CHAPTER Three

Dimensional Analysis,
Similitude and Hydraulic
Model
 LESSON OUT LINE
INTRODUCTION
What Mean Dimension Analysis?
Why We Need to Study Dimension Analysis
What Is The Crucial Importance of Dimension
Analysis
Type of dimensions
Method of dimension analysis
 …cont…
What is prototype and model?
What mean by prototype and model similitude
Type of similarity
Dimensionless number
Model laws
Classifications of model
 INTRODUCTION
Physical quantities(e.g length, time, mass etc)
Fundamental
Derived
Units ( e.g: meter, second, kilogram--- etc)
Dimensions (L,T,M ---etc)
Dimensions are quantities which can be
measured.
Units are standard elements we use to
quantify these dimensions.
 Dimensional analysis
The basis of dimensional analysis is to condense the
number of separate variables involved in a particular
type of physical system into a smaller number of non-
dimensional group of variables

The arrangement of the variables in groups is

generally chosen so that each group has a physical
significance.
All physical parameters can be expressed in terms of
a number of basic dimensions.
In engineering the basic dimensions such as mass (M),
length(L) and time(T) are sufficient for this purpose.
 Dimensional Analysis
On the other hand, dimensional analysis is a mathematical
techniques which makes use of study of the dimensions for
solving several engineering problems.
 This mathematical technique is used in research work for
design and conducting model tests.
 It deals with the dimensions of physical quantities involved
in the phenomenon.
 In dimensional analysis
one first predicts the physical parameters that will
influence the flow,
 Cont…
And then by, grouping these parameters in
dimensionless combinations, a better understanding
of the flow phenomenon is made possible.
 It is particularly helpful in experimental work because
it provides a guide to those things that significantly
influence the phenomena;
 thus it indicates the direction in which the
experimental work should go.
 It is based on the principles of dimensional homogeneity
and uses the dimensions of relevant variables affecting the
phenomenon.
 …cont..
 Some of The Uses of Dimensional Analysis Are:-
Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of
fluid motion
Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional
parameters to show the significance of each parameter.
Planning model tests & presenting experimental results in a
systematic manner in terms of non- dimensional parameters;
Thus making it possible to analyses the complex fluid flow
phenomena.
To drive rational formulae for flow phenomenon
 Hydraulic structures or machines can be designed using:
Pure theory,
Empirical methods,
Semi-empirical methods which are mathematical formulations
based on theoretical concepts supported by suitably designed
experiments,
Physical models,
 Types of Dimensions
• There are two types of dimensions

– Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental

Quantities
– Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

• Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental

Quantities: These are basic quantities. For Example;
– Time, T
– Distance, L
– Mass, M
 Types of Dimensions
• Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities
They are those quantities which possess more than
one fundamental dimension.

• For example;
 Velocity is denoted by distance per unit time L/T
 Acceleration is denoted by distance per unit time square
L/T2
 Density is denoted by mass per unit volume M/L3

• Since velocity, density and acceleration involve more

than one fundamental quantities so these are called
derived quantities.
 Methodology of Dimensional Analysis
 The Basic principle is Dimensional Homogeneity,
which means the dimensions of each terms in an
equation on both sides are equal.

 So such an equation, in which dimensions of each term

on both sides of equation are same, is known as
Dimensionally Homogeneous equation. Such equations
are independent of system of units. For example;

 Lets consider the equation V=(2gH)1/2 and p=ywh

 Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT-1
 Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)1/2=(L/T2xL)1/2=LT-1
 Dimensions of LHS= Dimensions of RHS
 So the equation V=(2gH)1/2 is dimensionally
homogeneous equation.
Methods of Dimensional Analysis
 If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are
known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by
the following two methods;
Rayleigh’s Method
Buckingham’s π-Theorem
 Rayleigh’s Method:
This method gives special form of relation ships among dimension
less groups and has inherent draw back that it does not provide
any information regarding number of dimension less groups to
be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.
It’s used to determine the expression for variable which depends
upon maximum of three or four variables, unless it is too difficult
to use this method.
If the number of independent variables are more than 4 then it is
very difficult to obtain expression for dependent variable.
Let X is a dependent variable which depends upon X1, X2, and X3 as
independent variables. Then according to Rayleigh’s Method

X=f(X1, X2, X3) which can be written as

X=K X1a, X2b, X3c

Where K is a constant and a, b, c are arbitrary powers which are

obtained by comparing the powers of fundamental dimensions.
 Rayleigh’s Method
• Q. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered
as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity μ, air
density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k. Express the functional relationship
between the variables and the resisting force.

 Solution:
R  f (l , V ,  ,  , K )  R  Al a , V b ,  c ,  d , K e (1)
Where: A = Non dimensional constant
Substituting the powers on both sides of the equation
MLT -2  ALa ( LT 1 )b ( ML1T 1 )c ( ML3 ) d ( ML1T 2 ) e
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides
Power of M  1  c  d  e
Power of L  1  a  b - c - 3d - e
Power of T   2  -b - c - 2e
 Rayleigh’s Method
Since the unkown(5) are more than number of equations(3). So expressing
a, b & c in terms of d & e
d  1- c - e
b  2 - c - 2e
a  1- b  c  3d  e  1- (2 - c - 2e)  c  3(1- c - e)  e
 1- 2  c  2e  c  3 - 3c - 3e  e  2 - c
Substituting the values in (1), we get
R  Al 2cV 2c  2 e  c  1c e K e  Al 2V 2  (l  cV  c  c   c )(V 2e   e K e )
 c
2 2     K 
e

R  A l V    2 

 Vl   V  

2 2    K  
R  A l V    2 
 Vl  V 
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem: Since Rayleigh’s Method becomes
laborious if variables are more than fundamental dimensions (MLT),
so the difficulty is overcome by Buckingham’s π-Theorem which
states that
 “If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental
dimensions then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless
terms which are called π-terms.”
 Let X1, X2, X3, X4,………Xn are the variables involved in a physical
problem. Let X1 be the dependent variable and X2, X3, X4,…,Xn are
be the independent variables on which X1 depends.
 Mathematically it can be written as
 X1=f(X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,…Xn) which can be rewritten as
 f1(X1,X2, X3, X4, Xn)=0
 Above equation is dimensionally homogenous. It contain n variables
and if there are m fundamental dimensions then it can be written in
terms of dimensionless groups called π-terms which are equal to (n-
m)
 Hence f1(π1 π2 π3,… πn-m)=0
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
 Properties of π-terms:
 Each π-term is dimensionless and is independent of system of units.
 Division or multiplication by a constant does not change the character
of the π-terms.
 Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of
fundamental dimensions and also called repeating variable.
 Let in the above case X2, X3, X4 are repeating variables and if fundamental
dimensions m=3 then each π-term is written as
Π1=X2a1. X3b1. X4a1 .X1
Π2=X2a2. X3b2. X4a2 .X5
.
.
Πn-m=X2a(n-m). X3b(n-m). X4a(n-m) .Xn
 Each equation is solved by principle of dimensionless homogeneity and
values of a1, b1 & c1 etc are obtained. Final result is in the form of
Π1=(Π2, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
Π2=(Π1, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
Methods of Selecting Repeating Variables
 The number of repeating variables are equal to number of
fundamental dimensions of the problem
 The choice of repeating variables is governed by following
considerations;
 As far as possible, dependent variable shouldn't be selected as repeating
variable
 The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable
contains geometric property, other contains flow property and third contains
fluid property.
 The repeating variables selected should form a dimensionless group
 The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental
dimension.
 No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.

 Note: In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating

variables may be (i) d,v ρ, (ii) l,v,ρ or (iii) d, v, μ.
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
• Q. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be
considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air
viscosity μ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k. Express the functional
relationship between the variables and the resisting force.
R  f (l ,V ,  ,  , K )  f ( R, l , V ,  ,  , K )  0
Total number of variables, n= 6
No. of fundamental dimension, m=3
No. of dimensionless  -terms, n-m=3
Thus: f ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  0
No. Repeating variables =m=3
Repeating variables =l , V , 
Thus π-terms are written as
 1  l a1V b1  c1 R
 2  l a 2V b 2  c 2 
 3  l a 3V b 3  c 3 K
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
• Now each Pi-term is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity

 1  term  M o LoT o  La1 ( LT 1 )b1 ( ML3 )c1 MLT 2

Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0=c 1 +1  c 1 =-1
Power of L: 0=a1 +b1 -3c1 +1  a1  2
Power of T: 0=-b1 -2  b1 =-2
R
  1  l -2V -2  -2 R   1 
 L2V 2
 2  term  M o LoT o  La 2 ( LT 1 )b 2 ( ML3 )c 2 ML1T 1
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0  c 2 1  c 2  -1
Power of L: 0  a2  b2 - 3c2 -1  a2  1
Power of T: 0  -b2 -1  b2  -1

 2  l V    2 
-1 -1 -1

 lV
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
 3  term  M o LoT o  La 3 ( LT 1 )b 3 ( ML3 )c 3 ML1T 2
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0  c 3 1  c 3  -1
Power of L: 0  a3  b3 - 3c3 -1  a3  0
Power of T: 0  -b3 - 2  b3  -2
K
  3  l 0V -2  -1 K   2 
V 2
Hence
 R  K 
f ( 1 2 3 )  f  2 2 , , 2   0 or
  l V lV  V  
R   K  2 2   K 
  , 2   R  l V   , 2 
l V
2 2
 lV  V    lV  V  
 SIMILITUDE AND MODEL ANALYSIS
 Model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or
machine and the actual structure or machine is called
prototype Therefore,

 In order to know the actual performance of:-

Hydraulic structures such as (dam, spill way,etc )or

Hydraulic machine such as (turbine, pump, etc)

 Before constructing or manufacturing them, their models are

made and tested to get the required information
 APPLICATIONS OF MODEL
The following are the important fields where
applications of model tests is of great use
Hydraulic engineering structures such dams,
spillways, weirs, canal, etc
 flood control, investigations of silting and scour in
the rivers, irrigation channels, etc.
Turbine, pumps and copressors
Design of horbours, ships, and submarines
Aeroplanes, rockets,etc.
 Similitude and Model Analysis
 To find solution to numerous complicated problems, in
hydraulic engineering and fluid mechanics model studies are
usually conducted.
 In order that results obtained in model studies represent the
behavior of prototype, the following three similarities must be
ensured.
 These are
 Geometric similarity
 Kinematic similarity and
 Dynamic similarity
Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering Models.
 Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution of
hydraulic phenomenon.
 Therefore experimental investigations are often performed
on small scale models, called model analysis.
 Model Analysis
 Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure.
 Prototype: the actual structure or machine.
 Note: It is not necessary that the models should be smaller
than the prototype, they may be larger than prototype.

Lp1
Lm1

Lp2 Lm2
Fp1 Fp2 Fm1 Fm2

Fm3 Lm3
Fp3 Lp3

Prototype Model
 Model Analysis
 Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of
finding solutions of complex flow problems.

 The followings are the advantages of the model

analysis
 The performance of the hydraulic structure can be
predicted in advance from its model.
 Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the
variables influencing a flow problem is obtained which help in
conducting tests.
 The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the
help of model analysis to adopt most economical, and safe
design.
 Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for
obtaining, advanced, useful information about the
performance of the prototype only if a complete
similarity exits between the model and the prototype.
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Similitude: is defined as similarity between the model and
prototype in every respect, which mean model and prototype
have similar properties or model and prototype are
completely similar.

 Three types of similarities must exist between model and

prototype.

Geometric Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to
exist between model and prototype if ratio of all the
corresponding linear dimensions in the model and prototype are
equal. E.g.
• Example Lp B p Dp
   Lr
Lm Bm Dm
 Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype
and Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.
 Lr= Scale ratio

 Generally speaking, for geometric similarity to exist

between model and prototype, the ratio of
corresponding dimensions in model and prototype must
be equal and the included angles between two
corresponding sides must be the same.
 …cont…
 Models which are not geometrically
similar are known as geometrically
distorted model.
 Models are generally prepared with the
same scale ratios in every direction.
Such a model is called true model.
 But some times it is difficult to get
models of completely similar geometry..
 Such a models are call distorted model
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to
be exist between model and prototype if ratio of velocities
and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model
and prototype are equal. E.g.
• i. e. V p1 Vp 2 a p1 ap2
  Vr ;   ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2

 Where: Vp1& Vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at
point 1 & 2 in prototype and Vm1& Vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity
and accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.
 Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio
 Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector
quantities, hence not only the ratio of magnitude of
velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in
model and prototype should be same; but the direction of
velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in
model and prototype should also be parallel.
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces.
 It is said to exist between model and prototype if ratio
of forces at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype are equal. E.g.
 Fi  p  Fv  p F 
g
  p
 Fr
 Fi m  Fv m F 
g m

 Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational
forces in prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and
gravitational forces in model.
 Fr is the Force ratio

 Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding

points in model and prototype should also be parallel.
Forces influencing hydraulic phenomenon
 Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and
acceleration in the flowing fluid.
 Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of
shear stress due to viscosity and surface area of
flow.
 Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and
acceleration due to gravity.
 Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of
pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of flowing
fluid.
 Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of
surface tension and length of surface of flowing fluid.
 Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic
stress and area of flowing fluid.
 Dimensionless Numbers
 These are numbers which are obtained by dividing
the inertia force by viscous force or gravity
force or pressure force or surface tension force
or elastic force.
 As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a
dimensionless number. These are also called non-
dimensional parameters.
 The following are most important dimensionless
numbers.
Reynolds's Number
Froude’s Number
Euler’s Number
Weber’s Number
Mach’s Number
 Dimensionless Numbers
Reynold’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia
force to the viscous force of flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
Re   Time  Time
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area
 Q.V  AV .V  AV .V VL VL
    
 .A 
du V
.A  .A  
dy L

 Froude’s Number, Fr: It is the ratio of inertia

force to the gravity force of flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
Fe   Time  Time
Fg Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion
 Q.V  AV .V V2 V
   
Volume.g  AL.g gL gL
 Dimensionless Numbers
Eulers’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the
pressure force of flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
Eu   Time  Time
Fp Pr essure. Area Pr essure. Area
 Q.V  AV .V V2 V
   
P. A P. A P/ P/
 Weber’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force
to the surface tension force of flowing fluid.

Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
We   Time  Time
Fg Surface Tensionper. Length Surface Tensionper. Length
 QV
.  AV .V  L2V 2 V
   
 .L  .L  .L 
L
 Dimensionless Numbers
Mach’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to
the elastic force of flowing fluid.

Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass.  . Velocity
M  Time  Time
Fe Elastic Stress. Area Elastic Stress. Area
 Q.V  AV .V  L2V 2 V V
    
K .A K .A KL2 K/ C
Where : C  K / 
 Model Laws or similarity Laws
 We have already read that for dynamic similarity ratio
of corresponding forces acting on prototype and model
should be equal. i.e
F  vF  F  F 
g F p F  s e I
 p
  p
  p p p p

F v F 
m F  F 
g m
F p F 
m
s m e m I m

 Force of inertial comes in play when sum of all other

forces is not equal to zero which mean

F  F
v g  Fp  Fs  Fe    FI 
Thus dynamic similarity require that
F  F
v g  Fp  Fs  Fe   FI  p

p

F  F
v g  Fp  Fs  Fe  m  FI m
 In case all the forces are equally important, the above
two equations cannot be satisfied for model analysis
 Model Laws or similarity Laws
 However, for practical problems it is seen that one
force is most significant compared to other and is
called predominant force or most significant force.
 Thus for practical problem only the most significant
force is considered for dynamic similarity. Hence,
models are designed on the basis of ratio of force,
which is dominating in the phenomenon.
 Finally the laws on which models are designed for
dynamic similarity are called models laws or laws of
similarity.
 The followings are these laws
Reynolds's Model Law
Froude’s Model Law
Euler’s Model Law
Weber’s Model Law
mach’s Model Law
 Reynold’s Model Law
 It is based on Reynold’s number and states that
Reynold’s number for model must be equal to the
Reynolds number for prototype.
 Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous
forces are dominant. These problems include:
Pipe Flow
Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes,
fully immersed bodies etc.
VP LP Vm Lm
 Re  P   Re m or 
P m
VP LP VL
 r r 1
 P  r
Vm Lm  

 m
V L 
where : Vr  P , Lr  P ,r  P
Vm Lm m
 Reynold’s Model Law
The Various Ratios for Reynolds’s Law are obtained as
 VL   VL 
sin ce     and    / 
   P   m
V L  
Velocity Ratio: Vr  P  m P = r
Vm LP m L r
TP L /V L
Time Ratio: Tr=  P P  r
Tm L m /Vm Vr
aP VP / TP Vr
Acceleration Ratio: a r =  
am Vm / Tm Tr
APVP
Discharge Ratio: Q r   L2rVr
AmVm
Force Ratio: Fr =mr ar   r QrVr   r L2rVrVr   r L2rVr2
Power Ratio: Pr =Fr .Vr = r L2rVr2Vr   r L2rVr3
 FRoude’s model law
 It is based on Froude’s number and states that
Froude’s number for model must be equal to the
Froude’s number for prototype.
 Froude’s Model Law is used in problems where gravity
forces is only dominant to control flow in addition to
inertia force. These problems include:
 Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,
channels etc.
 Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
 Waves on surface of fluid
 Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another

VP Vm V V
 F e  P   F e m or  or P  m
g P LP g m Lm LP Lm
VP VP L
 Vr / Lr  1; where : Vr  , Lr  P
 LP  Vm Lm
Vm  
 Lm 
 FRoude’s model law
The Various Ratios for Reynolds’s Law are obtained as
VP Vm
sin ce 
LP Lm
V Lp
Velocity Ratio: Vr  P   Lr
Vm Lm
TP L P /VP L
Time Ratio: Tr=   r  Lr
Tm L m /Vm Lr
aP VP / TP Vr Lr
Acceleration Ratio: a r =    1
am Vm / Tm Tr Lr
APVP
Discharge Ratio: Q r   L2rVr  L2r Lr  L5r / 2
AmVm
Force Ratio: Fr=mr ar   r QrVr   r L2rVrVr   r L2rVr2   r L2r Lr   r L3r

 
3
Power Ratio: Pr=Fr.Vr= r L V V   r L V   r L
2 2
r r r
2 3
r r
2
r Lr   r L7r / 2
 Classification of Models
 Undistorted or True Models: are those which are
geometrically similar to prototype or in other words if the scale
ratio for linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is
same, the models is called undistorted model.
 The behavior of prototype can be easily predicted from the
results of undistorted or true model.
 Distorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not
geometrically similar to its prototype. For distorted models
different scale ratios for linear dimension are used.
 For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale
ratio are taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of
 river will be are
The followings very very smallof which
the advantages may
distorted not be measured
models
accurately.
 The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured

 The cost of the model can be reduced

 Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained

 Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the

results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.
 Classification of Models
• Scale Ratios for Distorted Models

LP BP
Let:  L r  H  = Scale ratio for horizontal direction
Lm Bm
hP
 L r V  =Scale ratio for vertical direction
hm
2 ghP
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=VP / Vm    Lr V
2 ghm
BP hP
Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A P / Am    Lr  H  Lr V
Bm hm
APVP
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P / Qm    Lr  H  Lr V  Lr V   Lr H  Lr 
3/ 2

AmVm V