Fluid Mechanics and Machines

(BMEE204L)
Module 5 : Dimensional Analysis

Dr. Deepakkumar R
Assistant Professor (Sr.)
Department of Thermal and Energy Engineering
School of Mechanical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore - 632014,Tamilnadu, India.
Contact: 9003693120, rdeepakkumar12@gmail.com
 Contents

• Dimensional homogeneity
• Rayleigh’s method

• Buckingham π theorem

• Non-dimensional numbers

• Model laws and distorted models

• Modelling and similitude

 Dimensional Analysis
• analytical techniques, which are limited to fairly simple geometries and well-defined boundary
conditions.
• Probably one-third of fluid-flow problems can be attacked in analytical or theoretical manner.
• The other two-thirds of all fluid problems are too complex, both geometrically and physically, to be solved
analytically.
• They must be tested by experiment. Their behavior is reported as experimental data. Such data are much
more useful if they are expressed in compact, economic form.
• Graphs are especially useful, since tabulated data cannot be absorbed, nor can the trends and rates of change
be observed, by most engineering eyes. These are the motivations for dimensional analysis.
• Experiments which might result in tables of output, or even multiple volumes of tables, might be reduced
to a single set of curves—or even a single curve—when suitably nondimensionalized. The technique for
doing this is dimensional analysis.
 Dimensional Analysis
• Basically, dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of
experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort of
compacting technique.

• If a phenomenon depends upon n dimensional variables, dimensional analysis will reduce

the problem to only k dimensionless variables, where the reduction n k 1, 2, 3, or 4,
depending upon the problem complexity.

• Generally n-k equals the number of different dimensions (sometimes called basic or
primary or fundamental dimensions) which govern the problem.

• In fluid mechanics, the four basic dimensions are usually taken to be mass M, length
L, time T, and temperature ϴ, or an MLTϴ system for short.

• Sometimes one uses an FLTϴ system, with force F replacing mass.

 Dimensional Analysis
• Although its purpose is to reduce variables and group them in
dimensionless form, dimensional analysis has several side benefits.
• The first is enormous savings in time and money. Suppose one
knew that the force F on a particular body immersed in a stream of
fluid depended only on the body length L, stream velocity V, fluid
density ρ, and fluid viscosity μ that is
(1)
• Suppose further that the geometry and flow conditions are so
complicated that our integral theories and differential equations
fail to yield the solution for the force.
• Then we must find the function experimentally.
 Dimensional Analysis
• Generally speaking, it takes about 10 experimental points to define a curve.
• To find the effect of body length in Eq. (1), we have to run the experiment for 10
lengths L.
• For each L we need 10 values of V, 10 values of ρ and 10 values of μ, making a
grand total of 104, or 10,000, experiments. At $50 per experiment—well, you
see what we are getting into.
• However, with dimensional analysis, we can immediately reduce Eq. (1) to the
equivalent form
(2)

• i.e., the dimensionless force coefficient F/(ρV2L2) is a function only of the

dimensionless Reynolds number ρVL/ μ.
 Dimensional Analysis
• The function g is different mathematically from the original function f, but it
contains all the same information.

• Nothing is lost in a dimensional analysis. And think of the savings:

• We can establish g by running the experiment for only 10 values of the single
variable called the Reynolds number.

• We do not have to vary L, V, ρ, or μ separately but only the grouping ρVL/μ.

• This we do merely by varying velocity V in, say, a wind tunnel or drop test or water
channel, and there is no need to build 10 different bodies or find 100 different fluids
with 10 densities and 10 viscosities. The cost is now about $500, maybe less.
 Dimensional Analysis
• A second side benefit of dimensional analysis is that it helps our thinking and
planning for an experiment or theory.

• It suggests dimensionless ways of writing equations before we waste money on

computer time to find solutions.

• It suggests variables which can be discarded; sometimes dimensional analysis

will immediately reject variables, and at other times it groups them off to the side,
where a few simple tests will show them to be unimportant.

• Finally, dimensional analysis will often give a great deal of insight into the form
of the physical relationship we are trying to study.
 Dimensional Analysis
• A third benefit is that dimensional analysis provides scaling laws which can convert
data from a cheap, small model to design information for an expensive, large
prototype.

• We do not build a million-dollar airplane and see whether it has enough lift force.

• We measure the lift on a small model and use a scaling law to predict the lift on the
full-scale prototype airplane.

• There are rules we shall explain for finding scaling laws. When the scaling law is valid,
we say that a condition of similarity exists between the model and the prototype.

• In the simple case of Eq. (1), similarity is achieved if the Reynolds number is the same
for the model and prototype because the function g then requires the force coefficient to
be the same also
(3)
 Dimensional Analysis
• where subscripts m and p mean model and prototype, respectively. From the
definition of force coefficient, this means that

(4)
• for data taken where ρpVpLp/μp = ρmVmLm/ μm. Equation (4) is a scaling law:

• If you measure the model force at the model Reynolds number, the prototype force
at the same Reynolds number equals the model force times the density ratio times
the velocity ratio squared times the length ratio squared.
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values), while a unit is a
way to assign a number to that dimension.
• For example, length is a dimension that is measured in units such as microns (μm), feet (ft),
centimeters (cm), meters (m), kilometers (km), etc. (Fig.).
• There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic dimensions)—
• mass,
• length,
• time,
• temperature,
• electric current,
• amount of light, and • A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity without numerical
values, while a unit is a way to assign a number to the dimension.
• amount of matter. • For example, length is a dimension, but centimeter is a unit.
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• For example, force has the same dimensions as mass times acceleration (by Newton’s second
law). Thus, in terms of primary dimensions,
Physical quantities with their dimensions and units
(Base quantities)
Physical quantities with their dimensions and units
(Derived quantities)
Physical quantities with their dimensions and units
(Derived quantities)
 Dimensional homogeneity
• We’ve all heard the old saying, You can’t add apples and oranges
(Fig.). This is actually a simplified expression of a far more global and
fundamental mathematical law for equations, the law of dimensional
homogeneity, stated as

Every additive term in an equation

must have the same dimensions.
Dimensional homogeneity
Rayleigh’s method
Practice 5.1.
 Practice 5.2.

The resisting force (F) of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as
dependent upon the length of the aircraft (L), Velocity (u), air dynamic viscosity (u), air
density (p), and bulk modulus of elasticity of air (K). Express, the functional relationship
between these variables and the resisting force
Practice 5.2.
Practice 5.2.
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.4
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.4_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.4_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.4_ Solution
 Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5

Using Buckingham-pi theorem, establish a

functional relationship for pressure drop
across a pipe of length L and diameter d with
average wall roughness height e. The fluid
having density ρ and viscosity µ is flowing
through the pipe with a velocity V.
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
Buckingham π theorem_ Practice 5.5_ Solution
 Modelling and similitude
• Real-life problems usually involve a number of phenomena occurring simultaneously, for
example, fluid-structure interaction, fluid-thermal coupling, etc.
• This makes the analytical solution of such complex problems very difficult. In addition,
numerical solution requires extraordinary skills and computational facilities.
• Further, conducting experiments on full-scale models involve huge finances and meticulous
planning. For example, it is not feasible to construct a full-scale model of a dam/high-rise
building/spacecraft just for experimental purpose.
• The design has to be foolproof so that the chances of failure are the least.
• One way of dealing with such problems is to conduct the experimental tests on the scaledown
models before going for construction or manufacturing.
• This will save time and money and ensure the safe design of the actual structure or machine.
 Modelling and similitude
• The structure or machine of actual size is known as prototype, whereas, its geometric replica is termed
as model.
• It should be noted that the model is not always smaller than its prototype. When the prototype is of
miniature type, the model is usually scaled-up to carry out experimental tests.
• It should also be remembered that while testing a model, the use of the same fluid is not necessary.
• The similitude is defined as complete similarity between the model and its prototype.
• The complete similarity is achieved only when the two are geometrically, kinematically, and
dynamically similar, as shown in Fig.

similarity of shapes similarity of fluid motion similarity of forces

 Modelling and similitude
• The model and prototype of an airfoil section has been shown in Fig. The model, as can
be seen from the figure, is the geometric replica of its prototype.
• The two are subjected to different velocities in a fixed ratio. The prototype and model
are subjected to different forces, namely, pressure force (Fp ), viscous force (Fv), and
gravity force (Fg ). Their directions are also shown in Fig.

Fig. 5.1. Airfoil section (a) Model (b) Prototype

 Modelling and similitude
Geometric Similarity
• The geometric similarity is also known as similarity of shapes, as shown in Fig. The model and
prototype are said to be similar if the ratios of the corresponding dimensions are equal, that is,

(1)

• where, lm and lp are the corresponding length dimensions of model and prototype, respectively,
and lr is known as the length scale factor or model ratio.
• Attaining geometric similarity seems easier but the fact is that it is almost impossible to attain.
The reason is that the surface roughness needs to be scaled down or scaled up in the same
proportion, which may not be possible. However, for the sake of convenience the geometric
similarity does not include surface roughness.
 Modelling and similitude
Kinematic Similarity
• The similarity of fluid motion on model and prototype is termed as kinematic similarity.
• The physical meaning of kinematic similarity is that the fluid motion represented by the
patterns formed by streamlines on model and prototype will be similar at a given instance
• The motion is defined in terms of velocity and acceleration.
• Both these quantities involve distance and time. For distance, the length scale factor is used
as described in Eq. (1). For time, the time scale factor is defined in a similar way:
(2)
• Similarly, the velocity scale factor
(3)
and, the acceleration scale factor
(4)
 Modelling and similitude
Dynamic Similarity
• Dynamic similarity pertains to similarity of forces acting on the model and the prototype.
• According to this, the ratio of magnitude of forces on the corresponding points at the
surface of the prototype and model must be constant.
• Table shows the forces that may encounter in fluid flow.
Non-dimensional numbers
• The ratios of inertia force to other forces are the famous non-
dimensional numbers used in fluid mechanics.
• On the basis of equivalence of these non-dimensional numbers,
the dynamic similarity is established between the model and the
prototype. Depending upon the type of flow, the equivalence of
the particular non-dimensional number is applied.
• Subcritical flow : (Fr<1) is dominated by gravitational forces
and behaves in a slow or stable way.
• Supercritical flow : (Fr >1) is dominated by inertial forces and
behaves as rapid or unstable flow.
• Subsonic: (M<1) fluid speed below the speed of sound
• Supersonic: (M>1) fluid speed above the speed of sound
• perfect frictionless flow corresponds to an Euler number of 0.
Model laws
Model laws
Model laws
 Model laws
• Let us consider the example of the wing of an aircraft having airfoil section, shown in Fig. 5.1.
• It is required to test the model of the aircraft wing in a wind tunnel and obviously the model should be
set at the same angle of attack as that of the prototype.
• The question is—at what air velocity should the model be tested so that the lift produced by the
prototype at a given speed and angle of attack can be predicted?
• To find the solution to this problem, the following steps are to be taken:

(1)

(1)

(2)
 Model laws

(3)

(3)
Exercise _5.5
Exercise _5.5
Exercise _5.5.
Exercise _5.6.
Exercise _5.6
Exercise _5.6
Exercise _5.6
 Distorted models
• One may come across some practical problems where the application of strict adherence to

similitude principles may not be possible.

• For example, in order to model rivers, estuaries, ports, dams, etc., where there is a

longitudinal slope and large areal spread (basin), the same geometric scaling will lead to

unexpected erroneous results.

• In such cases, distorted scale modelling is recommended.

• The vertical flow dimension (depth) is scaled by Froude model law while length and width

are scaled to the available space where the river model is to be built.

• The horizontal scales are of the order of 1/200–1/1000, whereas, vertical scale is of the order

of 1/100.
 Exercise 5.7
To model a river, the horizontal scale is 1:500 and vertical scale is 1:50,

determine

(a) model bed slope if prototype bed slope is 0.0003

(b) river flow velocity and discharge if the corresponding values for the

model are 1 m/s and 30 L/s, respectively.

Exercise 5.7. Solution
Exercise 5. _Solution
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Dimensional analysis helps in developing a functional relationship between the dependent and
independent variables of a system. However, it does not establish the exact relationship.
• For exact relation, experiments are conducted to find out the unknown factors using regression analysis.
• There are two commonly used methods of dimensional analysis are Rayleigh method and Buckingham-pi
method. Buckingham-pi method is more advantageous due to reduction in the number of variables by
forming nondimensional groups.
• Similitude is the complete similarity between an actual system (prototype) and its geometric replica
(model). The model must comply with the prototype on the basis on geometric, kinematic, and dynamic
similarities.
• Geometric similarity is the similarity in shapes, kinematic similarity is the similarity in motion, and dynamic
similarity is the similarity of the forces acting on them.
• The distorted models are used when it is difficult to adhere to uniform scaling in all the dimensions. In such
cases, the scaling factor is different for vertical and horizontal directions.