Chapter 2

2.3 Polynomial Functions

2.3 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

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Chapter 2
2.3 Polynomial Functions

2.3 p312 15, 17, 21, 23, 31, 35, 38, 41, 49, 51

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Objectives
•
Identify polynomial functions.
•
Recognize characteristics of graphs of polynomial functions.
•
Determine end behavior.
•
Use factoring to find zeros of polynomial functions.
•
Identify zeros and their multiplicities.
•
Use the Intermediate Value Theorem.
•
Understand the relationship between degree and turning points.
•
Graph polynomial functions.
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Definition of a Polynomial Function Graphing
Polynomials

Let n be a nonnegative integer and let an, an-1, an-2, ..., a2, a1, a0 be real
numbers, with an ≠ 0. The function defined by

f(x) = anx + an-1x + an-2x + ... + a2x + a1x + a0

n n-1 n-2 2

is called a polynomial function of degree n.

✦ The number an, the coefficient of the variable to highest

power, is called the leading coefficient.

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Graphs of Polynomial Functions – Graphing
Smooth and Continuous Polynomials

Polynomial functions of degree 2 or higher have graphs that are smooth

and continuous.

By smooth, we mean that the graphs contain only rounded curves with no
sharp corners.

By continuous, we mean that the graphs have no breaks and can be

drawn without lifting your pencil from the rectangular coordinate
system.

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Examples Graphing
Polynomials

Notice the breaks and lack of smooth curves.

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End Behavior of Polynomial Functions Graphing
Polynomials

The tails of the graph of a function to the far left or the far right is
called its end behavior.

Although the graph of a polynomial function may have intervals where it

increases or decreases, the graph will eventually rise or fall without bound
as it moves far to the left or far to the right.

The sign of the leading coefficient, an, and the degree, n, of the polynomial
function reveal its end behavior.

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Power Functions Graphing
Polynomials

Power functions are of the form f(x) = xn.

On your calculator graph the functions, x,

2 x,
3 x,
4 and x.
5

Y= X,T,θ,n ^ 2 Y= X,T,θ,n ^ 3 ZOOM 6

ZOOM 6
Y= X,T,θ,n ^ 4 Y= X,T,θ,n ^ 5
x5 x3
x4 x2

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Power Functions Graphing
Polynomials

Now graph f(x) = -(x+2)4

Y= (–) ( X,T,θ,n + 2 ) ^ 4 ZOOM 6

f(x) = -(x+2)4

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The Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

As x increases or decreases without bound, the graph of the polynomial

function f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0 eventually rises or falls.

Once again, the sign of the leading coefficient, an

and the degree, n , reveal the end behavior

of the polynomial function

Arrow Notation
As x → ∞, f(x) → ∞
As x → –∞, f(x) → –∞

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End Behavior Graphing
Polynomials

Let us start with a very familiar polynomial y = mx + b and note the

As x → ∞,
end behavior f(x) → ∞
As x → –∞,
The degree is 1, an odd number, and the ends of f(x) → ∞
the graph go in opposite directions.
If the leading coefficient, m, is positive the graph
rises to the right and falls to the left.
If the leading coefficient, m, is negative the graph As x → ∞,
falls to the right and rises to the left. As x → –∞, f(x) →–∞
f(x) → –∞

Consider the behavior of the graph for very large values

of x in both positive (→∞) and negative direction (→–∞).
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The Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

Next is another very familiar polynomial y = ax2 + bx + c.

The degree is 2, an even number, and the ends of

As x → –∞, As x → ∞,
the graph go in the same direction.
f(x) → ∞ f(x) → ∞

If the leading coefficient, a, is positive the graph

rises to the right and to the left.

If the leading coefficient, m, is negative the graph As x → –∞, As x → ∞,

falls to the right and to the left. f(x) → –∞ f(x) → –∞

Consider the behavior of the graph for very large

values of x in both positive and negative direction.

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The Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

We can generalize these rules to all polynomials

f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

If degree (n) an odd number, the ends of the graph go in opposite

directions. As x → –∞,
f(x) → ∞
If the leading coefficient, an, is positive the graph As x → ∞,
f(x) → ∞
rises to the right and falls to the left.

If the leading coefficient, an, is negative the graph As x → ∞,

falls to the right and rises to the left. f(x) → –∞
As x → –∞,
f(x) → –∞
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The Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

We can generalize these rules to all polynomials

f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

If degree (n) an even number, the ends of the graph go in the same
direction. As x → –∞,
f(x) → ∞ As x → ∞,
If the leading coefficient, an, is positive the f(x) → ∞
graph rises to the right and left.

If the leading coefficient, an, is negative the As x → –∞,

graph falls to the right and left. f(x) → –∞ As x → ∞,
f(x) → –∞

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The Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

To summarize these rules for all polynomials

degree coefficient ends coefficient degree ends

an > 0 n even
n even an > 0
an < 0 n odd

an > 0 n even
n odd an < 0
an < 0 n odd

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Using the Leading Coefficient Test Graphing
Polynomials

Use the Leading Coefficient Test to determine the end behavior of the
graph of f(x) = x4 – 4x2.
As x → –∞, As x → ∞,
f(x) → ∞ f(x) → ∞
The degree of the function is 4, even.
Even-degree functions have graphs with the
same end behavior direction at each end.

The leading coefficient, 1, is positive.

The graph rises to the left and right.

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Zeros of Polynomial Functions Graphing
Polynomials

If f is a polynomial function, the values of x for which f(x) is equal to 0

(f(x) = 0) are called the zeros of f.

These values of x are the roots, or solutions, of the polynomial equation

f(x) = 0.

Each real root of the polynomial equation appears as an x-intercept of

the graph of the polynomial function.

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Zeros of Polynomial Functions Graphing
Polynomials

Repeat
The zeros of a function are the roots of the polynomial equation. Real
roots appear as an x-intercepts of the graph of the polynomial function.

Zeros, roots, and x-intercepts (when real) all refer to the same values.

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Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function Graphing
Polynomials

Find all zeros of f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 4x – 8.

We find the zeros of f by setting f(x) = 0 and solving the resulting equation.

f (x ) = x + 2 x - 4 x - 8
3 2

0 = x +2 x -4 x -8
3 2

x = 2 or x = −2
0 = (x + 2 x ) + (-4 x - 8 )
3 2

0 = x (x + 2) + −4 (x + 2)
2
the zeros of f(x) are 2 and –2.
0 = (x − 4)(x + 2)
2
Zero -2 has a multiplicity of 2.
0 = (x − 2)(x + 2)(x + 2)
0 = x − 2 or 0 = x + 2
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Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function Graphing
Polynomials

Find all zeros of f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 4x – 8.

As x → ∞,
the zeros of f(x) are 2 and –2. f(x) → ∞
(–2,0)

The zeros are the x-intercepts of the

graph of f(x). The graph passes through
(2,0)
(–2,0) and (2,0).

The value -2 has a multiplicity of 2, meaning

it occurs twice in the solution. As x → –∞,
f(x) → –∞

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Multiplicity Graphing
Polynomials

For f(x) =-x (x-2) ,

2 2 notice that each factor occurs twice. When factoring
this equation for f, if the same factor (x-r) occurs k times, but not k+1
times, we call r a zero with multiplicity k.

In the example, f(x) = -x2(x-2)2 both 0 and 2 are zeros with multiplicity 2.

In f(x) = 4(x+3) (x-1)

2 3 , the zero -3 has multiplicity 2,
the zero 1 has multiplicity 3.

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Multiplicity and x-Intercepts Graphing
Polynomials

Multiplicity is the number of occurrences of a root, or zero.

If r is a zero of even multiplicity, then the graph touches the x-axis and
turns around (bounces off) at r.

If r is a zero of odd multiplicity, then the graph crosses the x-axis at r.

Regardless of whether the multiplicity of a zero is even or odd, graphs

tend to flatten out near zeros with multiplicity greater than one.

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Finding Zeros and their Multiplicities Graphing
Polynomials

2
⎛ 1⎞
(x − 5 )
3
Find the zeros of f (x ) = −4 ⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

Give the multiplicities of each zero. State whether the graph crosses
the x-axis or touches the x-axis and turns around at each zero.

To find the zeros, f(x) = 0.

1 1 multiplicity 2
0=x + x =−
⎛ 1⎞
2 2 2 bounces
( x − 5)
3
0 = −4 ⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
0= x −5 x =5 multiplicity 3
crosses
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Finding Zeros and their Multiplicities Graphing
Polynomials

2
⎛ 1⎞
(x − 5 )
3
Find the zeros of f (x ) = −4 ⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

As x → –∞,
f(x) → ∞

multiplicity 3
x = 5 crosses
1 multiplicity 2
x =−
2 bounces

As x → ∞,
f(x) → –∞

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Above or Below Graphing
Polynomials

To graph a polynomial function, you can use the fact that the function
can change signs only at its zeros. Between two consecutive zeros, the
polynomial must be either entirely positive or entirely negative.

If the real zeros are put in order, they divide the number line (x-axis)
into test intervals on which the function has no sign changes.

By picking a representative x-value in each test interval, you can

determine whether that portion of the graph lies above the x-axis
(positive value of f) or below the x-axis (negative value of f).

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 Graphing
Polynomials

Sketch the graph of f(x) = x3 – 2x2

f(x) = x3 – 2x2 = x2(x-2) zero at 0 multiplicity 2

zero at 2 multiplicity 1

f(-1) = (-1)3 – 2(-1)2 = -3 negative

f(1) = (1)3 – 2(1)2 = -1 negative

0
-1 1 2 3 f(3) = (3)3 – 2(3)2 = 9 positive

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The Intermediate Value Theorem Graphing
Polynomials

Let f be a polynomial function with real coefficients.

If f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one value of c
between a and b for which f(c) = 0.

In other words, the graph of f(x) touches the x-axis between a and b.

Equivalently, the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one real root between a and b.

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Intermediate Value Theorem Graphing
Polynomials

Show that the polynomial function f(x) = 3x3 – 10x + 9 has a real zero
between –3 and –2.

We evaluate f(-3) and f(-2). If f(–3) and f(–2) have opposite signs,
then there is at least one real zero between –3 and –2.

f (x ) = 3 x −1 0 x + 9
3

f(-2)
f (−3) = 3(−3) −1 0(−3) + 9 = −4 2
3

f (−2) = 3(−2) −1 0(−2) + 9 = 5

3 f(x)=0

f(-3) and f(-2) have opposite signs

f(-3)
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 Graphing
Turning Points of Polynomial Functions Polynomials

In general, if f is a polynomial function of degree n, then the graph of f has

at most n – 1 turning points.

In other words, the graph of f(x) changes direction one fewer times than
the degree of f(x).

Another way to think of this is that a straight line will intersect the graph
of the function in at most n places.

degree 1 degree 2 degree 3 degree 4

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Strategy for Graphing Polynomials Graphing
Polynomials

Graphing f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

1. Use the leading coefficient to determine the graph’s end behavior.

2. Find x-intercepts by setting f(x) = 0 and solving. If there is an

x-intercept at r as a result of (x-r)k being a factor of f(x), then

2a. If k is even, the graph bounces at r

2b. If k is odd, the graph crosses at r
2c. If k > o, the graph flattens near (r,0).
2d. Test the intervals between the zeros to determine if the graph
is above or below the x-axis.

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Strategy for Graphing Polynomials Graphing
Polynomials

Graphing f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

3. Find y-intercepts by finding f(0).

4. When possible, use symmetry.

4a. Reflection across y-axis, f(-x) = f(x).

4b. Reflection across origin, f(-x) = -f(x).

5. The maximum number of turning points

(changes in direction) is n-1, where n is
the degree of f(x).

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Graphing a Polynomial Function Graphing
Polynomials

Graphing f(x) = 2(x+2)2(x-3)

1. End behavior - leading coefficient is 2, up to right.
degree is 2 + 1 = 3 odd. ends opposite direction.
2. x-intercepts 0 = 2(x+2)2(x-3). x = -2 multiplicity 2 even,
bounces. x = 3, multiplicity 1 odd, crosses.

3. y-intercepts f(0) = -24.

4. No symmetry

5. changes in direction 3-1 = 2 times

f(1) = 2(1+2)2(1-3)=–36 f(2) = 2(2+2)2(2-3)=–32
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TI-84 Graphing
Polynomials

You can let the TI do a lot of the work for you by using the table feature
of the calculator.
Enter a function into the Y= window. You can do more than one at a time
but we will restrict ourselves to a single table.

Now enter the table setup To see your table

Window Enter the first value for Graph
2nd TblStart= 2nd
TBLSET x in the table TABLE

Enter the increment

ΔTbl= To hone in on the x intercepts
between x values
Start close to the x and
Indpnt: Auto decrease the increment
Depend:: Auto

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Finding Zeros Graphing
Polynomials

Estimate the zeros of the function f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 1

Graph y = x 3 + 3x 2 -1 You will note the intercepts are not integers.

One zero appears Graph

2nd
to be near -3. TABLE

Window -3 -3 -1
2nd TblStart=
TBLSET -2.5 2.125
ΔTbl= .5
0
-3 -2 -1 1 Indpnt: Auto Yeperdoo, tween
Depend:: Auto -3 and -2.5

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Finding Zeros Graphing
Polynomials

Estimate the zeros of the function f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 1

Let’s dial it in
Graph Aaah, between
2nd
2nd
Window
TblStart= -3 TABLE -2.9 and -2.8
TBLSET
ΔTbl= .1
-3 -1
Indpnt: Auto
-2.9 -.159
Depend:: Auto -2.8 .568

I will let you estimate the other zeros

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