Polynomial Function

A polynomial function is a function of the form

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ +
+𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0,
where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer, 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real
numbers called coefficients (numbers that appear in each
term), 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 is the leading term, 𝑎𝑛 is the leading
coefficient, and 𝑎0 is the constant term (number without a
variable). The highest power of the variable of 𝑃(𝑥) is
known as its degree.
There are various types of polynomial functions based on the
degree of the polynomial. The most common types are:
 Zero Polynomial Function (degree 0):
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 0 = 𝑎
 Linear Polynomial Function (degree 1):
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
 Quadratic Polynomial Function (degree 2):
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
 Cubic Polynomial Function (degree 3):
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
 Quartic Polynomial Function (degree 4):
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑒 are constants.
 Other than 𝑃(𝑥), a polynomial function can be written in
different ways, like the following:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 +
𝑎0 ,
𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1
+ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2
+ ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
Example:
1. 𝑦 = 𝟖𝑥 𝟒 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 𝟐𝟐 2. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝟔𝑥 𝟑 + 2𝑥
Degree of the Polynomial = 4 Degree of the Polynomial = 3
Type of Function = Quartic Type of Function =Cubic
Leading Term = 8𝑥 4 Leading Term = 6𝑥 3
Leading Coefficient = 8 Leading Coefficient = 6
Constant Term = 22 Constant Term = 0
 Polynomial End Behavior
End behavior is a description of the values of the function as
x approaches positive infinity or negative infinity. The leading
coefficient and the degree of a polynomial function determine
its end behavior and it is very much helpful in graphing
polynomial function.
Leading Degree Graph End Behavior
Coefficient Comparison
Positive Even 2 I
The graph rises to
a>0 the right and rises
(a is to the left
greater (Q1 & Q2) (Q1 & Q2)
than 0)
Negative Even The graph falls to
a<0 the right and falls
(a is less to the left
than 0) 3 4
(Q3 & Q4)
Positive Odd The graph rises to
a>0 the right and falls
to the left
I

(Q1 & Q3)

Negative Odd The graph rises to
a<0 the left and falls to
the right.
 Leading Coefficient Test
Here are the examples of the four cases of the Leading
Coefficient Test
A. On the positive leading coefficient and even degree.

B. On the negative leading coefficient and even degree

 Steps Expression Discussion
1. Look at the
given polynomial f(x)= 2x4 – 3x3 + x -1
function
2. Identify the 2 is the leading coefficient
leading term, its 2x4 and it is positive.
leading coefficient 4 is the degree and it is
and degree an even number.
3. Identify the end 2x4 The graph rises to the
behavior of the right and rises to the left
graph.
4. Graph The leading coefficient of
the polynomial is positive
and its degree is an even
number. The end
behavior will be located at
Q1 and Q2.
 Steps Expression Discussion
1. Look at the
given polynomial
function
f(x)= -3x 2 – 6x + 4

-3 is the leading coefficient

2. Identify the -3x2 and it is negative.
leading term, its 2 is the degree and it is an
leading even number.
coefficient and
degree
3. Identify the -3x2 The graph falls to the right
end behavior of and falls to the left
the graph.
4.Graph The leading coefficient of the
polynomial is negative, and
its degree is an even number.
The end behavior will be
located at Q3 & Q4.
C. On the positive leading coefficient and odd degree.
Steps Expression Discussion
1. Look at the given
polynomial function f(x)= x3 + 5
2. Identify the leading 1 is the leading coefficient
term, its leading x3 and it is positive.
coefficient and 3 is the degree and it is an
degree odd number.
3. Identify the end x3 The graph rises to the right
behavior of the and falls to the left
graph.
4. Graph The leading coefficient of
the polynomial is positive
and its degree is an odd
number. The end behavior
will be located at Q1 and
Q3.
 D. On the negative leading coefficient and odd degree.
Steps Expression Discussion
1. Look at the
given polynomial
function f(x)= -x5 + x4 -2x3 + 1

2. Identify the -1 is the leading coefficient and

leading term, its -x5 it is negative.
leading coefficient 5 is the degree and it is an odd
and degree number.
3. Identify the end -x5 The graph rises to the left and
behavior of the graph falls to the right.
graph.
4.Graph The leading coefficient of the
polynomial is negative and its
degree is an odd number. The
end behavior will be located at
Q2 and Q4.

Here are some important details that must be kept in mind

while graphing polynomial functions. Use graphing paper or
notebook when plotting.
1. The graph of a polynomial function is continuous because
every polynomial function with real coefficients has the set of
real numbers as its domain. Furthermore, it means that there
 are no holes or gaps in which you can even draw the graph
without lifting your pen. Also, the graph of polynomial function
is smooth, it has no sharp corner and the turns are rounded.
2. Every polynomial function of the nth degree cannot have more
than n roots (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra), which means
the graph cannot intersect the x-axis more than n times.
3. A polynomial function of degree n has n-1 turning points on its
graph or the number of turning points is always less than n.
4. The multiplicity of root r is the number of times that x-r is a
factor of f(x). When a real root has even multiplicity, the graph
of f(x) is tangent to the x-axis. When a real root has odd
 multiplicity greater than 1, the graph bends as it crosses the
x-axis.

Now, let us try to explore it one by one.

Illustrative Example 1: Finding the x and y intercepts.

a. Find the intercepts of y = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6

Solution:
To find the x – intercept/s, set y = 0. Use the factored form.
That is,
y = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6
y = (x +1) (x -2) (x – 3) Factor Completely.
0 = (x +1) (x -2) (x – 3) Equate y to 0.
 Let us take the factor one at a time. So we have,
(x +1) = 0 (x -2) = 0 (x – 3) = 0
Equate each factor to 0.
x = -1 x=2 x=3
This means that the x – intercepts are -1, 2, and 3. And
so the graph will pass through (-1, 0), (2, 0) and ((3, 0).

Now, let us find the y – intercept by simply setting x = 0 in

the given polynomial.
y = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6
y = 03 – 4(0)2 + (0) + 6
y = 0 – 4(0) + 6
y=0–0+6
y=6
 The y – intercept is 6. This means the graph will also
pass through (0, 6).

b. Find the intercepts of y = x4 + 6x3– x2 – 6x.

Solution:
To find the x – intercept/s, set y = 0. Use the factored form.
That is,
y = x4 + 6x3– x2 – 6x
y = x (x +6) (x + 1) (x – 1) Factor Completely.
0 = x (x +6) (x + 1) (x – 1) Equate y to 0.
Let us take the factor one at a time. So we have,
x = 0 (x +6) = 0 (x +1) = 0 (x – 1) = 0
Equate each factor to 0.
x=0 x=-6 x = -1 x=1
 This means that the x – intercepts are 0, -6, -1 and 1.
And so the graph will pass through (-6, 0), (-1,0), (0, 0)
and (1, 0).
Now, let us find the y – intercept by simply setting x = 0 in
the given polynomial.
y = x4 + 6x3 – x2 – 6x
y = 04 + 0x3 – 02 – 6(0)
y=0
The y – intercept is 0. This means the graph will also
pass through (0, 0).
Illustrative Example 2: Describing the multiplicity of roots on
the graph.
a. Given the function y = (x + 2)2 (x + 1)3 (x - 1)4 (x – 2), answer
the following questions.
1. For, (x + 2)2
a. root or zero = -2
b. multiplicity = 2
c. characteristics of multiplicity (odd or even) = even
d. behavior of the graph relative to x -axis (crosses to or
tangent to) = tangent to x – axis
2. For, (x + 1)3
a. root or zero = -1
 b. multiplicity = 3
c. characteristics of multiplicity (odd or even) = odd
d. behavior of the graph relative to x -axis (crosses to or
tangent to) = crosses the x – axis
3. For, (x - 1)4
a. root or zero = 1
b. multiplicity = 4
c. characteristics of multiplicity (odd or even) = even
d. behavior of the graph relative to x -axis (crosses to or
tangent to) = tangent to x – axis
4. For, (x – 2)
a. root or zero = 2
b. multiplicity = 1
c. characteristics of multiplicity (odd or even) = odd
d. behavior of the graph relative to x -axis (crosses to or
tangent to) = crosses the x – axis
Illustrative Example 3: Finding the turning points.
a. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – x + 2
turning points = (degree – 1)
degree = 3
turning points = (3 -1) = 2(maximum)
Therefore, the turning points of the equation is 2.
Possible sketch of the graph.
Leading term = x3
Leading coefficient = 1 (positive)
Degree = 3 (odd)
The graph rises to the right
and falls to the left (end
behavior).
b. f(x) = x4 – x3 - 4x2+ 4x
turning points = (degree – 1)
1

degree = 4
turning points = (4 -1) = 3 (maximum turning points)
Therefore, the turning points of the equation is 3.
Possible sketch of the graph.
Leading term = x4
Leading coefficient = 1 (positive)
Degree = 4 (even)
The graph rises to the right
and rises to the left (end behavior)
Illustrative Example 4: Sketch the graph of y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
a. Solve for x – intercepts.
Factors of 4 = ± 1, ± 2, ± 4
Factor the polynomial using synthetic division.
Let us try x = 1,

1 1 0 -5 0 4
1 1 -4 -4
1 1 -4 -4 0
If the value of remainder is equal to 0, then 1 is one the x -
intercept of the polynomial function. So, we have now (1,0) as
our first coordinate. x = 1 (1,0)
Let us try x = -1, using the depressed equation.

-1 1 1 -4 -4
-1 0 4
1 0 -4 0
If the value of remainder is equal to 0, then -1 is one the
x - intercept of the polynomial function. So, we have now (-
1,0) as our 2nd coordinate.
x = -1 (-1,0)
The depressed equation is now
x2 – 4 = 0
Depressed equation:
x2 – 4 = 0 (factor)
(x -2)(x + 2) = 0 using sum and difference of two square
(x -2) = 0 (x + 2) = 0 equate
x=2 x = -2
(2, 0) (-2, 0)
x = 1 (1,0)
Take note that the polynomial y = x4 – 5x2 + 4 has a degree
of 4, meaning in this function we have 4 roots or 4 x –
intercepts.
The x – intercepts are (1,0), (-1, 0), (2, 0) and (-2,0).
b. Solve for y – intercepts.
y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = 04 – 5(0)2 + 4
y = 0 – 5(0) + 4
y=0–0+4
y=4
(0, 4)
The y -intercepts is (0, 4).

c. Write the polynomial in factored form.

Write the equation y = x4 – 5x2 + 4 in factored form using the
x – intercepts (1,0) (-1, 0), (2, 0) and (-2, 0).
 To get the factored form of the equation, change the sign of
the x - value of the x – intercepts.
(1,0) ----- (x -1) (2, 0) ------ (x -2)
(-1, 0) -----(x + 1) (-2, 0) ----- (x +2)

So, we have now, y = (x -1) (x + 1) (x – 2) (x + 2)

d. Identify the end behavior of the polynomial.

y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
Leading Term: x4
Leading Coefficient: 1 (positive or greater than 0)
Degree: 4 (even number)
 So, the end behavior will be located at quadrant 1
and quadrant 2 and the graph rises to the right and
rises to the left.
e. Get the number of turning points.
Degree of y = x4 – 5x2 + 4: 4
Number of turning points: (degree – 1) or (n -1)
Number of turning points: (4 – 1)
Number of turning points: 3

f. Find the multiplicity of roots.

Use the factored form of the polynomial. So, we have
y = (x -1)(x + 1)(x – 2) (x + 2)
 Note: If the multiplicity is ODD the graph will CROSSES the
x – axis
If the multiplicity is EVEN the graph is TANGENT to
the x – axis.
(x - 1): exponent is 1
(odd multiplicity - the graph will CROSSES the x –
axis)
(x + 1): exponent is 1
(odd multiplicity - the graph will CROSSES the x –
axis)
(x - 2): exponent is 1
 (odd multiplicity - the graph will CROSSES the x –
axis)
(x + 2): exponent is 1
(odd multiplicity - the graph will CROSSES the x –
axis)
g. Construct table of Values.
List the x and y intercepts.
(1,0), (-1, 0), (2, 0), (-2,0) and (0,4)
x 1 -1 2 -2 0
y 0 0 0 0 4
Add x value, somewhere in between or the next term of our
abscissa or x.
Let us try x = 3 (number next to 2)
y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (3)4 – 5(3)2 + 4
y = (3)(3)(3)(3) – 5(3)(3) + 4
y = 81 – 5(9) + 4
y = 81 – 45 + 4
y = 36 + 4
y = 40
x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3
y 0 0 0 0 4 40
Let us try x = -3 (number next to -2)
y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (-3)4 – 5(-3)2 + 4
y = (-3)(-3)(-3)(-3) – 5(-3)(-3) + 4
y = 81 – 5(9) + 4
y = 81 – 45 + 4
y = 40
x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3 -3
y 0 0 0 0 4 40 40

Let us try x = 0.5

y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (.5)4 – 5(.5)2 + 4
 y = (.5)(.5)(.5)(.5) – 5(.5)(.5) + 4
y = 0.0625 – (5) (.25) + 4
y = 0. 0625 – 1.25 + 4
y = -1.1875 + 4
y = 2. 8125 or 2.81
x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3 -3 0.5
y 0 0 0 0 4 40 40 2.81
Let us try x = - 0.5
y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (-.5)4 – 5(-.5)2 + 4
y = (-.5)(-.5)(-.5)(-.5) – 5(-.5)(-.5) + 4
y = 0.0625 – (5) (.25) + 4
y = 0. 0625 – 1.25 + 4
y = -1.1875 + 4
y = 2. 8125 or 2.81
x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3 -3 0.5 -.5
y 0 0 0 0 4 40 40 2.81 2.81

Let us try x = 1.5

y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (1.5)4 – 5(1.5)2 + 4
y = (1.5) (1.5)(1.5)(1.5) – 5(1.5)(1.5) + 4
y = 5.0625 – (5) (2.25) + 4
y = 5.0625 – 11.25 + 4
y = -6. 1875 + 4
y = -2. 1875 or -2.19

x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3 -3 0.5 1.5
y 0 0 0 0 4 40 40 2.81 -2.19

Let us try x = - 1.5

y = x4 – 5x2 + 4
y = (-1.5)4 – 5(-1.5)2 + 4
y = (-1.5) (-1.5) (-1.5)(-1.5) – 5(-1.5)(-1.5) + 4
y = 5.0625 – (5) (2.25) + 4
y = 5.0625 – 11.25 + 4
y = -6. 1875 + 4
y = -2. 1875 or -2.19
x 1 -1 2 -2 0 3 -3 0.5 1.5 -1.5
y 0 0 0 0 4 40 40 2.81 -2.19 -2.19
 End behavior located at Q1 and Q2.
 (1, 0), (-1, 0), (2, 0), and (-2, 0) has odd multiplicity the
graph crosses the x - axis
 Number of turning points = 3