ME 352

FLUID DYNAMICS 2

Chapter 2: Dimensional and Model Analysis

 Main Topics

• Nature of Dimensional Analysis

• Methods of Dimensional Analysis

➢ The Rayleigh Method
➢ Buckingham Pi Theorem

• Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

• Flow Similarity and Model Studies

 Dimensional and Model Analysis
• Flow phenomena depend in a complex way on the geometric and
fluid/flow parameters.
• Detailed flow information will require exact solutions to the
Continuity and Navier-Stokes Equations.
 Dimensional and Model Analysis
• In fluid mechanics, very few exact solutions exist
• We therefore resort to simplified analysis and experiments

Consider the problem of the drag force 𝐹𝐷 on a sphere:

• The drag 𝐹𝐷 , will depend on:
freestream velocity, 𝑉

diameter, 𝐷

fluid properties, i.e. density, 𝜌; and viscosity, 𝜇

• We can write: 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑓(𝑉, 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇)

 Dimensional and Model Analysis
• If we want to study this problem experimentally, we would have to
vary each of the four (4) variables (𝑉, 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇) independently and
measure 𝐹𝐷 .
• It is easy to change 𝑉 and D, harder to vary 𝜌 and 𝜇.
• If we select 10 different values of each of the 4 variables, i.e. 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇,
we would perform a total of 10,000 experiments
• If each experiment took 30 minutes, about 2.4 years of experiments
will be required.
• Furthermore we would generate a very large amount of data.
• For each fixed value of 𝐷, 𝜌 and 𝜇, we would have one (1) graph of 𝐹𝐷
vs. 𝑉.
• A total of 1,000 graphs will be plotted.
 Dimensional and Model Analysis
• Dimensional analysis allows us to reduce the size of the problem.
𝐹 𝜌𝑉𝐷
• We can show that: =𝑓
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2 𝜇
• Only one dependent and one independent non-dimensional
parameters
• Easy to set up experiments to determine dependency
• Easy to present results (one graph)
 Dimensional and Model Analysis

• Another factor to consider is experimental modeling.

• Suppose we want to build a hydraulic turbine for use in a hydroelectric
power generating station.
• These turbines are physically very large (of order 10 m), and they
handle large flow rates.
• A full-scale test facility would be extremely expensive! (millions of
dollars, about the same cost as the power station)
• The turbine designer would want to perform tests on smaller turbine
models that require lower flow rates, produce less power, cost less,
etc.
• Dimensional analysis is a tool that is invaluable in scale model testing.
 Dimensional and Model Analysis

Benefits

• Reduce number of experiments and facilitates

interpretation of experimental results

• Enormous saving of time

• Enormous saving of money

 Dimensional and Model Analysis
• Dimensional Analysis is a method of reducing the number and
complexity of experimental variables which affect a given physical
phenomenon.
• Dimensional Homogeneity: An equation is dimensionally
homogeneous if the form of the equation does not depend on the
fundamental units of measurements
• All physically meaningful equations are dimensionally homogeneous.
• Note that any equation of the form:
𝑋 =𝐴+𝐵+𝐶+⋯
is dimensionally homogeneous if and only if all the terms have the same
dimensions.
 Dimensional Homogeneity

𝑷 𝑽𝟐
Bernoulli’s equation: 𝝆
+
𝟐
+ 𝒈𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝑷 𝑴𝑳−𝟏 𝒕−𝟐 𝟐 −𝟐
: = 𝑳 𝒕
𝝆 𝑴𝑳−𝟑

𝟐
𝑽𝟐 𝑳
: = 𝑳𝟐 𝒕−𝟐
𝟐 𝒕

𝑳 𝟐 −𝟐
𝒈𝒛: ∙ 𝑳 = 𝑳 𝒕
𝒕𝟐
 Dimensional Homogeneity

Conservation of mass

𝝏
න 𝝆𝒅∀ + න 𝝆𝑽 ∙ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝑪𝑽 𝑪𝑺

𝟏 𝑴 𝟑 𝑴 𝑳 𝟐
∙ 𝟑∙𝑳 𝟑
∙ ∙𝑳
𝒕 𝑳 𝑳 𝒕

𝑴 𝑴
𝒕 𝒕
 Table 2.1 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions
1. Length L L
1. Mass M M
1. Time T T
b) Geometric
4. Area A L2
5. volume Ɐ L3
c) Kinematic
6. Velocity v LT-1
7. Angular Velocity 𝜔 T-1
8. Acceleration a LT-2
9. Angular acceleration ∝ T-2
10. Discharge Q L3T-1
11. Acceleration due to gravity g LT-2
12. Kinematic viscosity v L2T-1
d) Dynamic quantities
13. Force F MLT-2
14. Weight W MLT-2
15. Density ρ ML-3
16. Dynamic viscosity µ ML-1T-1
17. Pressure p ML-1T-2
18. Modules of elasticity E, K ML-1T-2
19. Surface tension 𝜎 MT-2
20. Specific weight w ML-2T-2
e) Physical quantity
21. Shear stress τ ML-1T-2
22. Work, Energy W or E ML2T-2
23. Power P MLT-3
24. Torque T ML2T-2
25. Momentum M MLT-1
 Methods of Dimensional Analysis

If the number of variables involved in a physical

phenomenon is known, then the relation among the
variables can be determined by the following two methods
• Rayleigh’s method

• Buckingham’s Π-theorem
 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
• Used for determining the expression for a variable which
depends on maximum three or four variables only. If the number
of independent variables becomes more than four then it is very
difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.
• Let X be a variable, which depends on X1, X2, and X3 variables.
• Then according to Rayleigh’s method X is a function of X1, X2, and
X3.
• Mathematically, X = f(X1,X2,X3). Or X= KX1a. X2b. X3c.
• where K is a constant and a, b and c are arbitrary powers.
• The variables of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the
fundamental dimensions on both sides. Thus the expression is obtained
for the dependent variable.
 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

Examples
(1) The time period (t) of a pendulum depends on the length (L) of the
pendulum and acceleration due to gravity. Derive an expression for the
time period.

Solution
• Time period T is a function of (i) L and (ii) g ⇒ T = KLa.gb
• where K is a constant substitute the dimensions on both sides T= KLa. (LT-2) b
• Equating that powers of the dimensions M,L,T, on both sides we have
1
• Powers of T: 1= -2b, b = −
2
• Powers of L: 0= a+b
• a= -b
1 1
• a= − − =
2 2
 Solution contd.
• Substitute the values of a and b
• t = KL1/2. g-1/2
𝐿
• t=𝐾
𝑔

• The value of K is determined from experiment from which k= 2π

𝐿
t = 2π
𝑔
 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

Example 2: Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere

of diameter D, moving with uniform velocity v in a fluid of density 𝜌
and dynamic viscosity 𝜇.
Solution
Drag force is a function of (i) Diameter D, (ii) Velocity V (iii) Density
𝜌 (iv) dynamic viscosity 𝜇
Drag force F = K Da Vb 𝜌c 𝜇d
Where K is a constant. Substituting the dimensions on both side
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝐾𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑏 . 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑐 . 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑑

Power of M⇒ 1 = c + d
Power of L, ⇒ 1 = a + b – 3c – d
Power of T ⇒ -2 = -b – d
 Solution 2 contd
• We have 3 unknowns. It is impossible to find all unknowns.
However we can express three of the variables in terms of the
four variables which is most important.
c=1–d
b=2–d
a = 1 – b + 3c + d
= 1 – (2 – d) + 3(1 – d) + d
= 1 - 2 + d + 3 – 3d + d
a=2–d
 Solution 2 contd.
• Substitute values of a, b, c
• F=KD2-d V2-d ρ1-d μd
• F=KD2 V2 ρ (D-d V-d ρ-d μd)
• W
𝜇
• F=KρD2 V2 ( )
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝜇
• F= 2 2
KρD V ϕ ( )
𝜌𝑉𝐷
 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

Example 3. Find the expression for the power P, developed by a pump

when p depends on the head H, discharge Q and specific weight of the
fluid.

Solution
𝑃 = 𝐾𝐻ᵃ. 𝑄ᵇ. 𝑤ᶜ ……………(i)
ML2T-3 = K La. (L3T-1)b . (ML-2T-2)c
 Solution 3 contd.

• Equating the powers of M, L, and T on both sides

• Power of M, 1= c ∴ 𝑐 = 1
• Power of K, 2 = 𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 2𝑐, 𝑎 = 2 − 3𝑏 − 2𝑐
• Power of T, −3 = −𝑏 − 2𝑐, 𝑏 = 3 − 2 1 = 1
• ⟹𝑎 =2−3+2=1
 Solution 3 contd.
• Substituting the values of a, b and c into (i)
• 𝑃 = 𝐾𝐻1 . 𝑄1 . 𝑤 1
𝑃 = 𝐾𝐻𝑄𝑤
 BUCKINGHAM’S Pi-Theorem

• The Rayleigh’s method becomes difficult if the variables are

more than the fundamental dimensions (M, L, T).
• This difficulty is overcome by Buckingham’s π-Theorem, which
states “if there are n variables (independent and dependent
variables) in a phenomenon and if these variables contain m
fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the variables can be
arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms”.
• Each term is called π-term. Let X1, X2, X3,….., Xn be the variables
involved in a physical problem.
• Let X1, be the dependent variable and X2, X3…..Xn be the
independent variables on which X1 depends.
Then X1 is a function of X2,X3……Xn and
mathematically X1=f (X2,X3……Xn), or f(X1,X2,X3……Xn) = 0.
The above equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
• NB: It contains n variables. If there are m fundamental
dimensions then according to Buckingham’s π theorem,
equation (1) can be written in terms of the number of
dimensionless groups or π terms in which the number of π-
terms is equal to (n-m).
• Therefore, f(π1,π2,……πn-m) = 0
• Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of
repeating variables. Let X2, X3, and X4 be the repeating variables if
the fundamental dimension m (M,L,T) =3. Then each π-term is
• π1=𝑋2 𝑎1 . 𝑋3 𝑏1 . 𝑋4 𝑐1 . 𝑋1
• 𝜋2 = 𝑋2 𝑎2 . 𝑋3 𝑏2 . 𝑋4 𝑐2 . 𝑋5
• 𝜋1 = 𝑋2 𝑎𝑛 −𝑚 . 𝑋3 𝑏𝑛 −𝑚 . 𝑋4 𝑐𝑛 −𝑚 . 𝑋𝑛
• Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional
homogeneity and the values of a,b,c etc. are obtained.
• The final equation for the phenomenon is obtained by expressing
anyone of the π-terms as a function of the others as
• π1 = ϕ(π2,π3,……πn-m)
• π2 = ϕ(π1,π3,……πn-m)
 Application of the Pi Theorem
Step-by-step method to determine dimensionless/Pi groups
Let consider the problem of the drag force, 𝐹 on a sphere to illustrate the step-
by-step method of determining the 𝛱– parameters of a given problem.
Step 1: List all the dimensional parameters involved
Let 𝑛 be the number of parameters
For drag on a sphere: 𝐹, 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇  𝑛 = 5

Step 2: Select a set of fundamental (primary) dimensions

For example 𝑀𝐿𝑡 or 𝐹𝐿𝑡
 Application of the Pi Theorem
Step 3: List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of primary dimensions
Let 𝑟 be the number of primary dimensions
For drag on a sphere, 𝑟 = 3

𝑭 𝑽 𝑫 𝝆 𝝁
𝑀𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀
𝑡2 𝑡 𝐿3 𝐿𝑡

Step 4: Select a set of 𝑟 dimensional parameters that includes all the primary
dimensions. These parameters will all be combined with each of the remaining
parameters, one of those at a time, and so are called repeating parameters.
For drag on a sphere, (𝑚 = 𝑟 = 3) select 𝜌, 𝑉, 𝐷
 Application of the Pi Theorem
Tips for selecting repeating parameters
➢ Identify and exclude clearly defined dependent parameters.
E.g. 𝐹 is a dependent parameter in the sphere problem.
➢ Identify and exclude all parameters that have dimensions that are a power of the
dimensions of another repeating parameter.
E.g. Diameter (𝐿), Area (𝐿2) and Volume (𝐿3)
➢ Among the remaining parameters, consider those that are related to the following, and
select one from each category.
• geometry (e.g. 𝐷, 𝐿),
• fluid properties (𝜌, 𝜇)
• flow (𝑉, 𝜔).
The order in which the repeating parameters are selected does not affect the 𝛱– groups
that will be obtained
 Application of the Pi Theorem

Step 5: Set up dimensional equations, combining the (repeating) parameters

selected in Step 4 with each of the other parameters in turn, to form
dimensionless groups.

There will be (𝑛 − 𝑚) equations

For drag on a sphere, 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 5 − 3 = 2 equations or 𝛱– groups

𝛱1 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝐷 𝑐 𝐹 and 𝛱2 = 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 𝑒 𝐷 𝑓 𝜇
 Application of the Pi Theorem

𝛱1 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝐷 𝑐 𝐹 and 𝛱2 = 𝜌𝑑 𝑉 𝑒 𝐷 𝑓 𝜇

𝑀 𝑎 𝐿 𝑏 𝑐 𝑀𝐿 𝐹
For 𝛱1 , we have: 𝐿 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑡 0 ⟹ 𝛱1 =
𝐿3 𝑡 𝑡2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2

𝑀 𝑑 𝐿 𝑒 𝑓 𝑀 𝜇
For 𝛱2 , we have: 𝐿 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑡 0 ⟹ 𝛱2 =
𝐿3 𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝐷

𝐹 𝜇
Thus 𝛱1 = 𝑓(𝛱2 ) ⟹ =𝑓
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2 𝜌𝑉𝐷

Step 6: Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless

 Dimensionless Groups of Significance

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝑳 𝝆𝑽𝑫

• Reynolds number: 𝑹𝒆 = = = (or )
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝁𝑽𝑳 𝝁 𝝁

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽

• Froude number: 𝑭𝒓 = = = =
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒈𝝆𝑳𝟑 𝒈𝑳 𝒈𝑳
 Dimensionless Groups of Significance

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽

• Mach number: 𝑴 = = = =
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒗 𝑳𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒄

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳

• Weber number: 𝑾𝒆 = = =
𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝈𝑳 𝝈

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜟𝒑𝑳𝟐 𝜟𝒑

• Euler number: 𝑬𝒖 = = =
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟎.𝟓𝝆𝑽𝟐

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝒑−𝒑𝒗 )𝑳𝟐 𝒑−𝒑𝒗

• Cavitation number: 𝑪𝒂 = = =
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟎.𝟓𝝆𝑽𝟐
 Application of the Pi Theorem

Example 2: The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during

flight can be considered as dependent on the length of the
aircraft 𝑙, velocity V, air viscosity μ, air density ρ and bulk
modulus of air, k. Determine the functional relationship
between these variables and the resisting force.
Example 3. The pressure drop, Δp, for steady, incompressible
flow through a straight horizontal pipe depends on the pipe
length, L, the average velocity V, the fluid viscosity, μ, the pipe
diameter, D, the fluid density, ρ, and the average roughness
height, e. Determine a set of dimensionless groups that can
be used to correlate data.
 Application of the Pi Theorem

Example 4: The efficiency η of a fan depends on density ρ,

dynamic viscosity μ of the fluid, angular velocity ω, diameter
D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express η in terms of
dimensionless parameters.