CHAPTER 5 LESSON 1 – REVISITING THE ATOM

Electronic Structure of Atoms

The Wave Nature of Light
o 17TH CENTURY - Isaac Newton thought that light was made of “corpuscles” or
particles.
o 1900s - Scientists described light as an electromagnetic radiation traveling in
waves.
o All waves are characterized by amplitude (height), frequency and wavelength.
 The brightness or intensity of light depends on the amplitude of a light
wave.
 Frequency tells how fast a wave completes a cycle of upward and
downward motion per second.
 Wavelength is the distance between two successive peaks of the wave.
 Waves have moving crests (or peaks) and troughs. A crest is the highest
point the medium rises to and a trough is the lowest point the medium
sinks to.

FREQUENCY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO WAVELENGTH

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
PLANK’S QUANTUM THEORY AND PHOTONS
1900-Max Planck (1858-1947), a German Physicist explained why a piece of iron
changes color as it is heated.
He suggested that the energy absorbed by the iron or any body is absorbed (or
released) only in fixed amounts which he called quanta.

THE ENERGY OF A SINGLE QUANTUM IS GIVEN BY THE EQUATION

E = hv
where E = energy
h = Plank’s constant
= 6.63x10-34 J.s
v = frequency of radiations

According to Planck’s quantum theory, energy radiated by heated object is quantized.

In 1905, Albert Einstein (1875-1955) realized that a tiny packet of energy behaves like a
tiny particle of light and used this to explain the photoelectric effect

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect causes electrons to be ejected from the surface of a metal
when light of high frequency/energy(photon) hits the metal surface. This phenomenon
is used in electric-eye openers, photovoltaic cells, and light meters.
ATOMIC SPECTRA
Atomic Spectra/Line Spectra - produced by some gaseous substances that consist of
only limited number of colored lines with dark spaces between them.
Each element has its own disticnt line spectrum, a kind of finger print. Atomic Spectra
can be used to identify an element.

SPECTROSCOPY
 The study of spectral lines,was developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav
Kirchhoff.
 Early work in spectroscopy was done using gas burner, now called the Bunsen
burner. Atoms heated (excited) in a Bunsen flame emit characteristic bright
colors. Through the spectroscope, the bright colors appear as bright lines called
emission spectra.
 An atomic spectrum shows lines that proves the existence of electrons in atoms
in quantized energy states.
 ATOMS are excited when they are heated in a flame or by using an electrical
discharge (current) as in “neon” signs or in the bright light of fireworks. These
are common sources of bright line spectra.

BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

THREE KEY IDEAS PAVED THE WAY FOR BORH’S MODEL OF THE ATOM:
1. Rutherford’s atomic nucleus
2. Einstein’s idea of the quantum applied to light
3. Spectra of atoms especially the spectrum of Hydrogen

In 1913, using the line spectrum of hydrogen, Neils Bohr postulated the following:
1. Electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus. Adapting Einstein’s idea that
slight particles are quantized, he proposed that each orbit corresponds to a definite
energy level which increases as its distance from the nucleus increases.
Each orbit contains a definite number of electrons. As long as the elctrons stay in their
given orbits, no absorption or emission of energy occurs. The electron energy is fixed.

2. The lone electron of hydrogen could transfer from one energy level to another when
it absorbs or emits energy.
Each energy level is designated a positive integer, n, called the principal number or
energy level. This indicates the position of the electrons with respect to the nucleus.
When the electron is n=1, it is the ground state or ground level. This is the lowest
energy state of the electrons - the most stable.

3. When the electron absorbs photons or packets of energy, it “jumps” to a higher

energy state (higher value of n). The stability of the electron decreases and the
electron is in an excited state or excited level.
When the electron “falls” back to a lower energy level and finally to the ground state,
energy is released in the form of light.

Bohr’s model was important because it introduced the idea of quantized energy levels
for electrons in atoms.
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
 Planck, Einstein, and Bohr suggested that light possesses both particle (photon)
and wave properties.
 Louis de Boglie in 1924 -suggested that electrons or small particles at times
display properties of waves.
 Davisson and Germer in 1927 - observed that when beams of electrons were
bombarded on metal surfaces, patterns of diffractions and reflections were
produced.
 The dual characteristic of matter and energy is known as the wave-particle
duality. De Broglie used the term matter waves to describe the wave
characteristics of material particles.

THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLES

Werner Heisenberg in 1927
The uncertainty principle states that you cannot accurately measure both the location
and speed and direction of an electron at the same time. When you accurately measure
one value, the less accurately the other quantity can be known.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM

Estimates the probability of finding an electron in a certain position. The probability of
finding the electron in space around the nucleus is shown as fuzz cloud called orbitals
or atomic orbitals. The spaces around the nucleus of an atom where the electrons are
likely to be found are called electron clouds.
The quantum mechanical model uses three quantum numbers, n, l and m
n=orbital size
l=shape
m=orientation

QUANTUM NUMBER
1. The principal quantum number (n) or shell can have values 1, 2, 3, and so on. It
indicates the size of the orbital and the relative distance from the nucleus. This
quantum number also specifies the energy level of electrons. The higher the n value,
the higher the energy level.

2. The secondary quantum number or angular quantum number ( l ) or subshell has

values from 0 to n-1 for each value of n. This quantum number defines the shape of the
orbital. If n=1, l =0 ; If n=2, l values are 0 and 1. The value of l for a particular orbital is
designated as s,p,d, and f - for sharp, principal, diffused and fundamental.

3. Magnetic quantum numbers (ml ) has values of -l to 0 to +l. This quantum number
describes the orientation of the orbital in space. If l = 0, ml = 0. If l = 1, ml will have the
values of -1,0,+1. If l = 2, ml will have the values of -2,-1,0,+1,+2.

4. The fourth quantum number used to describe electrons is the electron spin (m s).
George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit proposed that an electron spins in an axis as
the Earth spins in its axis.

𝟏 𝟏
There are two possibilities for electron spins-a value of + 𝟐 ( denoted by ) or − 𝟐 (
denoted by )

ATOMIC ORBITALS
Orbitals with the same value of n are reffered to as a shell. One or more orbitals with
the same n and l values are called subshell. The total number of orbitals is n 2. The
total number of electron in a shell is 2n2. Electron capacity of Subshell is 4l + 2.

s ORBITALS – SPHERICAL
p ORBITALS - pair of lobes/dumbbell shape
d ORBITALS - four leaf clover shape
f ORBITALS -eight lobes-more complex

Each sublevel has an l value. The s, p, d, f, and g sublevels have l values of 0, 1, 2, 3,

and 4 respectively. The orbital which has the lowest (n+l) value has the lowest energy.
Ex. 3d and 4s
3d: 4s:
n=3 n=4
l=2 l=0
n+l=3+2=5 n+l=4+0=4
Thus 4s has lower energy level than 3d

The quantum mechanical model estimates the probability of finding an electron in a

certain position. The area where an electron is most likely to be found is called its
orbital.
Wave function – contains a set of three quantum numbers. It describes the energy
level of an orbital. It defines the shape and orientation of the region in space where the
electron is most likely to be found.
Principal quantum number (n) – describes the size and energy level of an orbital n =
1,2,3,4,….. This is sometimes referred to as ‘shell’.

Angular momentum quantum number (l) – defines the 3D shape of an orbital. It has
integral value of 0 to n – 1. This is referred to by letter rather than by number.
Quantum number (l): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Subshell notation: s, p, d, f, g, …
Magnetic quantum number (ml ) – defines the spatial orientation of the orbital along
standard set of coordinate axes. It has integral value from –l to +l.
Electron spin (ms ) – describes the clockwise or counter clockwise spins of electrons.
A value of +½ or –½ is used to describe the spin.

What is the maximum number of electrons in the fifth principal energy level?
Using 2n2
= 2(5)2
= 50 electrons

HOW MANY ELECTRONS ARE IN THE FOLLOWING SUBLEVELS?

a. 1s sublevel c. 4d sublevel
b. 2p sublevel d. 5f sublevel
e. 6s sublevel b. 6 electrons
c. 10 electrons
Answers d. 14 electrons
4l + 2 e. 2 electrons
a. 2 electrons

Give the n, l, m l, ms values for each.

a. 2s1 Answers
b. 3p4 n l ml ms
c. 4d5 a. 2s 2 0
1
0 +½
b. 3p4 3 1 -1,0,+1 –½
c. 4d5 4 2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 +½

Arrange the following orbitals from the lowest to highest energy level?
4p, 3p, 3d, 4f, 6s, 5p
Answers
4s, 3d, 4p, 5p, 6s, 4f
4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7
4s<3d<4p<5p<6s<4f
NOTE: if n+l is the same for 3d and 4p, then we need to compare the values of n, the n that has
a lower value has the lower enegry level. The same goes for 5p and 6s... and other orbitals
later on with same n+l value. Remember that the higher the value of n, the higher the energy
level.

QUANTUM MECHANICS
is a Science that deals with the process that affect the behavior of matter and light in
atomic and sub atomic scales.
PLANK - light and electromagnetic waves are emitted in discrete packets of energy -
quanta
EINSTEIN - photoelectric effect - light can eject electrons in a metal since it can also
behave as a particle
SCHRODINGER - wave mechanics - explain the properties of an atom, electron’s
wave-like characteristics, suggested the existence of orbitals
HEISENBERG - uncertainty principle

Quantum numbers describe the values of conserved quantities of a quantum system

1. Principal Quantum number (n)
describes the energy level of an electron
ex. Fluorine
electron configuration: 1s22s22p5
2nd energy level, so n has the value of 1 to 2... and 2 is the highest energy level

2. Angular Quantum number (l)

Azimuthal quantum number, descibes the shape of the orbital
(l) has a value ranging from 0 to (n-1). The values of (l) can also be determined by the
designated orbital of its valence electron
s-sharp l=0
p-principal l=1
d-diffuse l=2
f-fundamental l=3

2. Angular Quantum number (l)

Ex. Fluorine has an n value of 2, so possible l values are 0 and 1.
2p5
l =1
Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
possible l values are 0,1,2,3
l=0

3. Magnetic Quantum number (ml)

describes the orientation of electron cloud
ml =-l to +l
The value of ml is given by the formula (2l+1)
ex. Fluorine has an l value of 1
ml =-1, 0, +1

4. Electron spin Quantum number (ms)

describes the spin of the electron, can be +1/2 (upward arrow) or -1/2 (downward
arrow).
Ex. Fluorine 1s22s22p5
ms = -1/2

HOW MANY ELECTRONS ARE IN THE FOLLOWING SUBLEVELS?

a. 1s sublevel a. 2 electrons
b. 2p sublevel b. 6 electrons
c. 4d sublevel c. 10 electrons
d. 5f sublevel d. 14 electrons
e. 6s sublevel e. 2 electrons
Answers
4l + 2

Calculate the values of n,l,m l,ms

of 2p4
n=2
l=1
ml= -1, 0, +1
ms = +1/2

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electrons are arranged and distributed in orbital shells and subshells
SHELLS
Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from the nucleus of an
atom where electrons may be found. Electrons are tiny, negatively charged particles in
an atom.

SUBSHELLS
• Subshells increase in energy as follows:
s<p<d<f
• Therefore, electrons in 3d subshell have more energy than electrons in the 3p
subshell.
• Note: when giving a subshell, also give the principal energy level with it. 1s, 2s,
2p...

Electron Subshells
• A region of space within an electron shell that contains electrons that have the
same energy.

ORBITALS
Orbital - a specific region of a subshell containing a maximum of two electrons.
• The two electrons in the orbital spin is in opposite directions.
• When the orbital contains two electrons, the electrons are said to be paired.

Electron Orbitals
 • The orbits are also identified using
“quantum numbers”
– n = 1, 2, 3, …
– When the electron relaxes, the energy
released is observed as a single
wavelength of light.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
ELECTRONS FILL ORBITALS STARTING FROM THE LOWEST ENERGY ORBITAL (FIRST
PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVEL), THEN PROCEED TO FILLING EACH LOWER ENERGY
ORBITAL, ONE ELECTRON AT A TIME, BEFORE FILLING A HIGHER ENERGY LEVEL.
Electron Configuration and the Aufbau Principle
• Electron Configuration - the arrangement of electrons in atomic orbitals.
• Aufbau Principle - or building up principle helps determine the electron
configuration
• Electrons fill the lowest-energy orbital that is available first
• Remember s<p<d<f in energy

EXCEPTION:
Some elements are more stable if the subshells are half-filled or fully filled. Hence, d-
orbitals are more stable with 5 and 10 electrons, while f orbitals are more stable with 7
and 14 electrons.

Electron Configurations in Groups

• Elements can be sorted into 4 different groupings based on their electron
configurations:
1) Noble gases
2) Representative elements
3) Transition metals
4) Inner transition metals

Electronic Configurations
 • A statement of how many electrons an atom has in each of its electron
subshells.
• Aufbau Principle, Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund’s Rule
• An oxygen atom as an electron arrangement of two electrons in the 1 s subshell,
two electrons in the 2s subshell, and four electrons in the 2p subshell.
Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6 8s2

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

ONLY TWO ELECTRONS WITH OPPOSITE SPINS OCCUPY AN ORBITAL. No two electrons
can have the same set of quantum numbers.
AN ATOMIC ORBITAL CAN CONTAIN AT MOST TWO ELECTRONS WITH OPPOSITE SPINS.
THE SPIN OF THE ELECTRONS MAY BE CLOCKWISE OR CPUNTERCLOCKWISE. THE
ELECTRON SPIN IS REPRESENTED BY AN ARROW UP OR AN ARROW DOWN .
AN ORBITAL WITH TWO ELECTRONS IS WRITTEN AS

Orbital Diagrams
• A notation that shows how many electrons an atom has in each of its occupied
electron orbitals.
8 Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Oxygen: 1s 2s 2p

HUND’S RULE
DEGENERATE ORBITALS ARE FILLED SINGLY BEFORE PAIRING UP.

Hund’s Rule and the Aufbau Principle

• Electron configurations are sometimes depicted using boxes to represent

orbitals. This depiction shows paired and unpaired explicitly.

The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
The Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund’s Rule in Electron Configurations
Ferromagnetism is the permanent magnetism that we encounter in our daily lives. It
only occurs with three elements: iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co
 Property of substance to be slightly attracted to a magnetic field
with unpaired electrons

Property of substance to be slightly repelled to a magnetic field with

unpaired electrons

The Octet Rule

• The noble gases are extremely stable.
• The stability is due to:
• the 1s being full in Helium
• the outer s and p subshells being full in the other noble gases (eight
electrons)
Octet Rule - elements usually react in such a way as to attain the electron
configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table

• Isoelectronic - they have the same electron configuration (same number of

electrons)
• Nonmetallic elements tend to form negatively charged ions called anions.
• Nonmetals tend to gain electrons so they become isoelectronic with its nearest
noble gas neighbor.

Atoms and Their Ions

• In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis pointed out that the lack of chemical reactivity of the
noble gases indicates a high degree of stability of their electron configurations.
Remember :
– There are n subshells in the n principal
energy level.
How many orbitals are in each subshell
s has 1, p has 3, d has 5, and f has 7

– How many electrons fit in each orbital? 2

– thus; s has 2, p has 6, d has 10, and f has 14 electrons

ECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODICITY

Lesson 1 The Periodic Table

Development of the Periodic Table

End of the 1700s - earliest elements were classified into two groups - the metals and
the nonmetals
Dobereiner’s Triads 1829 - German Chemist, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849)
classified the elements with similar properties into groups called triads.

Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849

The relative atomic mass of the middle element in each triad is close to the average
relative atomic masses of the other two elements.

Newland’s Law of Octaves 1864

John newlands (1837-1898) arranged the elements in increasing atomic weights. He
noted that every eight element has similar properties. Newlands had musical training,
so he compared this periodic repitition of properties to octaves and called it the law of
octaves.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table 1869

Russian Chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) published his arrangement of known
elements in vertical columns also in order of increasing atomic weights. He noticed a
regular (periodic) recurrence of their physical and chemical properties. This statement
is known as the periodic law. He left blank spaces in his periodic table for
undiscovered elements. He also corrected some atomic weight values (In & U).

Julius Lothar Meyer 1830-1895

German Chemist, Julius Lothar Meyer prepared table that closely resembles the table
of Mendeleev but he presented his results graphically. Graph showed that elements
were arranged in increasing atomic wieght, atomic volume increased sharply and
decreased gradually at periodic interval.

Henry Mosely 1887-1915

A British Physicist, Henry Mosely determined the atomic number of elements.
Moseley’s findings led to the modification of the periodic table by order of increasing
atomic number. This is how periodic tables are arranged today.

The Modern Periodic Table

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements - short form (8 groups)
The most commonly used form of periodic table now is called long form. The vertical
columns of the modern periodic table are referred to as groups or families and the
horizontal rows are referred to as periods.

Schemes in labeling Periodic Table

The European and American systems differ in the use of letters A and B. In 1985, The
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) resolved this controversy
by a new labeling scheme using numbers 1 to 18 as shown on page 212 of your
Chemistry textbook. However, this scheme has not yet widely adopted. This text uses
the American scheme, the most commonly used worldwide.

Groups 1A to 8A are the representative elements

Group 1A except H are called alkali metals
Group 2A elements are referred to as alkaline earth metals
Group 3A are sometimes called Boron Group
Group 4A are the Carbon Group
Group 5A are the Nitrogen Group
Group 6A are the Oxygen Group or Chalcogens
Group 7A are the Halogens (salt formers)
Group 8A are the Noble/rare/inert gases.

Elements can be classified into four different categories according to their electron
configuration
1. Noble gases (Group 8A)
They have filled outer s and p orbitals, their structures represented as ns2np6, where n
is the outermost energy level.
2. The representative elements are usually called the Group A elements. Outermost s
or p sublevels are only partially filled. For any representative element, its group
number is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost energy level or valence
electrons, Group 1A has 1 valence electron and so on...

3. The transition metals are called the Group B elements. They are the elements whose
outermost s sublevels are filled and electrons are added to the d orbitals. They are
considered as transitions between the alkaline elements and the nonmetals on the
right.

4. The inner transition metals are sometimes known as f transition elements. They are
the elements whose electrons are being added to f orbitals. They are loacted between
Groups 3B and 4B in the periodic table. Elements where 4f subshells are being filled
are also called lanthanide series (Ce through Lu) while elements whose 5f subshells
are being filled are called actinide series (Th through Lr). Elements beyond Uranium
are the transuranic or synthetic elements-created in laboratory.

TRENDS in the PERIODIC TABLE

We will look at the following trends in :

• Atomic size
• Ion size
• Ionization energy
• Electron affinity
From left to right across a period of elements, the atomic radius decreases.

As you move down a group, atomic radii increase as electrons are added to
successively higher energy levels.

Nuclear charge is the attraction exerted by the nucleus on electrons due to the
positive charge of the protons and negative charge of the electron

• Atomic size
• - Atomic size of the elements depend on the size of the atoms. The size of the
atoms decreases because the nucleus pulls electron closer.
• That is why . . . the atomic size of the elements ;
• Atomic / Ionic size
Cations are always smaller than their parent atom.
This is due to more protons than electrons. The extra protons pulls the remaining
electrons closer
Which would be smaller, Fe2+ or Fe3+?Fe3+
This size trend is also due to the fact that it is the outer shell that is lost.

Ionization Energy
- Ionization energy or ionization potential is the energy required to remove a
valence electron from a neutral atom.
• The lower the ionization energy, the easier to form a cation.
An increase in attractive force of the nucleus for the valence electron is due to an
increase in nuclear charge.

• Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is defined as the energy releasedwhen an atom gains one
electron.
Electron affinity is high for non-metals but low for metals.
-Large electron affinity indicates an atom becomes more stable as it forms an
anion.
 Electronegativity
Electronegativity of an element is the ability of an atom in a compound to attract
electrons to itself. The larger the electronagativity value, the greater the
tendency of the atom to attract electrons. For representative elements,
electronegativity increases from left to right across periods and decrease from
top to bottom with in groups.
 -Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a
covalent bond.
 like Electron affinity it increases from left to right in a period and bottom
to top within a group
 Electronegativity: a measure an atom’s attraction for the electrons it
shares in a chemical bond with another atom.
 on the Pauling scale, fluorine, the most electronegative element is
assigned a value of 4.0, and all other elements are assigned values
relative to fluorine.

Metallic Property
Elements are divided into: Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids

GENERAL TREND
 • Ionization Energy
• Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
• Atomic Number

The Alkali Metals (1A)

possess a single valence electron in the s orbital
-low ionization energy, loses its electron forming a +1 charge
-soft and have low melting points
-reactive with water and air
Li - used in the manufacture of small rechargeable batteries
Na & K - ion form in living organisms, glass industry
Rb - for research
Cs - special glasses and radation detection equipment

Alkaline Earth Metals (2A)

-less metallic compared than the alkali metals
-two valence electrons, readily lost in reactions and form 2+ charge
-Most abundant of these metals are Calcium in limestone, marble and chalk and
Magnesium in magnesite
Mg - used for aircrafts, automobile wheels, tools, and garden furniture
Be - emeralds
Sr - used in fireworks and flares (red color)

The Boron Family (Group 3A)

Al is the most important part of Boron Family - fairly stable and is used to make parts
of airplanes, softdrink containers, cooking utensils, toothpaste tubes and packing
materials for juices and milk.

The Carbon Family (Group 4A)

Carbon forms numerous compounds and occurs in all living organisms.
Diamond & graphite (C)
Si & Ge - microchips - digital watch, television, telephone systems, computers, and
space communication facilities.
Sn - coating of steel cans
Pb - batteries used in cars

The Nitrogen Group (Group 5A)

N and P are nonmetals, As and Sb are semimetals or metalloids and Bi is a metal.
N - makes up about 80% of Earth’s atmosphere (not reactive), necessary to prevent
rapid oxidation of all materials exposed to oxygen, main component for fertilizers

The Oxygen Group (Group 6A)

O, S, and Se are nonmetals, Te is a metalloid and Po is a metal.
Oxygen - most abundant element - 23% of the mass of air, 89% of matter, and 46%
crustal rocks, also exist as O3 (ozone).
S - production of Sulfuric Acid, used in lead storage batteries, manufacture of
detergents, plastics, paints, insecticides, and pharmaceuticals.

The Halogens (Group 7A)

All of the halogens are nonmetals that exist as a diatomic molecules, F 2, Cl2, Br2, I2, and
At2.
F2 - pale yellow gas
Cl2 - greenish yellow gas
Br2 - dark red-brown liquid
I2 - is a dark gray solid
At2 - rare element whose isotopes are all radioactive
Flourine in Chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) are used as refrigerant, lubricants and plastics
like Teflon, nonstick frying pans and in gasketing, sealing, packing, and insulating
materials, artificial arteries and other repair materials for the human body
Chlorine - added to drinking water and to swimming pools as disinfectant, bleach, and
manufacturing PVC

Bromine - used in the manufacture of fire retardants and pesticides

Iodine - iodized salt with KI and NaI, used to make tincture of iodine for treat minor
cuts and scratches.

The Noble Gases (Group 8A)

He - filling balloons and dirigibles because it is not combustible, coldest liquid
refrigerant, used as coolant in many experiments.
He-Oxygen mixture - used for breathing by divers
He, Ne & Ar - used for “Neon Signs”
Only heavy Noble gases are known to form compounds with very active nonmetals
such as F.