CHM 101

INTRODUCTORYPHYSICALCHEMISTRY

DEPARTMENT OFCHEMISTRY, FUNAAB

Dr.(Mrs) A.D. Adesina

Course Outline

•Chemical reactions, chemical equations and

stoichiometry.

•Bonding and intermolecular forces.

• Chemical Reactions: A process in which at least one new substance is

produced as a result of chemical change.

Indicationsof a Chemical Reaction

• Evolution of heat, light, and/ or sound

• Production of a gas or vapour

• Formation of a precipitate

• Color change
Because of the principle of the conservation of mat ter,
an equat ion must be bal anced.
It must have the same number of atoms of the same kind on both
sides.

Reactants – the substances that exist before a chemical change

(or reaction) takes place.

Products – the new substance(s) that are formed during the

chemical changes.

CHEMICALEQUATION indicates the reactants and products of a

reaction.
 Balancing Chemical Equations
• Balanced Equation – one in which the number of atoms of
each element as a reactant is equal to the number of atoms of
that element as a product
• Write a word equation for the reaction.
• Write the correct formulas for all reactants and products.
• Determine the coefficients that make the equation balance.
Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different
Information

• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of

each element in a molecule
• Coefficients tell the number of Stoichiometry
molecules (compounds).
 Write the balanced equation for the reaction between aluminum sulfate
and calcium chloride to form a white precipitate of calcium sulfate.

1) Write a word equation for the reaction.

aluminum sulfate + calcium chloride  calcium sulfate + aluminum chloride

2) Write the correct formulas for all reactants and products.

Al 2(SO 4)3 + CaCl2  CaSO4 + AlCl 3

3) Determine the coefficients that make the equation balance.

Al2(SO4)3 + 3 CaCl2  3 CaSO4 + 2 AlCl3
 Types of Chemical Reactions
• Combination reactions: two or more substances react to form one
product
A + B → AB e.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
• Decomposition reactions: one substance breaks down into two or
more substances
AB → A + B e.g. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
• Combustion reactions: rapid reactions that have oxygen as
a reactant sometimes produce a flame and most often
involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen in the air to
produce CO2 and H2O.
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
• Neutralisation reactions: the reaction in which an acid
reacts with a base to form salt and water by an exchange of
ions
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)→ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• Displacement reactions: the reactions in which a more reactive
element displaces a less reactive element from a compound. They
are also known as Substitution or Single replacement reactions.
A + BC→ AC+ B (note: A is more reactive than B)
e.g. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
• Double displacement reactions: reactions in which ions are
exchanged between two reactants forming new compounds
AB + CD → AD + CB e.g. BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) +
2NaCl(aq)
• Oxidation and Reduction reactions
Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic
element or removal of hydrogen or metallic element from
a compound.
Reduction: addition of hydrogen or metallic element or
removal of oxygen or non-metallic element from a
compound.
 Stoichiometry
• Formula Mass: this is the sum of the masses of the atoms in the
empirical formula
e.g. the FM of hydrogen peroxide would be H (1.0 amu) + O(16.0 amu)
= 17.0 amu since its empirical formula isHO
• Molecular Mass: this is the sum of the masses of the atoms in the
molecular formula
e.g. the MM of hydrogen peroxide would be H [2(1.0 amu)] + O[2(16.0
amu) = 34.0 amu since the molecular formula is H2O2
• Atomic mass unit and the mole
-24
1 amu = 1.6605 × 10 g
23 23
6.022 × 10 amu = 1 g (6.022 × 10 is the Avogadro’s
constant given the symbol NA)
The mole is the amount of any substance that contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of
carbon-12.
Conversion of grams to moles

• How many molesare 15.32 g of sodium chloride?

15.32 g NaCl = 15.32/ (23+35.45) = 0.2621 mol
• What is the mass of 2.50 mol of ethanol?
2.50 mol C2H5OH = 2.50 × [2(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 16.00]
= 2.50 ×46.07 g = 115.2 g
Molar Mass
Thisis the mass of 1 mol of a substance (i.e. g/mol)
Percentage Composition
The percentage of the mass of a compound that comes from each
of the elements in the compound can be found by using the
equation:
%element = (number of atoms)(atomic weight) × 100
(molecular mass of the compound)
• So the percentage of carbon and hydrogen in ethane C2H6 is
%C= 2(12.0 amu)/ 30.0 amu × 100 = 80%
%H = 6(1.0 amu)/ 30.0 amu × 100 = 20%

• What is the percentage composition by mass of ammonia NH3

The molar mass of ammonia is 14.0 + 3(1.0) = 17.0 g
Mass percent N in NH3 = 14.0/ 17.0 × 100%= 82.35%
Mass percent H in NH3 = 3.0/17.0 × 100%= 17.65%
Calculating Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition
The compound para-aminobenzoic acid is composed of carbon (61.31%),
hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%). Find the
empirical formula.
• Divide by the atomic mass of each element
C: 61.31 g/ 12.01 g = 5.105 mol C
H: 5.14 g/ 1.01 g = 5.09 mol H
N: 10.21 g/ 14.01 g = 0.7288 mol N
O: 23.33 g/ 16.00 g = 1.456 mol O
• Divide by the smallest number of moles
C: 5.105 mol/0.7288 mol = 7.005 ≈ 7
H: 5.09 mol/0.7288 mol = 6.984 ≈ 7
N: 0.7288 mol/0.7288 mol = 1.000
O: 1.458 mol/0.7288 mol = 2.001 ≈ 2
C7H7NO2
Empirical Formula by Synthesis
• In an experiment, 2.435 g of antimony were used, and the mass
of the pure compound of antimony and sulfur was found to be
3.397 g. What is the empirical formula of the antimony-sulfur
compound? (Sb = 121.8 g, S= 32.06 g)
Mass compound = Mass antimony + Mass sulfur
Mass sulfur = Mass compound – Mass antimony = 3.397 g – 2.435 g
= 0.962 g
Sb: 2.435/121.8 = 0.02
S: 0.962/32.06 = 0.03
Divide by the smallest Sb: 0.02/ 0.02 = 1 This gives SbS1.5
S: 0.03/ 0.02 = 1.5
Multiply by a suitable factor to give whole numbers: Sb2S3
Stoichiometric Calculations
10 g of glucose (C6H12O6) react in a combustion reaction. How many
grams of each product are produced?
C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
10 g ? ?
MW 180 g/ mol 44 g/ mol 18 g/ mol
mol 10 g/ (180 g/ mol)
0.055 mol 6(0.055) mol 6(0.055) mol
grams 6(0.055)×44 6(0.055)×18
15 g 5.9 g
• When magnesium metal is ignited in oxygen, the white oxide MgO(s) is
formed. What mass of magnesium reactscompletely to give 1.000g of
MgO(s)? (Mg = 24, O = 16)
Start by writing a balanced equation of reaction
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
(2 × 24)g of Mg gives2(24 + 16)g of MgO
48 g of Mg gives80 g of MgO
Xg of Mg will give 1.0 g of MgO
X= 1 × 48/ 80 = 0.6 g of Mg
Limiting Reactants

• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest

stoichiometric amount
If 1.0 g of sodium bicarbonate and 1.0 g citric acid are reacted to
make carbon dioxide, sodium citrate, and water, which is limiting?
How much carbon dioxide is produced?
3NaHCO3(aq) + H3C6H5O7(aq)→ 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + Na3C6H5O7(aq)
gram 1.0 g 1.0 g
MW 84 g/mol 192 g/mol 44 g/mol
mol 1.0 g/(84 g/mol) 1.0 g/(192 g/mol)
0.012 mol 0.0052 mol
If all of the 0.012 mol of bicarbonate were to be used up, there
would need to be 0.012/3 or (0.004) mol of citric acid. There is
0.0052 mol of citric acid (which is not the smallest amount), so
sodium bicarbonate is the limiting reactant.
Sodium bicarbonate which is the limiting reactant is used to
calculate the amount of products in the reaction.
No of moles of CO2 = 3 (0.004) mol = 0.012 mol
Amount of CO2 produced = 0.012 × 44 g/mol = 0.53 g
Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield and Percent Yield

• The theoretical yield is the amount of product possible from

stoichiometry.
• The actual yield is the amount one actually produces and
measures.
• The percent yield is a comparison of the amount actually
obtained to the amount it was possible to make.

Percent Yield = Actual Yield × 100%

Theoretical Yield
Example
Phosphorus tribromide, PBr3, can be used to add bromine atoms to
alcohol molecules such as 2-methyl-1-propanol. In a student
experiment, 5.393 g of 1-bromo-2-methylpropane form when an
excess of PBr3 reacts with 6.034 g of 2-methyl-1-propanol. What is the
percent yield?
• Write a balanced equation of reaction
Percent Yield = Actual Yield × 100%= 5.393 g × 100%
Theoretical Yield x
• We need to calculate the theoretical yield we would get if the 2-
methyl-1-propanol, which is the limiting reactant, were converted
completely to 1-bromo-2-methylpropane. (C= 12, H = 1, O = 16, Br
= 80)
x = (3 × 137 g C4H9Br) × 6.034 g C4H9OH = 11.17 g C4H9Br
(3 × 74 g C4H9OH)

Percent Yield = 5.393 g × 100%= 48.28%yield

11.17 g
Try these
1. A solution was made by dissolving 8.20 g of sodium
phosphate in water and then diluting the mixture with water to
achieve a total volume of 100.0 mL. What is the solution’s molarity?
(Ans = 0.50 M)
2. How many millilitres of 2.00 M sodium hydroxide are
necessary to neutralize 25.00 mL of 1.50 M phosphoric acid? (Ans =
56.3 mL)
3. What is the maximum number of grams of silver chloride that will
precipitate from a solution made by mixing 25.00 mL of 0.05 M
MgCl2 with an excessof AgNO3 solution? (Ans = 0.36 g AgCl)

4. The most common industrial process for producing hydrogen is

“steam reforming,” in which methane gas reacts with water vapour
to form carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen gas.
Write a complete balanced equation, including states, for this
reaction.
How many moles of hydrogen form when 4 moles of methane react
completely?
How many moles of water vapour react to yield 174.82 moles of
hydrogen?
 Bonding and Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular Forces: (inter = between) between molecules
and the temperature (kinetic energy) of the molecules.
Intermolecular forces are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the
molecules of a substance when placed close to each other. They are responsible for
most of the physical and chemical properties of matter.
This is different from Intramolecular forces which is another word for the covalent
bonds inside molecules.

What determines if a
substance is a solid,
liquid, or gas?
Gases: The average kinetic energy of the gas
molecules is much larger than the average energy of
the attractions between them. The deviation of real
gas behavior from ideal gas is discovered by Van der
Waals.
Liquids: the intermolecular attractive forces are strong
enough to hold the molecules close together, but
without much order.
Solids: the intermolecular attractive forces are strong
enough to lock molecules in place (high order).
The strengths of intermolecular forces are generally weaker than
either ionic or covalent bonds.

16 kJ/mol (to separate molecules)

+
-
+
 -

431 kJ/mol (to break bond)

Van der Waal’s Forces
The relatively weak attractive forces acting on neutral
atoms and molecules as a result of the electric
polarisation induced in each particle by the presence of
other particles is known as van der Waal’s forces.
Hydrogen bonding, London dispersion forces (LDF) and
Dipole-dipole interactions are all examples of van der
Waal’s forces.
Types of intermolecular forces (between neutral molecules):
Dipole-dipole forces: (attractive forces among polar molecules)
Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that are formed due to the
differences in the electronegativities of the atoms that are associated
with a covalent bond. The partially positive portion of one molecule is
attracted to the partially negative portion of another molecule.
..
+
S .. dipole-dipole attraction
:O :
: O
..
- - Substances with dipole-dipole
attractions tend to have higher
..
+
S melting and boiling points
..
:O : compared to nonpolar molecules,
: O
..
-
which only have LDF.
Types of intermolecular forces (between neutral molecules):
Hydrogen bonding: cases of very strong dipole-dipole
interaction (bonds involving H-F, H-O, and H-N are most
important cases).
Hydrogen bonding is the
+
H-F- --- +H-F- attractive force that exists
between a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to a very
small and highly electronegative
atom and a lone pair of
electrons on another small,
Hydrogen bonding electronegative atom (F, O, or
N).
Types of intermolecular forces (between neutral molecules):
London dispersion forces: arise from the formation of temporary
instantaneous polarities across a molecule from the circulation of
electrons. LDFs exist for all substances, whether composed of polar
or nonpolar molecules. attraction

-
+
-
+

“electrons are shifted to overload one side of an atom or

molecule”. 38
 polarizability: the ease with which an atom or molecule can
be distorted to have an instantaneous dipole.

In general big molecules

are more easily polarized
than little ones.

The stronger the

intermolecular
forces, the higher
the boiling point.
Which one(s) of the above are most polarizable?
Hint: look at the relative sizes.
Identifying Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular Force
LDF Present in mixtures of all
molecules.
Strongest force for nonpolar
molecules.

Dipole-Dipole Present in mixtures of molecules

with permanent dipoles.
Hydrogen Bonding Strongest dipole-dipole interaction.
Present in mixtures that contain
molecules with H covalently
bonded to N, O or F.
Other types of forces holding solids together:

ionic: “charged ions stuck together by their charges”

There are no individual molecules here.

Metallic bonding: “sea of electrons”

In the metallic bond, an atom

Cu atoms achieves a more stable configuration
by sharing the electrons in its outer
shell with many other atoms. Metallic
an outer shell electron bonds prevail in elements in which
the valence electrons are not tightly
bound with the nucleus, namely
metals, thus the name metallic
bonding. In this type of bond, each
atom in a metal crystal contributes all
the electrons in its valence shell to all
other atoms in the crystal.
Energy changes accompanying phase changes

The stronger the

intermolecular force,
the more energy (heat)
is required to undergo
a phase change from
solid to liquid to gas

Endothermic

Exothermic