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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

the order of 10 –3 m/s as compared to thermal speed ( ~ 10 5

3.1 INTRODUCTION m / s ) of electrons at room temperature.
The flow of charges in lightning is not steady, but in our The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is
everyday life we see many devices where charges flow opposite to that of applied electric field .
in a steady manner, like water flowing smoothly in a river. A •  v d α E i.e., greater the electric field, larger will be
torch and a cell-driven clock are examples of such devices. the drift velocity.
• When a steady current flows through a conductor of non-
3.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT uniform cross-section drift velocity varies inversely with
Electric current is defined as flow of electric charge. area of cross-section 
It is measured as rate of flow of charge. It means how much • If diameter of a conductor is doubled, then drift
charge is flowing with respect to time. Electric current is velocity of electrons inside it will not change.
denoted by I. It is written as I=dQ/dt, where dQ is rate of 3.4 OHM’S LAW
change of charge with respect to time. Its unit is Amperes At constant temperature the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to potential difference
(A).
between the ends of the conductor.
1A= 1C/s Mathematically
1A is the amount of current when 1C of charge (i.e.  Current flowing through the conductor I ∝ V where
6.24x1018 electrons) pass through a point in 1 second. V is the potential difference applied at the ends of
By convention direction of motion of positive charges the conductor.
(direction opposite to the motion of electrons) is taken as the  Or I=(constant) V where constant = 1/R where R
direction of current. The conventional current direction is =resistance of the conductor
considered whenever we consider the direction of current.  => I=(1/R)V
The direction of current is opposite to the direction of flow of  =>V=IR
electrons. Resistance (R)
• The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the
flow of current through it,is known as the resistance.
• SI unit – ohm (Ω)
Factors affecting resistance
of a conductor
Nature of material
• Proportional to length of the
conductor
• Inversely proportional to area
of cross
Current flowing through a unit area held normal to the section.
direction of current is called current density (J). Current • Proportional to temperature
density is a vector quantity. Unit - A/m2 R= ρ (L/A).
where ρ is known as resistivity. Resistivity is also known as
3.3 ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS specific resistance. Resistivity of the material of a conductor
is defined as the resistance of the conductor having unit
Metals have large number of free electrons nearly 10 28 length and unit area of cross section.
electrons / cm 3 . In the absence of an electric field electrons Resistivity for perfect conductors is 0.In perfect conductors
are in random motion due to thermal energy. The average there is no resistance at all.
thermal velocity of electrons is zero. In the presence of an
external electric field, electrons are accelerated and acquire  Resistivity for perfect insulators is infinite. There
an average velocity. During the random motion, electrons are so many obstacles as a result resistance is more
collide with each other or with positive metal ions.
so current cannot flow at all.
Drift velocity
• Average velocity acquired by an electron in the presence of  Resistance tells about the resistance of the
an electric field. conductor as whole whereas resistivity tells about
Relaxation time the resistance of a specific material.
• Average time interval between two successive collisions.
The path between two consecutive collisions is called free Unit – ohm meter (Ωm)
path. The average length of these free paths is called “Mean • Resistivity of conductor depends on
Free Path”. nature of material and Temperature
thermal velocity :Due to temperature and thermal energy Conductivity (σ)
they have a thermal velocity 10 5 ms -1 . Drift velocity is very  Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity.
small it is of
 It is denoted by σ.

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 Unit :mho m-1/Sm-1

3.5.1 Mobility (μ)
Conductance (G)
Ratio of magnitude of drift velocity to the
It is the reciprocal of resistance. Conductance means electric field.
something which conducts the current. Greater the resistance
lesser the conductance and vice-versa.
 Unit is mho/Siemen (S) Copper is used as for making connecting wires because,
• Unit- Ω -1 m -1 , or mho m -1 , or S m -1 • Copper has low resistivity.
Ohmic conductor Nichrome is used as heating element of electrical devices
• A conductor which obeys ohm’s law. Eg:- metals because,
Non ohmic conductors • Nichrome has High resistivity
• Conductor which does not obey ohm’s • High melting point.
law. Eg :- diode, transistors, electrolytes etc. Materials like constantan and manganin are used to make
standard resistances because,
• Resistance does not change with
3.5 DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND RESISTIVITY temperature.
• Material has high resistivity.
Relation connecting drift velocity and relaxation Time
• The force experienced by the electron in 3.6 L IMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW
an electric field is 1. Ohm's law is valid for metal conductors, provided the
F = − eE , where E – electric field temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
•From Newton’s second law F = ma , 2. Ohm's law is not applicable to gaseous conductors.
a- acceleration, m- mass 3. Ohm's law is also not applicable to sent-conductors such
Thus, ma = − eE Germanium and silicon.
 Therefore acceleration of electron is a= − eE/ m
Therefore the drift velocity is given by 3.7 RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
vd = (-eEτ/m) , Where , τ – relaxation time
3.8 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY
Relation connecting drift velocity and current The resistivity of a material is dependent on temperature. It is
experimentally found that for a wide range of temperatures,
the resistivity of a conductor increases with increase in
temperature according to the expression,

Consider a conductor of length =L,Area of conductor=A and

Potential Difference = V.

 Number of electrons per unit volume(Number

Density) =n
 Therefore total number of electrons in the
conductor=n x V = nAL α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. It is defined
 Charge on total number of electrons =enAL as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in
(Equation(i)) temperature to its resistivity at Tº.
 Electric field =V/L; because of electric field α of conductors
electrons start drifting
For conductors α is positive. If the temperature of a
 Time taken by an electron to cross the
conductor increases, the average kinetic energy of electrons
conductor=(distance covered/velocity)
in the conductor increases. This results in more frequent
 =L/( vd) where vd = drift velocity
collisions and hence the resistivity increases.
 Therefore Current I = (total charge/time) =
(enAL)/(L/vd) using (Equation(i)) α of of semiconductors
 I= enAvd =>I ∝ vd
For semiconductors, the resistivity decreases with increase in
 Even though drift velocity is very small but the temperature. As the temperature increases, more electrons
number of electrons which are present in the will be liberated from their atoms. Hence the current
conductor is very huge. increases and therefore the resistivity decreases. A
 The drift velocity is small but the number of semiconductor with a negative temperature coefficient of
electrons is large so the current is large. resistance is called a thermistor.

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3.9 ELECTRICAL ENERGY , POWER

The electrical power P is the rate at which the electrical
potential energy is delivered,

Since the electric current I = dQ/dt .

Here RP is the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination of the resistors. The value of equivalent
resistance in parallel connection will be lesser than each
The SI unit of electrical power is watt (1W = 1 J s-1). individual resistance.

3.11 CELLS ,EMF , INTERNAL RESISTANCE

In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hour
An electric cell converts chemical energy into electrical
(kWh). 1 kWh is known as 1 unit of electrical energy. energy to produce electricity.When a cell or battery is
connected to a circuit, electrons flow from the negative
(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = (1000 W) (3600 s) = 3.6 x 106 J) terminal to the positive terminal through the circuit. By using
chemical reactions, a battery produces potential difference
across its terminals. This potential difference provides the
energy to move the electrons through the circuit.

Factors affecting internal resistance

• Nature of electrolytes
• Directly proportional to the
3.10 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS – SERIES AND distance
PARALLEL between electrodes
In series connection same • Directly proportional to the
current pass through all concentration
resistors. The potential drop is of electrolytes.
different for each resistor. • Inversely proportional to the area
of the
electrodes.
• Inversely proportional to the temperature
of electrolyte.

3.12 CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Cells in series
where RS is the equivalent resistance, Several cells can be
When several resistances are connected in series, the total or connected to form a battery.
equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. In series connection, the
The value of equivalent resistance in series connection will negative terminal of one cell
be greater than each individual resistance. is connected to the positive
terminal of the second cell,
Resistors are in parallel
the negative terminal of
when they are connected
second cell is connected to
across the same potential
the positive terminal of the
difference
third cell and so on.
The total emf of the battery = nξ

Cells in parallel
In parallel connection all the positive terminals of

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Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage rule to loop
ABDA,

Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage rule to loop
the cells are connected to one point and all the negative ABCDA,
terminals to a second point. These two points form the
positive and negative terminals of the battery.
When the points B and D are at the same potential, the bridge
The total emf is the potential difference between the points is said to be balanced. As there is no potential difference
A and B, which is equal to ξ. between B and D, no current flows through galvanometer (IG
= 0). Substituting IG = 0 and solving,
3.13 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Ohm’s law is useful only for simple circuits. For more
complex circuits, Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to find
This is the bridge balance condition. Only under
current and voltage. There are two generalized rules: i)
this condition, galvanometer shows null deflection.
Kirchhoff’s current rule ii) Kirchhoff’s voltage rule.
3.15 METER BRIDGE
First rule (junction rule or current rule)
The meter bridge is another form of Wheatstone’s bridge. It
• Algebraic sum of the current
consists of a uniform manganin wire AB of one meter length.
meeting at
junction is zero. X R
• Thus , Current entering a
junction =
current leaving the junction

Second rule (loop rule or voltage rule)

• Algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance
in a closed circuit is equal to the net emf in it.
• This rule is a statement of law of conservation of energy.

Applying Kirchoff’s
The position of the jockey on the wire is adjusted so that the
second law to the closed galvanometer shows zero deflection.
loop EACE
X/R= l / (100-l)
I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 = ξ
The bridge wire is soldered at the ends of the copper strips.
Due to imperfect contact, some resistance might be
and for the closed loop introduced at the contact. These are called end resistances.
ABCA
3.16 POTENTIOMETER
I4R4 + I5R5-I2R2= 0
A device used to measure an unknown emf or potential
difference accurately. It consists of ten meter long uniform
3.14 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE wire of manganin or constantan stretched in parallel rows.
An important
application of
Kirchhoff’s rules is
the Wheatstone’s
bridge. It is used to
compare resistances
and also helps in
determining the
unknown resistance
in electrical network.

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 What is the principle behind the working of meter bridge.

 If the potential difference across CJ is equal to the emf of State the principle.
the cell ξ then no current will flow through the  How will you determine the resistance of a wire using
galvanometer and it will show zero deflection. meter bridge.
 CJ is the balancing length l.  Write the principle of potentiometer
 The potential difference across CJ is equal to Irl where I  Explain the method to compare the emf’s of two cells
is the current flowing through the wire and r is the using potentiometer.
resistance per unit length of the wire.  How will you determine the internal resistance of a cell
using potentiometer?
 Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for
accurate measurement of emf of a cell?
As potentiometer uses null deflection method, it does not
draw current from the cell at the balance point. Therefore,
potentiometer measures the actual emf of the cell. The
voltmeter always draws current from the cell and measures
the terminal voltage of the cell and not the emf. So
potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for accurate
measurement.

Questions
 State Ohm’s law
 Define conductance
 What are the factors on which the resistance of a
conductor depends?
 What do you mean by resistivity of a conductor. Write its
unit.
 What happens to the resistivity of the material ,if the
conductor isstretched to double its length.
 What do you mean by relaxation time?
 Define drift velocity
 Obtain the expression for drift velocity of an electron in
an external electric field.
 Obtain the relation connecting drift velocity and current.
 Define mobility
 Define current density. Write its unit.
 Define conductivity. Write its unit.
 Write Ohms law in vector form
 Write the limitations of Ohm’s Law
 Differentiate Ohmic and non ohmic Conductors
 Write the expression for temperature co-efficient of
resistivity. Write its unit and dimension.
 How the resistivity of metals vary with temperature?
 How the resistivity of semiconductors and insulators vary
with temperature?
 Why Nichrome, Constantan and Manganin are used as
standard resistors?
 A carbon resistor has resistance 58kΩ . Write the sequence
of colours of this carbon resistor.
 Derive the equation for effective resistance when resistors
are connected in series
 Derive the equation for effective resistance when resistors
are connected in parallel
 What do you mean by internal resistance of a cell ?
 Differentiate emf and terminal voltage of a cell
 State Kirchhoff’s junction rule or current law.
 State Kirchhoff’s loop rule or voltage law.
 Obtain Wheatstone bridge principle.

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