Chapter 5

Dimensional Analysis and Modeling

By: Sintayehu Assefa (Ph.D.)

Fluid Mechanics (MEng 3151) 4/8/2025

 Chapter Objectives
After completing the chapters, the student will be able to:
• Develop a better understanding of dimensions, units, and dimensional homogeneity
of equations
• Understand the numerous benefits of dimensional analysis
• Know how to use the method of repeating variables to identify non dimensional
parameters/numbers
• Understand the concept of dynamic similarity and how to apply it to experimental
modeling

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 OUT LINE
 Dimensions and Units

 Dimensional Homogeneity

 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

 Rayleigh's Methods

 The Method of Repeating Variables and the Buckingham PI Theorem

 Modeling and Similitude

 Common Dimensionless Numbers in Fluid Mechanics

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 1. Dimensions and Units
• A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed quantitatively (without numerical values).
• A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.
Secondary dimensions SI Units
Primary dimensions Area{𝐿2 } m2
Primary dimensions SI Units Volume {𝐿3 } m3
Mass {M} Kilogram (kg) Velocity {L𝑇 −1 } mΤs
Length {L} Meter (m) Acceleration {L𝑇 −2 } mΤs 2
Time {T} Seconds (s) Pressure or stress {𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 } Pa = NΤm2
Temperature {Θ} Kelvin(k) Angular velocity {𝑇 −1 } s −1
Electric current (I) Ampere (A) Energy, heat, work {𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 } J = N. m
Amount of light (C) Candela (cd) Power {𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 } W = JΤs
Amount of matter (N) Mole (mol) Density {𝑀𝐿−3 } kgΤm3
Viscosity {𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 } kgΤ(m. s)
Specific heat {𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Θ−1} m2 Τ(s 2 . K)
Secondary dimensions 4
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 Dimensions and Units….Cont…
Fore example: Dimensions of force
𝑉 𝐿ൗ 𝐿
𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀 ∗ = 𝑀∗ 𝑇
= 𝑀∗ = 𝑀𝐿Τ𝑇 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇2
Example 1: An engineer is studying how some insects are able to walk on water (as shown in
figure below). A fluid property of importance in this problem is surface tension (𝜎𝑠 ), which has
dimensions of force per unit length. Write the dimensions of surface tension in terms of primary
dimensions. Solution

• The primary dimensions of surface tension are

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑀. 𝐿Τ𝑇 2
𝜎𝑠 = = = 𝑀Τ𝑇 2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿

The water strider is an insect that can

walk on water due to surface tension.

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 2. Dimensional Homogeneity
• The law of dimensional homogeneity stated Change of total energy of a system:
as every additive term in an equation must ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃 (1)
1
have the same dimensions. ∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
2
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) (2)
There fore,
∆𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ → ∆𝐸 = 𝑀 𝐿2 Τ𝑇 2
Can’t add apples and oranges 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → ∆𝑈 = 𝑀 𝐿2 Τ𝑇 2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ → ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀 𝐿2 Τ𝑇 2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2 Τ𝑇 2
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ ∗ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ → ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑀 𝐿
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2
Example2: The Bernoulli equation for incompressible
irrotational fluid flow is
1 2
Figure 1: Total energy of a 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
system at state 1 and at 2
Verify that each additive term in the Bernoulli equation has
state 2. the same dimensions. (b) What are the dimensions of the
constant C? 6
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 Homogeneity…Cont.
Solution
(a) Each term is written interms of primary dimensions,

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 1 𝑀
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 2 2
= 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑇 𝐿

2
1 2 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2 𝑀
𝜌𝑉 = = =
2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ3 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 𝑇 2 𝐿

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2 𝑀

𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 3 2
= 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 𝐿
All three additive terms have the same dimensions.
(b) From the laws of dimensional homogeneity, the constant must have the same dimensions as the
other additive terms in the given equation. Therefore,
𝑴
Primary dimensions of the Bernoulli constant: 𝑪 =
𝑻𝟐 𝑳
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 Homogeneity…Cont.
Non-dimensionalization of Basic Equations
• The law of dimensional homogeneity guarantees that every additive term in an equation has
the same dimensions.
• It follows that if we divide each term in the equation by a collection of variables and constants
whose product has those same dimensions, the equation is rendered non-dimensional.
• If, in addition, the non-dimensional terms in the equation are of order unity, the equation is
called normalized.
• Normalization is thus more restrictive than non-dimensionalization, even though the two
terms are sometimes (incorrectly) used interchangeably.
Each term in a non-dimensional equation is dimensionless.
• The boundary conditions must also be non-dimensionalized.
• Apply this technique to the incompressible-flow continuity and momentum equations with
constant viscosity:
Continuity: 𝛻. 𝑉 = 0 (3a)
𝑑𝑉
Momentum: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔 − 𝛻𝑝 + 𝜇𝛻 2 𝑉 (3b)
𝑑𝑡
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 Homogeneity…Cont.
Boundary conditions 𝜕𝑢 𝜕(𝑈𝑢 ∗ ) 𝑈 𝜕𝑢 ∗
• Fixed solid surface: V = 0 = =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕(𝐿𝑥 ∗ ) 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
• Inlet or outlet: known P, V (4)
𝑑𝜂 The resulting dimensionless equations of motion
• Free surface: 𝑧 = 𝜂: 𝑤 = 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 − Υ(𝑅𝑥−1 + 𝑅𝑦−1 ) are:
𝑑𝑡
• Equation (3) and (4) contain the three basic dimensions m, l Continuity: 𝛻 ∗ . 𝑉 ∗ = 0 (6a)
and t. 𝑑𝑉 ∗ 𝜇
Momentum: = −𝛻 ∗ 𝑝∗ + 𝛻 ∗ (𝑉 ∗ ) (6b)
• All variables p, V, x, y, z, and t can be non-dimensionalized 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 𝜌𝑈𝐿

by using density and two reference constants which might be The dimensionless boundary conditions are:
characteristic of the particular fluid flow: Fixed solid surface: 𝑉 ∗ = 0
Now define all relevant dimensionless variables Inlet or outlet: known 𝑉 ∗ , 𝑝∗
𝑉 ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝑑𝜂∗
𝑉∗ = Free surface, 𝑧 = 𝜂 𝑤 = (7)
𝑈 𝑑𝑡 ∗
𝑝𝑎 𝑔𝐿 ∗ 𝑌 ∗ −1
𝑥∗ =
𝑥
𝑦∗ =
𝑦
𝑧∗ =
𝑧
(5) 𝑝∗ = + 𝑧 − (𝑅 𝑥 + 𝑅 ∗ −1
𝑦 )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝜌𝑈 2 𝑈2 𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿
𝑡𝑈 𝑝+𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝑡∗ = 𝑝∗ =
𝐿 𝜌𝑈 2
• All these are fairly obvious except for p*, where we have
slyly introduced the gravity effect, assuming that z is up.
• Since ρ, U, and L are all constants, the derivatives in Eqs. (3)
can all be handled in dimensionless form with dimensional
coefficients. For example,
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 3. Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
• Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and
complexity of experimental variables which affect a given
physical phenomenon, by using a sort of compacting technique.
• Model and Prototype
 In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are
performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather than on
the full scale prototype.
Similarity
1. Geometric similarity: the model must be the same shape as
the prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale
factor.
2. Kinematic similarity: the velocity at any point in the model
flow must be proportional (by a constant scale factor) to the
velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow
3. Dynamic similarity: is achieved when all forces in the model
flow scale by a constant factor to corresponding forces in the
prototype flow (force-scale equivalence).
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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity…Cont.
• The purposes of dimensional analysis are
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results.
2. To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
3. To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity…Cont.
Benefits of Dimensional Analysis
1. Enormous savings in time and money.
Suppose one knew that the force F on a particular body immersed
in a stream of fluid depended only on the body length L, stream
velocity V, fluid density ρ, and fluid viscosity µ, that is, 𝐹 =
𝐹(𝐿, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇)
If the geometry and flow conditions are so complicated that
integral theories and differential equations fail to yield the solution
for the force. Then need to find the function f(L, V, ρ,µ)
experimentally.

2. It helps our thinking and planning for an experiment or theory.

• It suggests dimensionless ways of writing equations before we waste money on computer time to find
solutions.
3. It provides scaling laws
• Dimensional analysis provides scaling laws which can convert data from a cheap, small model to design
information for an expensive, large prototype.

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity…Cont.
Methods of dimensional analysis
• If the number of variable involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the relation among the
variables can be determined by
1. Rayleigh’s method
2. Buckingham’s PI Theorem (Π-theorem)

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 4. Rayleigh’s Method
• Used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon maximum three or four
variables only.
• If the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find
the expression for the dependent variable.
• Let X is a variable, which depends on 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 and 𝑋3 variables. Then, according to Rayleigh’s
method, X is function of 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 and 𝑋3 and mathematically it is written as 𝑋 = 𝑓(𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 ).
• This can also be written as 𝑋 = 𝐾𝑋1𝑎 . 𝑋2𝑏 . 𝑋3𝑐
where K is constant and a, b and c are arbitrary powers.
• The values of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimension
on both sides.
• Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variables.
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 Rayleigh’s Method…Cont.
Example 3: Find the expression for the power P, developed by a pump when P depends upon the head
H, the discharge Q and specific weight 𝑤 of the fluid.
Solution

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 Rayleigh’s Method…Cont.
Example 4: A partially submerged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its motion depends on
the density 𝜌, the viscosity 𝜇 of water, length L of the body, velocity v of the body and the
acceleration due to gravity g. show that the resistance to the motion can be expressed in the form
2 2 𝜇 𝐿𝑔
of 𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑉 𝜙 . .
𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉2 Solution
• The resistance R depends on

…(i)

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 5. Repeating Variables and Buckingham PI(𝚷)-Theorem
• The method of repeating variables by Edgar Buckingham(1867-1940).
• If a physical process satisfies the principle of dimensional homogeneity and involves n
dimensional variables, it can be reduced to a relation between only k dimensionless
variables or Π ′ 𝑠. The scheme is called the Buckingham PI (Π) theorem. Or
• Buckingham’s Π-theorem states, “ if there are n variables (independent and dependent
variables) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain j fundamental
dimensions (M,L,T..), then the variables are arranged in to (𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑗) dimensionless terms.
Each term is called Π-term’’.
• The scheme is called the Buckingham PI (Π)-theorem.
• Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … . , 𝑋𝑛 are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let 𝑋1 be the
dependent variable and 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … , 𝑋𝑛 are the independent variables on which 𝑋1 depends.
Then 𝑋1 is a function of 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … . , 𝑋𝑛 and mathematically it is expressed as
𝑋1 = 𝑓(𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … , 𝑋𝑛 ) (8)
• Can be also written as
𝑓 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … , 𝑋𝑛 = 0 (9)
• Equation (9) is a dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains n variables.
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 Buckingham PI(𝚷)-Theorem…Cont.
• If there are j fundamental dimensions then according to Buckingham’s Π-theorem, equation (9) can be
written in terms of dimensionlesss groups or Π-terms in which number of Π-terms is equal (𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑗).
Therefore, equation (9) becomes
𝑓 Π1 , Π2 , Π3 , … , Π𝑛 = 0 (10)
• Each Π-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system. Each Π-terms contains 𝑘 + 1 variables,
where k is the number of fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating variables.
• Let 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 and 𝑋4 are repeating variables if the fundamental dimensions j (𝑀, 𝐿, 𝑇) = 3. Then each Π-
term is written as
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Π1 = 𝑋2 1 . 𝑋3 1 . 𝑋41 . 𝑋1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Π2 = 𝑋2 2 . 𝑋3 2 . 𝑋42 . 𝑋5 (11)
𝑎𝑛−𝑗 𝑏𝑛−𝑗 𝑐𝑛−𝑗
Π𝑛−𝑗 = 𝑋2 . 𝑋3 . 𝑋4 . 𝑋𝑛
• Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 etc., are
obtained.
• These values are substituted in equation (11) and values of Π1 , Π2 , … . Π𝑛−𝑗 are obtained.
• These values of Π’s are substituted in equation (12). The final equation for the phenomenon is obtained
by expressing any one of the Π-terms as a function of others as
Π1 = 𝜙[Π2 , Π3 , … . , Π𝑛−𝑗 ] or Π2 = 𝜙[Π1 , Π3 , … . , Π𝑛−𝑗 ] (12)
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 Buckingham PI(𝚷)-Theorem…Cont.
Method of selecting Repeating variables
• The number of repeating variables are equal to the number of fundamental dimensions of the
problem. The selection of repeating variables is governed by the following considerations:
 As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
 The repeating variables should be chosen in such way that one variable contains geometry
property, variable contains flow property and fluid property.
• Variables with geometrical property are length(l), diameter (d), height (H), and etc.
• Variables with flow property are velocity(V) and acceleration (a) etc.
• Variables with fluid property 𝜇, 𝜌, and etc.
 The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
 the repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
 No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
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 Buckingham PI(𝚷) Theorem…Cont.
• The procedure for solving problems by Buckingham’s Π-theorem.
• Step 1: list the parameters in the problem and count their total number n.
• Step 2: list the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters.
• Step 3: set the reduction j as the number of primary dimensions. Calculate k, the expected
number of Π ′ 𝑠, 𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑗.
• Step 4: choose j repeating parameters.
• Step 5: construct the k Π’s and manipulate as necessary. Then, write the final functional
relationship and check the algebra.
Example 5: A partially submerged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its motion depends on
the density 𝜌, the viscosity 𝜇 of water, length L of the body, velocity v of the body and the
acceleration due to gravity g. show that the resistance to the motion can be expressed in the form of
𝜇 𝐿𝑔
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜙 . .
𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉2
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 Buckingham PI(𝚷) Theorem…Cont.
Solution

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 Buckingham PI Theorem…Cont.
Example 6: The pressure difference ∆p across an explosion or blast wave is a function of the
distance r from the blast center, time t, speed of sound a of the medium, and total energy E in
the blast. Rewrite this relation in dimensionless form.
Solution
Step 1: Write the function and count variables (find n).
Δ𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑟, 𝑡, 𝑎, 𝐸) 𝑛 = 5
Step 2: List dimensions of each variable
Δ𝑝 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 , 𝑟 = 𝐿, 𝑡 = 𝑇, 𝑎 = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , E = M𝐿2 𝑇 −2
Step 3: Find k.
There are three basic dimensions (MLT) and k is less or equal to 3. The variables r, t and E do
not form pi group and j = 3. Then k=n-j=5-3=2. There are 2 independent PI (𝜫) groups for
this problem.
Step 4: select j repeating variables.
The variables r, t and E can be used as repeating variables since they do not form pi groups
among themselves

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 Buckingham PI Theorem…Cont.
Step 5: find the PI (Π) groups.
The first Π group can be obtained by adding the variable a with power of 1 to the repeating variables
selected in step 4.
Π1 = 𝑟 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝐸 𝑧 𝑎
For Π1 to be dimensionless, the following should be fulfilled.
𝐿 𝑥 𝑇 𝑦 (𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 )𝑧 (𝐿𝑇 −1 ) = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
Collecting powers of similar terms
Mass: z = 0
Length : 𝑥 + 2𝑧 + 1 = 0 → 𝑥 = −1
Time: 𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 1 = 0 → 𝑦 = 1
𝑡𝑎
Π1 = 𝑟 −1 𝑡𝑎 =
𝑟
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 Buckingham PI Theorem…Cont.
The second Π-term can be obtained by adding the variable 𝛻𝑝 with power of 1 to the repeating
variables
Π2 = 𝑟 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝐸 𝑧 ∆𝑝
For Π2 to dimensionless,
(𝐿)𝑥 (𝑇)𝑦 (𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 )𝑧 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
Collecting powers of similar terms
Mass: 𝑧 + 1 = 0 → 𝑧 = −1
Length: 𝑥 + 2𝑧 − 1 = 0 → 𝑥 = −2𝑧 + 1 = 3
Time: 𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 2 = 0 → 𝑦 = 2𝑧 + 2 = 0
∆𝑝𝑟 3
Π2 = 𝑟 3 𝐸 −1 ∆𝑝 =
𝐸
Then one Π-term is a function of the other,
Π2 = 𝑓(Π1 )
Δ𝑝𝑟 3 𝑡𝑎
=𝑓
𝐸 𝑟
𝐸 𝑡𝑎
Therefore, Δ𝑝 = 𝑓
𝑟3 𝑟

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 6. Modeling and Similitude
What is model and similitude?
1. Geometric Similarity
• Geometric similarity concerns the length dimension {L} and must be ensured before any sensible
model testing can proceed. A formal definition is as follows:
 A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all body dimensions in all three
coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio.
 All angles are preserved in geometric similarity. All flow directions are preserved. The
orientations of model and prototype with respect to the surroundings must be identical.

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
2. Kinematic Similarity
• Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have the same length-scale ratio and the same time-
scale ratio. The result is that the velocity-scale ratio will be the same for both.
The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if homologous particles lie at homologous points at
homologous times.
• Frictionless flows with a free surface, Froude numbers are equal
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝2
𝐹𝑟𝑚 = = = 𝐹𝑟𝑝
𝑔𝐿𝑚 𝑔𝐿𝑝
• The Froude number contains only length and time
dimensions and hence is a purely kinematic parameter
(a)
which fixes the relation between length and time. if the
length scale is
𝐿𝑚 = 𝛼𝐿𝑝 where 𝛼 is a dimensionless ratio, the velocity scale
is
1Τ2
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚
= = 𝛼 and the time scale is
𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝑇𝑚 𝐿𝑚 Τ𝑉𝑚
= = 𝛼 Practice: Match the Reynold number =??
𝑇𝑝 𝐿𝑝 Τ𝑉𝑝 (b)

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
3. Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length-scale ratio, time-
scale ratio, and force-scale (or mass-scale) ratio.
• Newton’s law for any fluid particle requires that the
sum of the pressure force, gravity force, and friction
force equal the acceleration term, or inertia force,
𝐹𝑝 + 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖
• Froude numbers Fr equivalence
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝2
𝐹𝑟𝑚 = = = 𝐹𝑟𝑝
𝑔𝐿𝑚 𝑔𝐿𝑝
• Reynold numbers Re equivalence
𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝
(a) (b) 𝑅𝑒𝑚 = = = 𝑅𝑒𝑝
𝜈𝑚 𝜈𝑝
𝜈𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= = 𝛼 3Τ2
𝜈𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝
• Mach Number Ma
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝 𝜈𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑎𝑚
= then =
𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑝 𝜈𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑎𝑝

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Example 7: In the model test of a spillway the Example 8: In a geometrically similar model
discharge and velocity of flow over the model of spillway the discharge per meter length is
were 2 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 and respectively. Calculate the 1 3
𝑚 Τ𝑠. If the scale of the model is 1Τ6 , find
velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 6
36 times the model size. the discharge per meter length of the
Solution prototype.
Solution 𝑄𝑃
= 𝐿𝑟 2.5
𝑄𝑚

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Example 9: The ratio of lengths of a submarine and its model is 30:1. the speed of submarine
(prototype) is 10m/s. The model is to be tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of air in wind tune. Also
determine the ratio of the drag (resistance) between the model and its prototype. Take the value of
kinematic viscosities for sea water and air as 1.2 × 10−6 𝑚2 Τ𝑠 and 1.6 × 10−6 𝑚2 Τ𝑠, respectively. The
density of sea water and air is given as 1030𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 and 1.24𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 , respectively.
Solution

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Example 10: The pressure drop due to friction for flow in a long smooth pipe is a function of average
flow velocity, density, viscosity, and pipe length and diameter: Δ𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐿, 𝐷). We wish to know
how p varies with V.
(a) Use the pi theorem to rewrite this function in dimensionless form.
(b) Then plot this function, using the following data for three pipes and three fluids:

(c) Suppose it is further known that p is proportional to L (which is quite true for long pipes with
well-rounded entrances). Use this information to simplify and improve the pi-theorem formulation.
Plot the dimensionless data in this improved manner and comment upon the results.

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Solution

Figure A.

All newtonian smooth pipe flows should be correlate in

this manner.

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Example 11:The smooth-sphere data plotted in Figure below, represent dimensionless drag versus
dimensionless viscosity, since were selected as scaling or repeating variables. (a) Replot these data to
display the effect of dimensionless velocity on the drag. (b) Use your new figure to predict the
terminal (zero-acceleration) velocity of a 1-cm-diameter steel ball (SG = 7.86) falling through water at
20°C.

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Solution
• To display the effect of velocity, must not use V as a repeating variable.
• Choose (𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑑) as j variables to non-dimensionalize, 𝐹 = 𝑓 𝑑, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇 .
• The PI groups form as follows:
𝜌𝐹 𝜌𝑉𝑑
Π1 = 𝜌𝑎 𝜇𝑏 𝑑 𝑐 𝐹 = 𝜇2 Π2 = 𝜌𝑒 𝜇 𝑓 𝑑 𝑔 𝑉 = 𝜇 Ans. (a)
• Therefore, plot of 𝜌𝐹 Τ𝜇2 versus Re will display the direct effect of velocity on sphere.
The drag increases rapidly with velocity up to transition, where there is a slight drop,
after which it increases more quickly than ever. If the force known, may be predict the
velocity from the figure.

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Distorted Models
• A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototype.
• For a distorted model different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adapted.
Scale ratio for distorted models
• Two different scale ratios, one for horizontal and other for vertical dimensions are taken for
distorted models.
Let (𝐿𝑟 )𝐻 = scale ratio for horizontal dimension
𝐿𝑃 𝐵𝑃 linear horizontal dimesnions of prototype
= = =
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚 linear horizontal dimension of model

(𝐿𝑟 )𝑉 = scale ratio for vertical dimension is

linear vertical dimesnions of prototype ℎ𝑃
= =
linear vertical dimensions of model ℎ𝑚
• Then the scale ratios of velocity, area of flow, discharge etc, interms of (𝐿𝑟 )𝐻 and (𝐿𝑟 )𝑉
can be obtained for distorted models as given below:
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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
1. Scale ratio for velocity
Let VP = velocity in prototype
Vm = velocity in model
𝑉𝑃 2𝑔ℎ𝑃 ℎ𝑃 ℎ𝑃
Then, = = = (𝐿𝑟 )𝑉 → = (𝐿𝑟 )𝑉
𝑉𝑚 2𝑔ℎ𝑚 ℎ𝑚 ℎ𝑚

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 Modeling and Similitude…Cont.
Example12: The discharge through a weir is 1.5𝑚3 Τ𝑠 . Find the discharge through the model of the
weir if the horizontal dimension of the model =1Τ50 the horizontal dimension of the prototype and
vertical dimension of the model = 1Τ10 the vertical dimension of the prototype.
Solution

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 7. Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
•Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are
obtained by dividing the inertia viscous force or gravity force
or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force.
•A ratio of one force to the other force will be dimensionless
number. The following are some of dimensionless number
 Reynold’s number, Froude’s number, Euler’s number,
Weber’s number, Mach’s number, and others.

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Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics…Cont.. Some common dimensionless parameters/
numbers in fluid mechanics

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