A

PROJECT REPORT

ON

ELECTRONIC EYE
TABLE OF CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION

 PLATFORM USED

 AIM OF THE PROJECT

 BLOCK DIAGRAM

 WORKING OF THE PROJECT

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

 PCB LAYOUT

 STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

 PROGRAMMING

 SENSING UNIT DESCRIPTION

 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

 FUTURE SCOPE

 CONCLUSION

 REFERENCE
INTRODUCTION
Security is one of the important needs of every human being. Every person wants
that his or her belonging should be safe and secure. And it is well said that lies in
our own hands keeping in mind this concept we have designed our project on
security system.

This system is microcontroller based an embedded project. Embedded is the

combination of both software and hardware, in this we are implementing security
using three technologies RF, IR and LDR.

Since radio frequency refers to alternating current having characteristics such that
if current is input to an antenna an electromagnetic field is generated suitable for
wireless broadcasting and/or communications.

These frequencies cover a significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation

spectrum, extending from nine kilohertz (9 kHz),the lowest allocated wireless
communications frequency (it's within the range of human hearing), to thousands
of gigahertz (GHz).
PLATFORM USED
Software requirements:

Assembler of ATMEL microcontroller series

PADS for PCB designing

Hardware requirements:

Microcontroller AT89C51/89s52

LM7805 Regulator

Resistors

Capacitors

Transistors

Connectors

PCB developing equipments

FND Display

IR Transmitter

IR Receiver

Light Dependent Resistance

Magnetic sensor
AIM OF THE PROJECT
When the security of the location is hit by an outsider, then the first action taken by
security system is to alert the environment by ringing a buzzer and displaying the
alert message on the display screen of the security system. The message shows
which zone has been affected by unwanted entries. Even if more than one zone is
affected, message is displayed accordingly.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
 BUZZER

SUPPLY

SECTION
IR RECIEVER

MICRO CONTROLLER

89C51

Or

89s52
Magnetic
sensor
IR
TRANSMITTER

LDR
WORKING OF THE
PROJECT
WORKING

In this project we have implemented the security system. We have implemented

the security for three zones; one zone is protected using the RF while the two other
are protected using IR and LDR.

ZONE 1 “IR ZONE”

When any suspected person enters the gate then using IR technology we can alarm
this technology as whenever any beam is cut then a low pulse is sensed by the
controller and then

At the same time we cam display “Z 1” on the FND.

ZONE 2 “RF ZONE”

When any suspect opens the door then the magnetic sensors attached with the door
gets apart and hence we receive the RF signal low and when this low signal is
sensed using the microcontroller we can make the buzzer on in this we are
protecting RF zone and at the same time we are displaying “Z 2” on the FND .

ZONE 3 “LDR ZONE”

Whenever any suspected person opens the torch or any other source of light then
LDR comes into function and alarming is done by the buzzer and the FND shows
the display”Z 3”

The buzzer can be made off by using the switch at the microcontroller pin p1.3
where as the buzzer is connected at the pin no.p1.7

Whenever we press this switch then it will display “SAFE” that means now we the
place is secured and out of danger.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 D1
U2
LM7805H
1N 4007 12V +5V VC C
1 3 +5V F LA2
J2 D2
1 C6 C1 D5 A LA3
2 C5 C EL5 C C ER LED
1N 4007

2
3 C EL13 10M/63V 104PF LA1 B
D3
1000M/35V C4
R LMT 03(M)
C C ER

12
11
10
1N 4007 104PF

9
8
7
D4 R 19 F1

B
F
R 4FN D

C1

C2
C3
470E
1N 4007

DB

C4
G
D

C
1 E
2
3
4
5
6
E LA4

D G

DB C

R3 R
+5V 470E
+5V
R4 R
+5V
+5V
470E
C2 C C ER U1 R5 R R 16
31 39 A R
C7 EA/VP P0.0 38 B J3 2K2
C EL5 19 P0.1 37 470E C 1/89C 51
39PF
10M/63V Y1 X1 P0.2 36 R6 R D 1
C3 XTAL P0.3 35 E 2 R 17 R Q6
18 P0.4 34 470E F 3 BC 558
X2 P0.5 33 R7 R G 470E
R 18 12MH z P0.6
R C C ER 39PF 32 DB R LMT 03(M) C8
P0.7 470E R 24 C EL5
1K 9
R ESET 21 R8 R R 10M/63V
P2.0 22 1K
12 P2.1 23 470E
R
13 IN T0 P3.2 P2.2 24 R9
14 IN T1 P3.3 P2.3 25
VC C 15 T0 P3.4 P2.4 26 470E
T1 P3.5 P2.5 27 R 10 R
1/89C 51 1 P2.6 28
R 29 2/89C 51 2 P1.0 P2.7 470E
P1.1 +5V
R 3 17
LD R 4 P1.2 R D P3.7 16 R 11 R Q1 +5V
5 P1.3 W R P3.6 29 BC 558
6 P1.4 PSEN 30 470E LA4 +5V
P1.5 ALE/P +5V
7 11 R 15
8 P1.6 TXD P3.1 10 R 12 R Q2 R
R 28 P1.7 R XD P3.0 BC 558 J4 2K2
R 89C 51 470E LA3 2/89C 51
+5V 1
1K5
R 13 R Q3 2 R1 R Q5
BC 558 3 BC 558
470E LA2 470E
R LMT 03(M) C9
R 27 C EL5
+5V R 10M/63V
R 14 R Q4 1K
BC 558
470E LA1

+5V
2
1

BZ1
R2
J5 VSS
R LMT 02(M) GN D +5V
R Title
RESET SWITCH BU ZZER 220E ELEC TR ON IC EY E
VC C VS
Size D ocum ent N um ber R ev
B PC B EEY E 1.0

D ate: Sunday , N ov em ber 07, 2010 Sheet 1 of 1

PCB LAYOUT
STEPS FOR MAKING
PCB
  Prepare the layout of the circuit (positive).

 Cut the photofilm (slightly bigger) of the size of the layout.

 Place the layout in the photoprinter machine with the photofilm above it. Make sure
that the bromide (dark) side of the film is in contact with the layout.

 Switch on the machine by pressing the push button for 5 sec.

 Dip the film in the solution prepared (developer) by mixing the chemicals A & B in
equal quantities in water.

 Now clean the film by placing it in the tray containing water for 1 min.

 After this, dip the film in the fixer solution for 1 min. now the negative of the
Circuit is ready.

 Now wash it under the flowing water.

 Dry the negative in the photocure machine.

 Take the PCB board of the size of the layout and clean it with steel wool to make the
surface smooth.

 Now dip the PCB in the liquid photoresist, with the help of dip coat machine.
 Now clip the PCB next to the negative in the photo cure machine, drying for
approximate 10-12 minute.

 Now place the negative on the top of the PCB in the UV machine, set the timer for
about 2.5 minute and switch on the UV light at the top.

 Take the LPR developer in a container and rigorously move the PCB in it.

 After this, wash it with water very gently.

 Then apply LPR dye on it with the help of a dropper so that it is completely covered
by it.

 Now clamp the PCB in the etching machine that contains ferric chloride solution for
about 10 minutes.

 After etching, wash the PCB with water, wipe it a dry cloth softly.

 Finally rub the PCB with a steel wool, and the PCB is ready.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

POWER SUPPLY SECTION:

Consists of:

RLMT Connector--- It is a connector used to connect the step down

transformer to the bridge rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier --- It is a full wave rectifier used to convert ac into dc , 9-

15v ac made by transformer is converted into dc with the help of rectifier.

Capacitor: -----It is an electrolytic capacitor of rating 1000M/35V

used to remove the ripples. Capacitor is the component used to pass the ac
and block the dc.

Regulator: ----LM7805 is used to give a fixed 5v regulated supply.

Capacitor: -----It is again an electrolytic capacitor 10M/65v used for

filtering to give pure dc.

Capacitor: ----- It is an ceramic capacitor used to remove the spikes

generated when frequency is high (spikes).

So the output of supply section is 5v regulated dc.

MICROCONTROLLER SECTION:

Requires three connections to be successfully done for it’s operation to begin.

+5v supply: This +5v supply is required for the controller to get start
which is provided from the power supply section. This supply is provided at
pin no.31and 40 of the 89c51/89s52 controller.

Crystal Oscillator: A crystal oscillator of 12 MHz is connected at pin

no.19, x1 and pin no.18, x2 to generate the frequency for the controller. The
crystal oscillator works on piezoelectric effect. The clock generated is used
to determine the processing speed of the controller. Two capacitors are also
connected one end with the oscillator while the other end is connected with
the ground. As it is recommended in the book to connect two ceramic
capacitor of 20 pf—40pf to stabilize the clock generated.

Reset section: It consists of an RC network consisting of 10M/35V

capacitor and one resistance of 1k. This section is used to reset the controller
connected at pin no.9 of AT89c51.
DISPLAY SECTION:

FND (Functional Numeric Display)

FND is similar to the seven segment display but it has one more segment db
for decimal. It has eight leds. The current specification for an led is 5MA-
25MA. The safe range for the current to select is the mid value that is12MA
and voltage required is 5v so the resistance required to limit the current in
led is calculated by the ohm’s law i.e. V=IR, R=V/I and hence R comes to
about 470ohm.

FND is connected to the microcontroller at I/O port like p0, p1, p2, or p3
And also a transistor is required to get the FND on or off. The base
resistance required for the transistor is also 470ohm.

The message to be displayed on FND is programmed through software.

BUZZER SECTION:

This section includes a buzzer as well as a resistance to limit the current. The
buzzer operates in the range of 20-25mA. The voltage given to the buzzer is 5v and
also the buzzer can operate between 3V-24V. The resistance used is calculated by
using the ohm’s law.

Buzzer is an indicating device which is used for checking the software condition
and also used for indicating any specific condition.
 Programming of
“microcontroller based
security system using RF, IR,
LDR”
Programming
INCLUDE 89c51.mc
main:
MOV fnd4,#05 ;s
MOV fnd3,#15 ;a
MOV fnd2,#14 ;f
MOV fnd1,#16 ;e
MAINLOOP:
JB p1.3,ma1 ; ON / OFF SWITCH
SETB p1.7 ; BUZZER OFF
MOV fnd4,#11 ; DISPLAY BLANK
MOV fnd3,#11
MOV fnd2,#11
MOV fnd1,#11

JMP mainloop
ma1: ; SWITCH HIGH

JB p1.0,la22 ; ir
CLR p1.7 ;for buzzer
MOV fnd4,#2 ;Z
MOV fnd3,#1 ;1

la22:

JB p1.1,la1 ; MAGNETIC SENSOR

CLR p1.7 ;for buzzer

MOV fnd4,#2
MOV fnd2,#2
la1:
JNB p1.2,label ; ldr HIGH EXECUTE

CLR p1.7 ;for buzzer

MOV fnd4,#2
MOV fnd1,#3

label:

JMP mainloop

table:
DB c0h ;0
DB f9h ;1
DB a4h ;2
DB b0h ;3
DB 99h ;4
DB 92h ;5
DB 82h ;6
DB f8h ;7
DB 80h ;8
DB 98h ;9
DB c8h ;10 n
DB ffh ; blank 11
DB ceh ;r 12
DB a3h ;o 13
DB 8eh ;f 14
DB 88h ;A 15
DB 86H ;E 16
SENSING UNIT
DESCRIPTION
 IR SENSOR:

DESCRIPTION:

The LTM-97 series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems.
It is a single unit type module which incorporates a PIN diode and a receiving
preamplifier IC. The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a
microprocessor. It has excellent sensitivity and reliable function even in disturbed
working environment.
INFRARED UNIT

Infrared remote controls will be using a 32-56 kHz modulated square wave for
communication. These circuits will be used to transmit a 1-4 kHz digital signal
(OOK modulation) through infra light (this is the maximum attainable speed,
1000-4000 bits per sec). The transmitter oscillator will run with adjustable
frequency in the 32-56 kHz range, and will be being turned ON/OFF with the
modulating signal, a TTL voltage on the MOD input. On the receiver side a
photodiode takes up the signal. The integrated circuit inside the chip is sensitive
for specified frequency in the 32-56 kHz range. The output is the demodulated
digital input (but usually inverted used to drive the transmitter. When the carrier is
present, this output is usually low. When no carrier is detected, the output is
usually high.

In order to use the remote for different gadgets 555 transmitter

and the IC receivers are employed with them. Other then PIC programming we can
consider the MC145026-8 IC-s to suit our needs. The transmitters & receivers are
building with unique ID-s, so that we can match them to each other.

IR TRANSMITTER:

INFRA RED transmitter is used to transmit the Infrared. This infrared transmitter
sends various frequencies under the control of micro controller. Micro controller
can turn the infrared transmission on and off. Infrared carrier at around 68 KHz
carrier frequencies is widely used in T.V. remote controlling and receiver for these
signal are quite easily available. Various frequencies would be generated through
controller.

IR Receiver:

This is also called “EYE”. This EYE is widely used in T.V. receiver. It is used to
detect the IR transmission. This receiver thus receives the signal and the various
frequencies are divided and thus the decision would be taken accordingly. As each
frequency is given to the characters and could be divided by controllers
 LDR

In this circuit we are using a LDR sensor for providing command to fire
alarm system this system is interfaced to the alarm section and water pump
section of the test area whenever it sense a hazardous condition a
particular pin of Microcontroller become high or low accordingly this signal
is sensed by our microcontroller according to the signal sensed
microcontroller of alarm system generate signal for Alarm Section and
water pump.

Photoresistor

A light dependent resistor

The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical American
streetlight. The photoresistor is facing rightwards, and controls whether current
flows through the heater which opens the main power contacts. At night, the heater
cools, closing the power contacts, energizing the street light. The heater/bimetal
mechanism provides a built-in time-delay.

A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a

resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can
also be referenced as a photoconductor.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the

device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting
free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic

semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor,
e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band,
and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the
entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added
whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do
not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of
its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons
available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.


 Applications

Photoresistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells

can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights,
clock radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks.

They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.

Lead sulfide and indium antimonide LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available,
and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

Circuit symbol

Below is a symbol for a photoresistor as used in some circuit diagrams.

MICROCONTROLLER:
MICROCONTROLLER AT89C51/89s52

Features

• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Re programmable Flash Memory

• Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

•Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Programmable Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

 DESCRIPTION

The AT89s52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer

8Kbytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The
device is manufactured using Atmel ’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry standard 80C51 and 80C52
instruction set and pin out.

The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-

system or by a Conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C52 is a
powerful microcomputer that provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution
to many embedded control application.

The AT89s52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256
bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level
interrupt architecture, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock
circuitry. In addition, the AT89C52 is designed with static logic for operation
down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes.
The Idle Mode tops the CPU while allowing the RAM; timer/counters, serial port,
and interrupt system to continue functioning.

The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but Freezes the oscillator,
disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset
 Pin Description

VCC
Supply voltage.

GND
Ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as
high impedance inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus
during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has
internal pull-ups .

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the
code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during
program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they
are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups.

In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external

count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX),
respectively, as shown in the following table.

Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they
are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from
external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use
16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal
pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function
Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals
during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they
are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the
AT89C51, as shown in the following table. Port 3 also receives some control
signals for Flash programming.
RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device.

ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input
(PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a
constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or
clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each
access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by
setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a
MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the
ALE-disable bit has no effect if the micro controller is in external execution mode.

PSEN

Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated
twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during
each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device
to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to
FFFFH.

Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on

reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also
receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming
when 12-volt programming is selected.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier .

Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR)
space is shown in Table 1.

Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not
be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return
random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software
should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future
prod new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will
always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers

Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown in Table 2) and
T2MOD (shown in Table 4) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) are
the Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-
reload mode.

Interrupt Registers

The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can be set
for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register. Instructions that use indirect
addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following
indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at
address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).
MOV @R0, #data

Note that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128
bytes of data RAM are avail available as stack space.
Timer 0 and 1

Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the
T89C51.

Timer 2

Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event

counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in
Table 2).Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down
counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as
shown in Table 3.Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer
function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine
cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator input
pin, T2. In this function, the external input is sampled during S5P2 of every
machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next
cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register
during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected.
Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0
transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. To ensure
that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the level should be
held for at least one full machine cycle.

Capture Mode

In the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2
= 0, Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in
T2CON.This bit can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2 = 1, Timer 2
performs the same operation, but a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX also
causes the current value in TH2 and TL2 to be captured into CAP2H and RCAP2L,
respectively. In addition, the transition at T2EX causes bit EXF2 in T2CON to be
set. The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt. The capture mode is
illustrated in Figure 1.
Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter)

Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when configured in its 16-bit

auto-reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter Enable)
bit located in the SFR T2MOD (see Table 4). Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0
so that timer 2 will default to count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up
or down, depending on the value of the T2EX pin.

Figure 2 shows Timer 2 automatically counting up when DCEN = 0. In this mode,

two options are selected by bitEXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2 counts
up to 0FFFFH and then sets the TF2 bit upon overflow. The overflow also causes
the timer registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L.
The values in Timer in Capture ModeRCAP2H and RCAP2L are preset by
software. If EXEN2 = 1, a 16-bit reload can be triggered either by an overflow or
by a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2
bit. Both the TF2 and EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled. Setting the
DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up or down, as shown in Figure 3. In this
mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count. A logic 1 at T2EX
makes Timer 2 count up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the
TF2 bit. This overflow also causes the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and
RCAP2L to be reloaded into the timer registers, TH2 and TL2, respectively.
A Logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The timer underflows when
TH2 and TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The
underflow sets the TF2 bit and causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the
timer Registers. The EXF2 bit toggles whenever Timer 2 overflows or
underflows and can be used as a 17th bit of resolution. In this operating
mode, EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.
Baud Rate Generator

Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in
T2CON (Table 2). Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be
different if Timer 2 is used for the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for
the other function. Setting RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate
generator mode, as shown in Figure4. The baud rate generator mode is similar to
the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2 causes the Timer 2 registers to be
reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are preset
by software.

The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer2’s overflow rate
according to the following equation.

The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most
applications, it is configured for timer operation (CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation
is different for Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a
timer, it increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a
baud rate generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator
frequency). The baud rate formula is given below.

Where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a

16-bit unsigned integer. Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in Figure 4. This
figure is valid only if RCLK or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2
does not set TF2 and will not generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set,
a 1-to-0 transition in T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from
(RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2, TL2). Thus when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate
generator, T2EX can be used as an extra external interrupt.

Note that when Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate generator
mode, TH2 or TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions,
the Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may
not be accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to,
because a write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The
timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2
registers.

Programmable Clock Out

A 50% duty cycle clock can be programmed to come out on P1.0, as shown in
Figure 5. This pin, besides being a regular I/O pin, has two alternate functions. It
can be programmed to input the external clock for Timer/Counter 2 or to output a
50% duty cycle clock ranging from 61 Hz to 4 MHz at a 16 MHz operating
frequency. To configure the Timer/Counter 2 as a clock generator, bit C/T2
(T2CON.1) must be cleared and bit T2OE (T2MOD.1) must be set. Bit TR2
(T2CON.2) starts and stops the timer. The clock-out frequency depends on the
oscillator frequency and the reload value of Timer 2 capture registers (RCAP2H,
RCAP2L), as shown in the following equation.

In the clock-out mode, Timer 2 roll-overs will not generate an interrupt. This
behavior is similar to when Timer 2 is used as a baud-rate generator. It is possible
to use Timer 2 as a baud-rate generator and a clock generator simultaneously.
Note, however, that the baud-rate and clock-out

Frequencies cannot be determined independently from one another since they

both use RCAP2H and RCAP2L.

UART

The UART in the AT89C52 operates the same way as the UART in the AT89C51.

Interrupts

The AT89C52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0
and INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt.
These interrupts are all shown in Figure 6.Each of these interrupt sources can be
individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special Function
Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts
at once.
Note that Table shows that bit position IE.6 is unimplemented. In the AT89C51, bit
position IE.5 is also unimplemented. User software should not write 1s to these
bit positions, since they may be used in future AT89 products. Timer 2 interrupt is
generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON. Neither of
these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact,
the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2 that
generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software. The
Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the
timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle.
However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in
which the timer overflows.
Idle Mode Oscillator Characteristics

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting
amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in
Figure 7. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the
device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left
Un connected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in Figure 8.There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the
internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and
maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain
active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all
the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode
can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset.
Note that when idle mode is terminated by a hardware reset, the device normally
resumes program execution from where it left off, up to two machine cycles
before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits
access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited.
To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when idle mode
is terminated by a reset, the instruction following the one that invokes idle mode
should not write to a port pin or to external memory.

Power-down Mode

In the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that
invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and
Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is
terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines
the SFR s but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be
cultivated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held
active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.
AC Characteristics

Under operating conditions, load capacitance for Port 0, ALE/PROG, and PSEN =
100 pF; load capacitance for all other outputs = 80 pF.
Note: 1. AC Inputs during testing are driven at VCC - 0.5V for a logic 1 and 0.45V
for a logic 0. Timing measurements are made at VIH min. for a logic 1 and VIL max
for a logic 0.

Float Waveforms(1)

Note: 1. For timing purposes, a port pin is no longer floating when a 100 mV
change from load voltage occurs. A port pin begins to float when a 100 mV
change from the loaded VOH/VOL level occurs.
COMPONENTS
DESCRIPTION
 Transformers

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
by magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its parts. It
usually comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most cases, a core to
concentrate magnetic flux. A transformer operates from the application of an
alternating voltage to one winding, which creates a time-varying magnetic flux in
the core. This varying flux induces a voltage in the other windings. Varying the
relative number of turns between primary and secondary windings determines the
ratio of the input and output voltages, thus transforming the voltage by stepping it
up or down between circuits.

2.8.1 Basic principle

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a hypothetical

ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance around a core of
negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary winding causes a current,
which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF) in the core. The current required
to create the MMF is termed the magnetising current; in the ideal transformer it is
considered to be negligible. The MMF drives flux around the magnetic circuit of
the core.
 Figure 26: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect known as

mutual inductance. The windings in the ideal transformer have no resistance and
so the EMFs are equal in magnitude to the measured terminal voltages. In
accordance with Faraday's law of induction, they are proportional to the rate of
change of flux:

and

Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings

Where:

and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,

and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and secondary
windings.

In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links the
secondary, and so , from which the well-known transformer equation
follows:

Equation 8: Transformer Equation

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the
number of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in both
windings. The conditions that determine Transformer working in STEP UP or STEP
DOWN mode are:

Ns > Np
 Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP

Ns < Np

Equation 10: Conditon for STEP DOWN

Rectifier

A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit as

shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of
the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of
alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a
bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two
wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but has two diode
drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap based design for the
same output voltage.
 Figure 9: Schematic of a bridge rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage
at the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

2.2.1 Basic Operation

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via
the lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current
flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower
colored path.
 Figure 10: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower
right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal
functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply
wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage
that might occur without this circuit in place).

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always

constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal
component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration
became a standard commercial component and is now available with various
voltage and current ratings.
2.2.2 Output Smoothing

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge
serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be
important because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity
but pulsating magnitude.

Figure 11: Bridge Rectifier with smoothen output

The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see also filter
capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw output voltage
waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor
provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the
AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical
terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be
cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional
current through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced
relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage
correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change
in output voltage / current.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ = RC where C
and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load
resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of
one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a well smoothed DC voltage
across the load resistance. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the
capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by adding additional
stages of capacitor–resistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-
gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
 Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to
regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators,
all voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some
internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control
the regulation element. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop. If the
output voltage is too low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a
higher voltage. For some regulators if the output voltage is too high, the
regulation element is commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many
just stop sourcing current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is
driving to pull the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held
roughly constant. The control loop must be carefully designed to produce the
desired tradeoff between stability and speed of response.

LM7805 (3-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)

The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.
Figure 18: Internal block Diagram

Figure 19 : Fixed Output Regulator

Features

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

SEVEN-SEGMENT DISPLAY:

A seven-segment display (abbreviation: "7-segment display"), is

a form of Display device that is an alternative to the more
complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are
commonly used in electronics as a method of displaying decimal
numeric feedback on the internal operations of devices.
Contents :
1 Concept and visual structure

2 Implementations

3 Alphabetic display

Concept and visual structure:

A typical 7-segment LED display component, with decimal point.

A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of

seven elements. Individually on or off, they can be combined to
produce simplified representations of the Hindu-Arabic numerals.
Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7and 9 may be represented by two or
more different glyphs on seven-segment displays.

The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical

segments on each side with one horizontal segment on the top
and bottom. Additionally, the seventh segment bisects the
rectangle horizontally. There are also fourteen-segment displays
and sixteen-segment displays (for full alphanumerics ); however,
these have mostly been replaced by dot-matrix displays.
Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique, or italic,
arrangement, which aids readability.

The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the

letters A to G, as follows:

where the optional DP decimal point (an "eighth segment") is

used for the display of non-integer numbers.

Implementations:

Most separate 7-segment displays use an array of light-emitting

diodes (LEDs), though other types exist using alternative
technologies such as cold cathode gas discharge, vacuum
fluorescent, incandescent filament, liquid crystal display (LCD),
etc. For gas price totems and other large signs,
electromagnetically flipped light-reflecting segments (sometimes
called "vanes") are still commonly used. An alternative to the 7-
segment displayin the 1950s through the 1970s was the vacuum
tube-like nixie tube.

For many applications, dot-matrix LCDs have largely superseded

LED displays, though even in LCDs 7-segment displays are very
common. Unlike LEDs, the shapes of elements in an LCD panel
are arbitrary since they are formed on the display by a kind of
printing process. In contrast, the shapes of LED segments tend to
be simple rectangles ,reflecting the fact that they have to be
physically moulded to shape, which makes it difficult to form
more complex shapes than the segments of 7-segment displays.
However, the high common recognition factor of 7-segment
displays, and the comparatively high visual contrast obtained by
such displays relative to dot-matrix digits, makes seven-segment
multiple-digit LCD screens very common on basic calculators.

Alphabetic display:

In addition to the ten numerals, seven segment displays can be

used to show letters of the latin, cyrillic and greek alphabets
including punctuation, but only few representations are
unambiguous and intuitive at the same time: uppercase A, B, C,
E, F, G, H, I, J, L, N, O, P, S, U, Y, Z, and lowercase a, b, c, d , e,
g, h, i, n, ñ, o, q, r, t, u. Detailed tables of alternative seven-
segment symbols for letters and punctuation are given in the
section Character representations, below.

HOW 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY WORKS?

The 7 segment display is found in many displays such as microwaves or fancy
toaster ovens and occasionally in non cooking devices. It is just 7 LEDs that have
been combined into one case to make a convenient device for displaying numbers
and some letters. The display is shown on the left. The pinout of the display is on
the right.

This version is a common anode version. That means that the

positive leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is
pin 3 in this case. Each LED has a negative leg that is connected
to one of the pins of the device. To make it work you need to
connect pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up,
connect the ground pin for that led to ground. A resistor is
required to limit the current. Rather than using a resistor from
each LED to ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to pin
3 to limit the current. The following table shows how to form the
numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, b, C, d, E, and F.
'0' means that pin is connected to ground. '1' means that pin is
connected to Vcc.
 a (Pin 1) b (Pin 10) c (Pin 8) d (Pin 6) e (Pin 5) f (Pin 2) g (Pin 9)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

3 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

4 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

5 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

7 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

A 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

b 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

C 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

d 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

E 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

F 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
Now, we want to run the display with the 8051 microcontroller.
We will use Port 1 to run the display. Use the same configuration
as in the first 8051 tutorial. Connect the 8051 to the 7 segment
display as follows.

8051 pin 12 to display pin 9 (P1.0 will control segment g)

8051 pin 13 to display pin 2 (P1.1 will control segment f)
8051 pin 14 to display pin 5 (P1.2 will control segment e)
8051 pin 15 to display pin 6 (P1.3 will control segment d)
8051 pin 16 to display pin 8 (P1.4 will control segment c)
8051 pin 17 to display pin 10 (P1.5 will control segment b)
8051 pin 18 to display pin 1 (P1.6 will control segment a)

Crystal Oscillator

It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is

very stable and exactly known. This is important in any application
where anything to do with time or exact measurement is crucial. It is
relatively simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort of a
signal, but another matter to produce one of relatively precise
frequency and stability. AM radio stations must have a carrier
frequency accurate within 10Hz of its assigned frequency, which may
be from 530 to 1710 kHz. SSB radio systems used in the HF range (2-30
MHz) must be within 50 Hz of channel frequency for acceptable voice
quality, and within 10 Hz for best results. Some digital modes used in
weak signal communication may require frequency stability of less than
1 Hz within a period of several minutes. The carrier frequency must be
known to fractions of a hertz in some cases. An ordinary quartz watch
must have an oscillator accurate to better than a few parts per million.
One part per million will result in an error of slightly less than one half
second a day, which would be about 3 minutes a year. This might not
sound like much, but an error of 10 parts per million would result in an
error of about a half an hour per year. A clock such as this would need
resetting about once a month, and more often if you are the punctual
type. A programmed VCR with a clock this far off could miss the
recording of part of a TV show. Narrow band SSB communications at
VHF and UHF frequencies still need 50 Hz frequency accuracy. At 440
MHz, this is slightly more than 0.1 part per million.

Ordinary L-C oscillators using conventional inductors and capacitors can

achieve typically 0.01 to 0.1 percent frequency stability, about 100 to
1000 Hz at 1 MHz. This is OK for AM and FM broadcast receiver
applications and in other low-end analog receivers not requiring high
tuning accuracy. By careful design and component selection, and with
rugged mechanical construction, .01 to 0.001%, or even better (.0005%)
stability can be achieved. The better figures will undoubtedly employ
temperature compensation components and regulated power supplies,
together with environmental control (good ventilation and ambient
temperature regulation) and “battleship” mechanical construction. This
has been done in some communications receivers used by the military
and commercial HF communication receivers built in the 1950-1965
era, before the widespread use of digital frequency synthesis. But
these receivers were extremely expensive, large, and heavy. Many
modern consumer grade AM, FM, and shortwave receivers employing
crystal controlled digital frequency synthesis will do as well or better
from a frequency stability standpoint.

An oscillator is basically an amplifier and a frequency selective feedback

network (Fig 1). When, at a particular frequency, the loop gain is unity
or more, and the total phaseshift at this frequency is zero, or some
multiple of 360 degrees, the condition for oscillation is satisfied, and
the circuit will produce a periodic waveform of this frequency. This is
usually a sine wave, or square wave, but triangles, impulses, or other
waveforms can be produced. In fact, several different waveforms often
are simultaneously produced by the same circuit, at different points. It
is also possible to have several frequencies produced as well, although
this is generally undesirable.

CAPACITOR

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component

consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists across
the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This
field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow
separation between large areas of conductor; hence capacitor
conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and
leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric
has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown
voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow

of direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, to
filter out interference, to smooth the output of power supplies,
and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits
in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from
a signal with many frequencies.

Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A
dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-

conductive region.The non-conductive substance is called the
dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an
external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and
opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general
model for electric fields within electric circuits.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant

capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor,

causing the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is
defined in terms of incremental changes:
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb
of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across
the device.

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to move charge

between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external
influence is removed, the charge separation persists and energy
is stored in the electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to
its equilibrium position, the energy is released. The work done in
establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy
stored, is given by:

Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through a component in an electric circuit is

defined as the rate of change of the charge q(t) that has passed
through it. Physical charges cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, but rather build up in equal and opposite
quantities on the electrodes: as each electron accumulates on the
negative plate, one leaves the positive plate. Thus the
accumulated charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of
the current, as well as being proportional to the voltage (as
discussed above). As with any antiderivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is
the integral form of the capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the
derivative form,[12]

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in

the magnetic field rather than the electric field. Its current-
voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in
the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch

and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a charging
circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is
open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's
voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order

differential equation,
At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and
the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then i
(0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where τ0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the

voltage across the resistor and the current through the entire
circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the
initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being
zero.

RESISTOR
Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors
offer opposition to the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for
which the symbol is ‘’. Resistors are broadly classified as

(1) Fixed Resistors

(2) Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors :
The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-
carbon composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay
composition. The leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this
type are readily available in value ranging from few ohms to about
20M, having a tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite
inexpensive. The relative size of all fixed resistors changes with the
wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the
metalized type. It is made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure
carbon over a glass, ceramic or other insulating core. This type of film-
resistor is sometimes called the precision type, since it can be obtained
with an accuracy of 1%.

Lead Tinned Copper Material

Colour Coding Molded Carbon Clay Composition

Fixed Resistor
A Wire Wound Resistor :

It uses a length of resistance wire, such as nichrome. This wire is

wounded on to a round hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding
are attached to these metal pieces inserted in the core. Tinned copper
wire leads are attached to these metal pieces. This assembly is coated
with an enamel coating powdered glass. This coating is very smooth
and gives mechanical protection to winding. Commonly available wire
wound resistors have resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K, and
wattage rating up to about 200W.

Coding Of Resistor :

Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed
on the body. However there are some resistors that are too small in
size to have numbers printed on them. Therefore, a system of colour
coding is used to indicate their values. For fixed, moulded composition
resistor four colour bands are printed on one end of the outer casing.
The colour bands are always read left to right from the end that has the
bands closest to it. The first and second band represents the first and
second significant digits, of the resistance value. The third band is for
the number of zeros that follow the second digit. In case the third band
is gold or silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The
fourth band represents the manufacture’s tolerance.

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black 0 black 0 black 0 black

1 brown 1 brown 1 brown 1 brown

2 red 2 red 2 red 2 red
3 orange 3 orange 3 orange 3 orange

4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow

5 green 5 green 5 green 5 green
6 blue 6 blue 6 blue 6 blue

7 purple 7 purple 7 purple 7 purple

8 silver 8 silver 8 silver 8 silver

9 white 9 white 9 white 9 white

 For example, if a resistor has a colour band sequence: yellow, violet,
orange and gold

Then its range will be—

Yellow=4, violet=7, orange=10³, gold=±5% =47KΏ ±5%

=2.35KΏ

Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the
resistor.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show
these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold,
which means × 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first and second
bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:

red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7

blue, green, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage.
For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value
within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39
is 10% of 390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

VARIABLE RESISTOR:

In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the

values of currents and voltages. For n example it is often desired to
change the volume of sound, the brightness of a television picture etc.
Such adjustments can be done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called
rheostats in other applications, the smaller variable resistors
commonly used in electronic circuits are called
potentiometers.

Resistor shorthand:
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code
system which avoids using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the
small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M are used in place of the
decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point,
then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or 1000000 if the
letter was M. The letter R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R means 560
2K7 means 2.7 k = 2700
39K means 39 k
1M0 means 1.0 M = 1000 k

Power Ratings of Resistors

High power resistors

(5W top, 25W bottom)
Photographs © Rapid Electronics
 Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows
through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the
resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a
large current may pass making the resistor become
noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the
heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for
most circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable.
For the rare cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly
specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors
(less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:

P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

or I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

Examples:

 A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R =
10²/470 = 0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
 A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R =
10²/27 = 3.7W.
A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.
 TRANSISTORS

A transistor is an active device. It consists of two PN junctions formed

by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair
of opposite types.

There are two types of transistor:

1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors

separated by a thin section of p-type. However a p-n-p type
semiconductor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section
of n-type.

Transistor has two pn junctions one junction is forward biased and

other is reversed biased. The forward junction has a low resistance path
whereas a reverse biased junction has a high resistance path.
 The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and
output is taken from the high resistance circuit. Therefore a transistor
transfers a signal from a low resistance to high resistance.

Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The

section on one side is emitter and section on the opposite side is
collector. The middle section is base.

Emitter : The section on one side that supplies charge carriers is called
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base.

Collector : The section on the other side that collects the charge is
called collector. The collector is always reversed biased.

Base : The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector is called base.
 A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as
an amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction
and output is taken across the load Rc connected in the collector
circuit. The collector current flowing through a high load resistance Rc
produces a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the
input appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit.

Heat sink

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing

through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors
because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is
becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat
sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the
surrounding air.
 CONNECTORS

Connectors are basically used for interface between two. Here

we use connectors for having interface between PCB and 8051
Microprocessor Kit.
There are two types of connectors they are male and female. The
one, which is with pins inside, is female and other is male.

These connectors are having bus wires with them for connection.

For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial

cable must be limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce
multimodal propagation and eliminate erratic reflection coefficients,
power losses, and signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial
connectors during World War II was mandatory for microwave
operation to maintain a low reflection coefficient or a low voltage
standing wave ratio.

Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are as follows:

1.APC-3.5

2.APC-7

3.BNC

4.SMA

5.SMC

6.TNC7.Type N
 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

A junction diode, such as LED, can emit light or exhibit electro

luminescence. Electro luminescence is obtained by injecting minority
carriers into the region of a pn junction where radiative transition takes
place. In radiative transition, there is a transition of electron from the
conduction band to the valence band, which is made possibly by
emission of a photon. Thus, emitted light comes from the hole electron
recombination. What is required is that electrons should make a
transition from higher energy level to lower energy level releasing
photon of wavelength corresponding to the energy difference
associated with this transition. In LED the supply of high-energy
electron is provided by forward biasing the diode, thus injecting
electrons into the n-region and holes into p-region.

The pn junction of LED is made from heavily doped material. On

forward bias condition, majority carriers from both sides of the junction
cross the potential barrier and enter the opposite side where they are
then minority carrier and cause local minority carrier population to be
larger than normal. This is termed as minority injection. These excess
minority carrier diffuse away from the junction and recombine with
majority carriers.

In LED, every injected electron takes part in a radiative

recombination and hence gives rise to an emitted photon. Under
reverse bias no carrier injection takes place and consequently no
photon is emitted. For direct transition from conduction band to
valence band the emission wavelength.

In practice, every electron does not take part in radiative

recombination and hence, the efficiency of the device may be described
in terms of the quantum efficiency which is defined as the rate of
emission of photons divided by the rate of supply of electrons. The
number of radiative recombination, that take place, is usually
proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence to the total current
flowing.

LED Materials:

One of the first materials used for LED is GaAs. This is a direct band
gap material, i.e., it exhibits very high probability of direct transition of
electron from conduction band to valence band. GaAs has E= 1.44 eV.
This works in the infrared region.
GaP and GaAsP are higher band gap materials. Gallium phosphide is an
indirect band gap semiconductor and has poor efficiency because band
to band transitions are not normally observed.

Gallium Arsenide Phosphide is a tertiary alloy. This material has a

special feature in that it changes from being direct band gap material.

Blue LEDs are of recent origin. The wide band gap materials such as
GaN are one of the most promising LEDs for blue and green emission.
Infrared LEDs are suitable for optical coupler applications.
ADVANTAGES OF LEDs:

1. Low operating voltage, current, and power consumption makes

Leds compatible with electronic drive circuits. This also makes easier
interfacing as compared to filament incandescent and electric discharge
lamps.
2. The rugged, sealed packages developed for LEDs exhibit high
resistance to mechanical shock and vibration and allow LEDs to be used
in severe environmental conditions where other light sources would
fail.
3. LED fabrication from solid-state materials ensures a longer
operating lifetime, thereby improving overall reliability and lowering
maintenance costs of the equipment in which they are installed.
4. The range of available LED colours-from red to orange, yellow,
and green-provides the designer with added versatility.
5. LEDs have low inherent noise levels and also high immunity to
externally generated noise.
6. Circuit response of LEDs is fast and stable, without surge currents
or the prior “warm-up”, period required by filament light sources.
7. LEDs exhibit linearity of radiant power output with forward
current over a wide range.

LEDs have certain limitations such as:

1. Temperature dependence of radiant output power and wave

length.
2. Sensitivity to damages by over voltage or over current.
3. Theoretical overall efficiency is not achieved except in special
cooled or pulsed conditions.
Buzzer

It is an electronic signaling device which produces buzzing sound. It is commonly

used in automobiles, phone alarm systems and household appliances. Buzzers
work in the same manner as an alarm works. They are generally equipped with
sensors or switches connected to a control unit and the control unit illuminates a
light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sound a warning in the form of
a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound.

The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they
were electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at
50 or 60 cycles.

Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of
user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

2.9.1Types of Buzzers
The different types of buzzers are electric buzzers, electronic buzzers, mechanical
buzzers, electromechanical, magnetic buzzers, piezoelectric buzzers and piezo
buzzers.

(i) Electric buzzers –

A basic model of electric buzzer usually consists of simple circuit components
such as resistors, a capacitor and 555 timer IC or an integrated circuit with a range
of timer and multi-vibrator functions. It works through small bits of electricity
vibrating together which causes sound.

(ii) Electronic buzzers –

An electronic buzzer comprises an acoustic vibrator comprised of a circular metal
plate having its entire periphery rigidly secured to a support, and a piezoelectric
element adhered to one face of the metal plate. A driving circuit applies electric
driving signals to the vibrator to vibrationally drive it at a 1/N multiple of its
natural frequency, where N is an integer, so that the vibrator emits an audible
buzzing sound. The metal plate is preferably mounted to undergo vibration in a
natural vibration mode having only one nodal circle. The drive circuit includes an
inductor connected in a closed loop with the vibrator, which functions as a
capacitor, and the circuit applies signals at a selectively variable frequency to the
closed loop to accordingly vary the inductance of the inductor to thereby vary the
period of oscillation of the acoustic vibrator and the resultant frequency of the
buzzing sound.

(iii) Mechanical Buzzer-

A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.
(iv) Piezo Buzzers/ Piezoelectric Buzzers –

A piezo buzzer is made from two conductors that are separated by Piezo crystals.
When a voltage is applied to these crystals, they push on one conductor and pull on
the other. The result of this push and pull is a sound wave. These buzzers can be
used for many things, like signaling when a period of time is up or making a sound
when a particular button has been pushed. The process can also be reversed to use
as a guitar pickup. When a sound wave is passed, they create an electric signal that
is passed on to an audio amplifier.
Piezo buzzers are small electronic devices that emit sounds when driven by low
voltages and currents. They are also called piezoelectric buzzers. They usually
have two electrodes and a diaphragm. The diaphragm is made from a metal plate
and piezoelectric material such as a ceramic plate.

(v) Magnetic Buzzers –

Magnetic buzzers are magnetic audible signal devices with built-in oscillating
circuits. The construction combines an oscillation circuit unit with a detection coil,
a drive coil and a magnetic transducer. Transistors, resistors, diodes and other
small devices act as circuit devices for driving sound generators. With the
application of voltage, current flows to the drive coil on primary side and to the
detection coil on the secondary side. The amplification circuit, including the
transistor and the feedback circuit, causes vibration. The oscillation current excites
the coil and the unit generates an AC magnetic field corresponding to an oscillation
frequency. This AC magnetic field magnetizes the yoke comprising the magnetic
circuit. The oscillation from the intermittent magnetization prompts the vibration
diaphragm to vibrate up and down, generating buzzer sounds through the
resonator.

In this project, a magnetic buzzer has been used.

2.9.2 Circuit of buzzer –

2.9.3 Role of buzzer in this project

Buzzer in this system gives the beep when car moves inside cutting the infrared
light. Basically it generates the signal to indicate that car has entered in the parking
space.
 DIODE

ACTIVE COMPONENT-

Active component are those component for not any other component are
used its operation. I used in this project only function diode, these component
description are described as bellow.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A crystal diode

has two terminal when it is connected in a circuit one thing is decide is weather a
diode is forward or reversed biased. There is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the
external CKT is trying to push the conventional current in the direction of error,
the diode is forward biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying
is trying to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased putting in
simple words.
 1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the symbol, the
diode is forward biased.
2.The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the diode is the
reverse bias.

When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that which end is
arrowhead and which end is bar. So following method are available.
1.Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the diode e. g
By127 by 11 4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal diode. Red
mark do not arrow where’s blue mark indicates bar e .g oa80 crystal
diode.
ZENER DIODE-

It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on a crystal
diode is increased a critical voltage, called break down voltage. The break down or
zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped
depletion layer will be thin and consequently the break down of he junction will
occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a
higher break down voltage, it is called zener diode.

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down voltage, is known
as a zenor diode.

In this project I used semiconducter diode for bridge rectifies, two-crystal diode
APPLICATION:
This security system is more reliable, accurate and user friendly
and hence this project can be used for domestic as well as
commercial applications.
IR, LDR and RF sensors senses each zone and provide
wonderful security.
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION:

This “Microcontroller based Security System using RF, IR, LDR; overcomes the
drawbacks of earlier security system. We are able to implement successfully our
mission which is to develop a security system that able to provide the solution to
the problems faced by traditional security system.

The developing of this project has been a learning experience for all team members
and would prove as a milestone in their academic career. The achievements of this
project are

i. The project has achieved its set target well in “Time” and “Budget”.

ii. Based on cutting edge technology called Embedded development which

is niche in the market today and its future is much bright.

iii. The product developed is ready for implementation and can bring
financial benefits too by sale in the market.

So, we conclude that the electronic eye is still far away from the perfect, but we
believe we have laid the groundwork to enable it to improve out of sight.
FUTURE SCOPE:

Security system is very vague term can be used from to advanced biometric
based security system.

Though our project is quite advanced with new with multi location security,
various alert outlets a0 alarms, computer, mobile phone, we can take our
project to even greater height.

Password Based: through password based security system can be controlled

i.e. by entering password, only a person is allowed a safe entry ELSE door
are blocked.

Biometric Security: The passwords are prone to leakage and various

combinations of them can be tried to cause breach. Hence biometric sensors
can be used which identifies a person based on

i. IRIS matching
ii. Finger Print analysis
iii. Voice Recognition
iv. Facial Features recognition, etc

All these features are implementable but require high end research and
resources.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Electronics Devices & Circuit Theory by “Boylestad, Robert L. & Nashelsky,

Louis” (8th edition).

Basic Electronics by “Bhargava, N.N.”

“Embedded System using 8051“ (E-book)

Lalit Kumar goel and Gaurav Sharma from Meerut

Linear Circuits by “Choudhary, D.R.”

Microelectronics by “Sedra & Smith.”

Mehta V.K., “ Principles of Electronics “

S.Chand & Co. Ltd., New Delhi

Intel “Microcontroller and Features “

Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Ltd., New Delhi

Boylstead Robert & Nasceslsky Louis “ Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory”
Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi

Millman Jacob & Halkias C. Christos “Integrated Electronics “

Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Ltd., New Delhi

WEB SITES

 www.microtutorials.com

 www.technowave.co.in
 www.datasheets.com

 www.archives.com

 www.nationalsemiconductors.com

 www.atmel.com

 www.seimens.com

 www.fairchildsemiconductors.com