model such a scenario?

FORCE BALANCE: The normal way to model these scenarios is to consider the
force as being made up of different (parallel) components, here
𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡).

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 𝑓1 (𝑡) represents the friction force/drag. This is assumed to be proportional
to speed.

 𝑓2 (𝑡)represents the force required to accelerate the mass. Some of the

engine force is needed to overcome drag, what is remaining is used for
acceleration:
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑣(𝑡); 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑀 ; 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
The case shown here can be viewed as equivalent to a parallel arrangement.
Some of the drive force provides mass acceleration and some deals with the
drag. Force balance can now be used to determine the overall model of
behaviour.
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑣(𝑡) + 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
The simple model for a
mass-damper system is a 1st order ODE with parameters the friction
coefficient 𝑓𝑣 and the mass 𝑀. Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial
conditions
̅
𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑣̅ (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑠𝑣̅ (𝑠)
̅
𝑓 (𝑠) = (𝑓𝑣 + 𝑀𝑠)𝑣̅ (𝑠)
1
𝑣̅ (𝑠) = ̅
𝑓 (𝑠) ⇒ 𝑣̅ (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑓(̅ 𝑠)
𝑀𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣

Therefore, the transfer function representing the mass damper system is

1
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑀𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣

Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑓𝑣

1/𝑓𝑣 𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = ≡
𝑀
𝑠 + 1 𝑇𝑠 + 1
𝑓𝑣
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Where
1 𝑀
𝐾= and 𝑇 =
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑣

1/𝑓𝑣
𝑀
𝑠+1
𝑓𝑣

First Order Spring-damper

FORCE BALANCE: Consider the force

as being made up of different
(parallel) components, here 𝑓1 and 𝑓2

 𝑓2 (𝑡) represents the friction

force/drag. This is assumed to be
proportional to speed!

 𝑓1 (𝑡) represents the force required

to extend the spring by ‘𝑥’.

Such a technique can be applied

when the damper and spring are
arranged in parallel and therefore,
implicitly share the same movement
(end displacement x).

𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑡);
𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑣 ;
𝑑𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡)

The simple model for a spring-damper system is a 1st order ODE with
parameters the friction coefficient 𝑓𝑣 and the spring stiffness 𝑘.

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 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑓𝑣
𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

̅
𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑥̅ (𝑠) + 𝑘𝑥̅ (𝑠)
̅
𝑓(𝑠) = (𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑥̅ (𝑠)
1
𝑥̅ (𝑠) = ̅
𝑓(𝑠) ⇒ 𝑥̅ (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑓(̅ 𝑠)
𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘

Therefore, the transfer function representing the mass damper system is

1
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘

Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑘

1/𝑘 𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = ≡
𝑓𝑣 𝑇𝑠 + 1
𝑠+1
𝑘
Where
1 𝑓𝑣
𝐾= and 𝑇 =
𝑘 𝑘

1/𝑘
𝑓𝑣
𝑠+1
𝑘

First Order Electrical Network

1st order models of simple electrical networks tend to arise for series
arrangements of components and thus that is the focus here. For series
arrangements we use Kirchhoff’s voltage laws (KVL).

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Capacitor
A capacitor is a storage device. It stores charge. When current (charge/sec)
flows through a capacitor, this charge 𝑞(𝑡) is stored or released from storage
according to the direction of flow. The voltage 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)across a capacitor is
linked to the total charge 𝑞(𝑡) stored.

𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = ( ) 𝑞(𝑡)
𝐶
𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
}

First Order Resistor Capacitor (RC) network

Consider a series arrangement with a single resistor and a single capacitor. To
model this scenario 3 equations are needed.

1. Equations to represent each component.

2. Application of KVL.

REMARK: Readers are advised to begin by constructing a full labelled figure,

as here, include all voltages and currents. Consider the following circuit and
use Kirchhoff’s voltage law to derive an appropriate model.
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
𝑉𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑡
1 ⇒
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑞(𝑡)
𝐶
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) }

𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 1
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑅 + 𝑞(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

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Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions
1
𝑉̅ (𝑠) = 𝑅𝑠𝑞̅(𝑠) + 𝑞̅(𝑠)
𝐶
1
𝑞̅(𝑠) = 𝑉̅ (𝑠) ⇒ 𝑞̅(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑉̅ (𝑠)
1
𝑅𝑠 +
𝐶
1
𝐺(𝑠) =
1
𝑅𝑠 +
𝐶
Multiply the numerator and denominator by 𝐶 yields
𝐶 𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = ≡
𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝑇𝑠 + 1
Where

𝐾 = 𝐶 and 𝑇 = 𝑅𝐶

𝐶
𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

A transfer function can also be derived in terms of the capacitor output

voltage 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡), i.e.
𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

𝑉̅ (𝑠) = 𝑅𝐶𝑠𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠)

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 1
𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝑉̅ (𝑠) ⇒ 𝑉̅ (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
Therefore
1 𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = ≡
𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝑇𝑠 + 1

Where

𝐾 = 1 and 𝑇 = 𝑅𝐶

1
𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

First order liquid level tank system

A tank will store fluid, thus it is worth considering how much it can store and
how this storage is linked to flow rate into and out of the tank. Assume
constant cross-sectional area A, stored volume V, tank height h, flow
resistance R, fluid density 𝝆, gravitational force g=9.81m/s2 , flow in Fin and
flow out of Fout. Assume that flow is created by differential pressure between
the two ends of the pipe.

P1  P2  Fout R

Assume that flow (m3/s) is proportional with a constant which depends on

dimensions, materials and roughness. (Good enough for a beginner’s course
but simplistic in general).

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 V  Ah (t ) 
Fout (t )  gh(t ) / R 

dV dh(t ) 
A  Fin (t )  Fout (t ) 
dt dt 
P1  P 2  Fout (t ) R 
P1  P 2  gh(t ) 


𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝜌𝑔ℎ(𝑡)
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑑ℎ(𝑡)
𝐴 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) − 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ(𝑡) 𝜌𝑔ℎ(𝑡)
𝐴 + = 𝐹𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions
𝜌𝑔
𝐴𝑠ℎ̅(𝑠) + ℎ̅(𝑠) = 𝐹̅𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
𝑅
1
ℎ̅(𝑠) = ̅
𝜌𝑔 𝐹𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
𝐴𝑠 +
𝑅
𝑅
Multiply the numerator and denominator by yields
𝜌𝑔

𝑅/𝜌𝑔
ℎ̅(𝑠) = 𝐹̅𝑖𝑛 (𝑠) ⇒ ℎ̅(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐹̅𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
𝐴𝑅
𝑠+1
𝜌𝑔

Where
𝑅/𝜌𝑔 𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = ≡
𝐴𝑅
𝑠 + 1 𝑇𝑠 + 1
𝜌𝑔

And

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 𝐴𝑅 𝑅
𝑇= and 𝐾 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑅/𝜌𝑔
𝐴𝑅
𝑠+1
𝜌𝑔

Transfer function for a second order ODE

Consider a second order linear system that has an input 𝑢(𝑡) and an output
𝑦(𝑡) satisfying the ODE

𝑑2 𝑑
𝑎 2 𝑦(𝑡) + 𝑏 𝑦(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Assume all initial conditions are zero, then taking Laplace transforms gives,

𝑎𝑠 2 𝑦̅(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠𝑦̅(𝑠) + 𝑐𝑦̅(𝑠) = 𝛼𝑢̅(𝑠)

or

(𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐)𝑦̅(𝑠) = 𝛼𝑢̅(𝑠)

and so,
𝛼
𝑦̅(𝑠) = 𝑢̅(𝑠)
𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐
𝑦̅(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑢̅(𝑠)

The function
𝛼
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐
is called the transfer function from 𝑢̅(𝑠) (the input) to 𝑦̅(𝑠) (the output). Clearly
the same technique will work for higher order linear ordinary differential
equations with constant coefficients. For such systems, the transfer function
can be regarded as a placeholder for the coefficients of the differential equation.

Second order Mass Spring Damper system

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Consider a second order translational mechanical system, x(t) denotes
displacement, input force f(t), spring constant K, damper coefficient 𝒇𝒗 and
Mass M. Newton's laws of motion form the basis for analysing translational
mechanical systems. Newton’s second law, states that the sum of the forces
acting on a body equals the product of its mass and acceleration.

𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡)
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎 = 𝑀 =𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
The spring force is proportional to the displacement of the mass, 𝑥(𝑡), and the
viscous damping force is proportional to the velocity of the mass, 𝑀 . Both
forces oppose the motion of the mass and are, therefore in the negative 𝑥 -
direction. Note also that 𝑥(𝑡) = 0, corresponds to the position of the mass
when the spring is unstretched.

Input force: 𝑓(𝑡)

Spring Force: 𝐾𝑥(𝑡)

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
Damper Force: 𝑓𝑣
𝑑𝑡

and these are all drawn together using Newton’s second law of motion:

𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

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Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

𝑀𝑠 2 𝑥̅ (𝑠) + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑥̅ (𝑠) + 𝑘𝑥̅ (𝑠) = 𝑓(̅ 𝑠)

𝑥̅ (𝑠)(𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(̅ 𝑠)
1
𝑥̅ (𝑠) = 𝑓 (̅ 𝑠) ⇒ 𝑥̅ (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑓(̅ 𝑠)
𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘
1
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘

1
𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝑘

Second order RLC circuit

In any problem, the designer must first decide what the input and output
should be. In this network, several variables could have been chosen to be the
output. For example, the inductor voltage, the capacitor voltage, the resistor
voltage, or the current. The problem statement, however, is clear in this case:
We are to treat the capacitor voltage as the output and the applied voltage as
the input.

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By writing down the voltage quantities across the inductor, capacitor and
resistor

1 1
𝑉𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐶 0
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑉𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)

Substituting the voltage quantities yields the following relation

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 1
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐿 + 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅 + ∫ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 0
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
Changing variables from current to charge using 𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 1
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐿 + 𝑅 + 𝑞(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor in

𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)

Substituting 𝑞(𝑡) yields the following second order differential equation

𝑑 2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

𝑉̅ (𝑠) = 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑅𝐶𝑠𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) ⇒

𝑉̅ (𝑠) = 𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠)(𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1) ⇒

1
𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝑉̅ (𝑠)
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
Multiplying both sides by 1/𝐿𝐶
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 1/𝐿𝐶
𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝑉̅ (𝑠) ⇒ 𝑉̅𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑉̅ (𝑠)
𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 +
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
1/𝐿𝐶
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 +
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

1/𝐿𝐶
𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 +
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

Higher Order Systems

Clearly the same technique will work for higher order linear ordinary
differential equations with constant coefficients.

𝑑𝑛 𝑥 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑜 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

[𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑜 ]𝑥̅ (𝑠) = [𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑜 ]𝑢̅(𝑠)

Rearrange into transfer function form.

𝑥̅ (𝑠) [𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑜 ]

= 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑢̅(𝑠) [𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑜 ]

Poles and zeros

Suppose 𝐺(𝑠) is a rational function of 𝑠 by which we mean,
𝑛(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑑(𝑠)
where 𝑛(𝑠) and 𝑑(𝑠) are polynomials in s. Then the roots of 𝑛(𝑠) are called
the zeros of 𝑮(𝒔) and the roots of 𝑑(𝑠) are called the poles of 𝑮(𝒔). The
poles and zeros of the system 𝐺(𝑠) are defined as
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Zeros: All the values of s for which n(s) = 0, generally denoted by O, and
defined as the roots of the numerator of the transfer function that causes the
transfer function to become zero.
Poles: All the values of s for which d(s) = 0, generally denoted by X, and
defined as the roots of the denominator of the transfer function that causes
the transfer function to be infinite.

Example: Find the poles and zeros of

4𝑠 2 − 8𝑠 − 60 4𝑠 2 − 8𝑠 − 60
𝐺(𝑠) = 3 =
𝑠 + 2𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2)

Imag(s)

Real(s)

Remarks on behaviour
The transfer function can be generalised as

𝑥̅ (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑢̅(𝑠)

Therefore, the output behaviours of 𝑥(𝑡) will include:

1. the dynamics inherent in the process (poles of 𝐺(𝑠)).

2. the dynamics inherent in the input signal 𝑢(𝑡).

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Let 𝑢(𝑡) have a particular behaviour, then from Laplace one can imply 𝑥(𝑡)
includes this behaviour. As will be seen, this is invaluable where 𝑢̅(𝑠) is not
known explicitly, such as in a feedback loop.
1 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑢(𝑡) = 1 𝑢̅(𝑠) = 𝑥(𝑡) = ℒ −1 { }
𝑠 𝑠
1 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑢̅(𝑠) = 2 𝑥(𝑡) = ℒ −1 { 2 }
𝑠 𝑠
𝜔 𝐺(𝑠)𝜔
𝑢(𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑢̅(𝑠) = 2 𝑥(𝑡) = ℒ −1 { 2 }
𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝑠 + 𝜔2

Summary
Transfer functions facilitates

• a simple representation of process dynamics.

• easier signal manipulation and analysis in comparison to ODEs.

• a direct relationship between inputs and outputs which is needed for

control design and analysis.

• the use of multiplication to represent links between components from

which block diagrams can be constructed.

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