ATOMIC MODELS

Models of the Atom

• Rutherford used existing ideas about the

atom and proposed an atomic model in which
the electrons move around the nucleus, like
the planets move around the sun.
•Rutherford’s atomic model could not
explain the chemical properties of
elements.

– Rutherford’s model fails to explain why objects change color

when heated.
 Models of The Atom

1863- John
Dalton
pictures atoms
as tiny,
indestructible
particles, with
no internal
structure.
 Models of the Atom

• 1897- J.J.
Thomson, a
British scientist,
discovers the
electron. The
later leads to his
“Plum Pudding”
model. He
pictures
electrons
embedded in a
sphere of
 Models Of the Atom

•1911- Ernest
Rutherford
finds that an
atom has a
small, dense,
positively
charged
nucleus.
Electrons move
around the
 Models of the Atom

• 1913- Neils
Bohr’s
model, the
electron
moves in a
circular
orbit at fixed
distances
from the
 The Bohr Model

• Bohr proposed that an electron is found only in

specific circular paths, or orbits, around the
nucleus.
• Each orbit has a fixed energy. These fixed
energies an electron can have are called energy
levels.
•These ladder steps are
somewhat like energy
levels.
•The higher an electron is
on the energy ladder, the
farther it is from the
nucleus.
• quantum of energy is the
amount of energy required
to move an electron from
one energy level to another
energy level.
Nucleus
• To move from one
energy level to
another an electron
must gain or lose
just the right amount
of energy.
• The higher an
electron is on the
energy ladder, the
farther from the
nucleus.
Nucleus
 The Bohr Model

• The Bohr model establishes the concept of

definite electron energy levels within atoms.
But Bohr's model was rather simplistic and as
scientists made more discoveries about more
complex atoms, Bohr's model was modified
and eventually was replaced by more
sophisticated models.
 Models Of the Atom

•1926- Erwin
Schrodinger
develops
mathematical
equations to
describe the
motion of
electrons in
atoms. His work
leads to the
electron cloud
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• The modern description of the electrons in
atoms, the Quantum Mechanical Model,
comes from the mathematical solutions to
the Schrodinger equation.
• Like the Bohr model, the quantum
mechanical model of the atom restricts the
energy of electrons to certain values.
• Unlike the Bohr model, however, the QMM
does not involve an exact path the electron
takes around the nucleus.
 Key Concept!!!

• The Quantum
Mechanical
model
determines the
allowed
energies an
electron can
have and how
likely it is to
find the electron
in various
locations
• Here is a quantum mechanical
picture of an Hydrogen atom. The
nucleus is not shown, but is located
at the center of the picture.
• Here are some things to notice:
• Like the heads you can see where the
electron is most likely to be: near the
nucleus (the center of the picture).
• You can't tell exactly where the
electron is, just where it is most
likely to be.
• The individual dots are not
electrons. They are meant to be used
in the context of how dense, or
heavy an area of dots appears.
• The more crowded (or heavier
packed) the dots are in a particular
region, the better chance you have to
finding your electron there.
 Atomic Orbitals

• An atomic orbital is
often thought of as a
region of space in
which there is a high
probability of finding
an electron.
• Each energy level
corresponds to an
orbital of a different
shape, which
describes where the
electron is likely to
be found.
• Here is a cool website that shows the
different orbitals!!!

The Orbitron: a
gallery of atomic
orbitals and
molecular orbitals
 Atomic Orbitals Cont…

• The numbers and kinds of atomic orbitals

depend on the energy sublevel.
• The lowest principal energy level (n=1) has
only one sublevel, called 1s.
• The second level (n=2) has two sublevels, 2s
and 2p. Thus, the second energy level has
four orbitals: 2s, 2px,2py,2pz.
• The third level (n=3) has three sublevels,
3s,3p and 3d. Thus the third energy level has
nine orbitals: one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d.
• The fourth level (n=4) has four sublevels,
4s,4p,4d, and 4f. Thus the fourth energy level
has 16 orbitals: one 4s, three 4p, five 4d, and
seven 4f orbitals.
 Maximum # of Electrons

• Energy level n Max. # of electrons

• 1 2
• 2 8
• 3 18
• 4 32
5.2 Electron Arrangement in Atoms
• The ways in which electrons are arranged
in various orbitals around the nuclei of
atoms are called electron configurations.

• Three Rules- the Aufbau Principle, the

Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s
rule- tell you how to find the electron
configurations of atoms.
 Aufbau Principle

• Electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest

energy first.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• An atomic orbital may describe at most

two electrons.
– For example, either one or two electrons can occupy an s
or p orbital. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons
must have opposite spins; that is, the electron spins
must be paired.
 A. General Rules
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
– Each orbital can hold TWO electrons with opposite spins.
 Hund’s Rule

• Electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy

in a way that makes the number of electrons
with the same spin direction as large as
possible.
 A. General Rules
• Hund’s Rule
– Within a sublevel, place one e- per orbital before pairing them.
– “Empty Bus Seat Rule”

WRONG RIGHT
 B. Notation
• Orbital Diagram

O
8e- 1s 2s 2p
• Electron Configuration
2 2
1s 2s 2p 4
 B. Notation
• Longhand Configuration

S 16e- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Core Electrons Valence Electrons

• Shorthand Configuration

S 16e - 2
[Ne] 3s 3p 4
 C. Periodic Patterns
• Example - Hydrogen

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1st column
1s1 of s-block

1st Period s-block

 Practice, Practice, Practice!!!

• Write the electron configurations for each

atom.
• Carbon
• Argon
• Nickel
5.3 Physics and the QMM
 Light

• The Quantum mechanical model grew out of

the study of light.
• Isaac Newton tried to explain what was known
about the behavior of light by assuming that
light consists of particles.
• By the year 1900, there was enough evidence
to say that light consists of waves.
gth of light are inversely proportional t
Calculating the wavelength of light
• Practice Problems on Page 140.

• When atoms absorb energy, electrons move into

higher energy levels, and these electrons lose
energy by emitting light when they return to lower
energy levels.
 Atomic Emission Spectrum

• Each specific frequency of visible light

emitted corresponds to a particular color.
When the light passes through a prism,
the frequencies of light emitted by an
element separate into discrete lines to give
the atomic emission spectrum of the
element.
• The emission spectrum of each element is
like a person’s fingerprint.
 Explanation of Atomic Spectra

• The lowest possible energy of the electron

is the ground state.
The light emitted by an electron moving
from a higher to a lower energy level has a
frequency directly proportional to the
energy change of the electrons.

E=hxv
h= 6.626 x 10^ -34 J.s
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• After Max Planck determined that energy
is released and absorbed by atoms in
certain fixed amounts known as quanta,
Albert Einstein took his work a step
further,determining that radiant energy is
also quantized—he called the discrete
energy packets photons. Einstein’s theory
was that electromagnetic radiation (light,
for example) has characteristics of both a
wave and a stream of particles.
Quanta of Light
 Quantum Mechanics

• Classical mechanics adequately describes the

motions of bodies much larger than atoms, while
quantum mechanics describes the motions of
subatomic particles and atoms as waves.
• The Heisenberg Uncertainty principle states that
it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity
and the position of a particle at the same time.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Kotz Ch 7 & Ch 22 (sect 4,5)

• properties of light
• spectroscopy
• quantum hypothesis
• hydrogen atom
• Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle
• orbitals
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

• subatomic particles (electron, photon, etc)

have both PARTICLE and WAVE properties
• Light is electromagnetic radiation -
crossed electric and magnetic waves:

Properties :
Wavelength, l (nm)
Frequency, n (s-1, Hz)
Amplitude, A
constant speed. c
3.00 x 108 m.s-1
Electromagnetic Radiation (2)

wavelength
Visible light

Amplitude

wavelength Node
Ultaviolet radiation
 Electromagnetic Radiation (3)
• All waves have:
frequency and wavelength
• symbol: n (Greek letter “nu”) l (Greek “lambda”)
• units: “cycles per sec” = Hertz “distance” (nm)

• All radiation: l•n = c

where c = velocity of light = 3.00 x 108 m/sec

Note: Long wavelength

 small frequency
Short wavelength
 high frequency increasing increasing
frequency wavelength
Electromagnetic Radiation (4)

Example: Red light has l = 700 nm.

Calculate the frequency, n.

3.00 x 108 m/s

n=
c
= = 4.29 x 1014 Hz
l 7.00 x 10-7 m

• Wave nature of light is shown by classical

wave properties such as
• interference
• diffraction
 Quantization of Energy
Max Planck (1858-1947)
Solved the “ultraviolet
catastrophe” 4-HOT_BAR.MOV

• Planck’s hypothesis: An object can only

gain or lose energy by absorbing or
emitting radiant energy in QUANTA.
Quantization of Energy (2)

Energy of radiation is proportional to frequency.

E = h•n
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.6262 x 10-34 J•s

Light with large l (small n) has a small E.

Light with a short l (large n) has a large E.

 Photoelectric Effect
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Photoelectric effect demonstrates the
particle nature of light. (Kotz, figure 7.6)
No e- observed until light
of a certain minimum E is used.

Number of e- ejected does NOT

depend on frequency, rather it
depends on light intensity.
Photoelectric Effect (2)

• Classical theory said that E of ejected

electron should increase with increase
in light intensity — not observed!

• Experimental observations can be

explained if light consists of
particles called PHOTONS of
discrete energy.
 Energy of Radiation
PROBLEM: Calculate the energy of
1.00 mol of photons of red light.
l = 700 nm n = 4.29 x 1014 sec-1
E = h•n
= (6.63 x 10-34 J•s)(4.29 x 1014 sec-1)
= 2.85 x 10-19 J per photon
E per mol = (2.85 x 10-19 J/ph)(6.02 x 1023 ph/mol)
= 171.6 kJ/mol
- the range of energies that can break bonds.
 Atomic Line Spectra

• Bohr’s greatest contribution to

science was in building a
simple model of the atom.
• It was based on understanding
the SHARP LINE SPECTRA
of excited atoms.
Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
(Nobel Prize, 1922)
 Line Spectra of Excited Atoms
• Excited atoms emit light of only certain wavelengths
• The wavelengths of emitted light depend on the
element.

Hg

Ne
 Atomic Spectra and Bohr Model
One view of atomic structure in early 20th
century was that an electron (e-) traveled
about the nucleus in an orbit.
Electron
+ orbit
1. Classically any orbit should be
possible and so is any energy.
2. But a charged particle moving in an
electric field should emit energy.

End result should be destruction!

Atomic Spectra and Bohr Model (2)

• Bohr said classical view is wrong.

• Need a new theory — now called QUANTUM
or WAVE MECHANICS.
• e- can only exist in certain discrete orbits
— called stationary states.
• e- is restricted to QUANTIZED energy states.

Energy of state = - C/n2 where

C is a CONSTANT
n = QUANTUM NUMBER, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ....
Atomic Spectra and Bohr Model (3)

Energy of quantized state = - C/n2

• Only orbits where n = integral
number are permitted.
• Radius of allowed orbitals
= n2 x (0.0529 nm)

• Results can be used to

explain atomic spectra.
Atomic Spectra and Bohr Model (4)

If e-’s are in quantized energy H atom

states, then DE of states can
have only certain values. This
explains sharp line spectra.

n=2
E = -C (1/22)

07m07an1.mov

E = -C (1/12) n=1

4-H_SPECTRA.MOV
Atomic Spectra and Bohr Model (5)
n=2

Energy
Calculate DE for e- in H “falling” from
n = 2 to n = 1 (higher to lower energy) .
n=1
DE = Efinal - Einitial = -C[(1/12) - (1/2)2] = -(3/4)C

• (-ve sign for DE indicates emission (+ve for absorption)

• since energy (wavelength, frequency) of light can only be +ve
it is best to consider such calculations as DE = Eupper - Elower
C has been found from experiment. It is now called R,
the Rydberg constant. R = 1312 kJ/mol or 3.29 x 1015 Hz
so, E of emitted light = (3/4)R = 2.47 x 1015 Hz
and l = c/n = 121.6 nm (in ULTRAVIOLET region)

This is exactly in agreement with experiment!

 Hydrogen atom spectra

Visible lines in H atom

High E Low E
Short l Long l spectrum are called the
High n Low n BALMER series.

6
5
4
3
Energy

1
Infrared
En = -1312 Ultra Violet
Lyman
Visible
Balmer Paschen n
n2
From Bohr model to Quantum mechanics

Bohr’s theory was a great accomplishment

and radically changed our view of matter.
But problems existed with Bohr theory —
– theory only successful for the H atom.
– introduced quantum idea artificially.
• So, we go on to QUANTUM or WAVE
MECHANICS
Quantum or Wave Mechanics
• Light has both wave & particle
properties
• de Broglie (1924) proposed that all
moving objects have wave
properties.
• For light: E = hn = hc / l
L. de Broglie • For particles: E = mc2 (Einstein)
(1892-1987)
Therefore, mc = h / l
and for particles
(mass)x(velocity) = h / l

l for particles is called the de Broglie wavelength

 WAVE properties of matter
Electron diffraction with
electrons of 5-200 keV
- Fig. 7.14 - Al metal
Davisson & Germer 1927

Na Atom Laser beams

l = 15 micometers (mm)
Andrews, Mewes, Ketterle
M.I.T. Nov 1996
The new atom laser emits pulses of coherent atoms,
or atoms that "march in lock-step." Each pulse
contains several million coherent atoms and
is accelerated downward by gravity. The curved
shape of the pulses was caused by gravity and forces
between the atoms. (Field of view 2.5 mm X 5.0 mm.) 4-ATOMLSR.MOV
 Quantum or Wave Mechanics
Schrodinger applied idea of e-
behaving as a wave to the
problem of electrons in atoms.
Solution to WAVE EQUATION
gives set of mathematical
expressions called
E. Schrodinger WAVE FUNCTIONS, Y
1887-1961
Each describes an allowed energy
state of an e-
Quantization introduced naturally.
 WAVE FUNCTIONS, Y
• Y is a function of distance and two
angles.
• For 1 electron, Y corresponds to an
ORBITAL — the region of space
within which an electron is found.
• Y does NOT describe the exact
location of the electron.
• Y2 is proportional to the probability of
finding an e- at a given point.
Uncertainty Principle
Problem of defining nature of
electrons in atoms solved by
W. Heisenberg.
Cannot simultaneously define
the position and momentum
(= m•v) of an electron.
Dx. Dp = h
At best we can describe the
W. Heisenberg position and velocity of an
1901-1976 electron by a
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION,
which is given by Y
2
Wavefunctions (3)

Y2 is proportional to the probability

of finding an e- at a given point.
4-S_ORBITAL.MOV
(07m13an1.mov)
 Orbital Quantum Numbers
An atomic orbital is defined by 3 quantum
numbers:
– n l ml
Electrons are arranged in shells and
subshells of ORBITALS .
n  shell
l  subshell

ml  designates an orbital within a subshell

 Quantum Numbers

Symbol Values Description

n (major) 1, 2, 3, .. Orbital size and

energy = -R(1/n2)

l (angular) 0, 1, 2, .. n-1 Orbital shape or

type (subshell)

ml (magnetic) -l..0..+l Orbital orientation

in space

Total # of orbitals in lth subshell = 2 l + 1

 Shells and Subshells
For n = 1, l = 0 and ml = 0
There is only one subshell and that
subshell has a single orbital
(ml has a single value ---> 1 orbital)
This subshell is labeled s (“ess”) and
we call this orbital 1s
Each shell has 1 orbital labeled s.
It is SPHERICAL in shape.
 s Orbitals
All s orbitals are spherical in shape.
 p Orbitals Typical p orbital

For n = 2, l = 0 and 1
There are 2 types of
orbitals — 2 subshells
For l = 0 ml = 0 planar node

this is a s subshell When l = 1, there is

For l = 1 ml = -1, 0, +1 a PLANAR NODE
through the
this is a p subshell nucleus.
with 3 orbitals
p orbitals (2)

pz

px
90 o
py

The three p
orbitals lie 90o
A p orbital apart in space
 l= px py pz
p-orbitals(3)

n=

3
 d Orbitals
For n = 3, what are the values of l?
l = 0, 1, 2
and so there are 3 subshells in the shell.
For l = 0, ml = 0
 s subshell with single orbital
For l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1
 p subshell with 3 orbitals
For l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
 d subshell with 5 orbitals
 d Orbitals
typical d orbital
s orbitals have no planar planar node
node (l = 0) and
so are spherical.
p orbitals have l = 1, and
planar node
have 1 planar node,
and so are “dumbbell”
shaped. IN GENERAL
d orbitals (with l = 2) the number of NODES
have 2 planar nodes = value of angular
quantum number (l)
 Boundary surfaces for all orbitals of the
n = 1, n = 2 and n = 3 shells

n=
3d
3

There are
2 n2
orbitals in
the nth SHELL

1
 ATOMIC ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIONS AND PERIODICITY
 Element Mnemonic Competition

Hey! Here Lies Ben Brown. Could Not Order Fire. Near
Nancy Margaret Alice Sits Peggy Sucking Clorets. Are
Kids Capable ?
PREIODIC TRENDS
Periodic Trends
Elemental Properties and Patterns
 The Periodic Law

• Dimitri Mendeleev was the first scientist to

publish an organized periodic table of the
known elements.
• He was perpetually in trouble with the
Russian government and the Russian
Orthodox Church, but he was brilliant never-
the-less.
 The Periodic Law

• Mendeleev not only predicted the existence of

2 (at the time) undiscovered elements, but he
predicted the properties too, and he was
right!
• He was very accurate in his predictions,
which led the world to accept his ideas about
periodicity and a logical periodic table.
 The Periodic Law

• Mendeleev
ordered a
periodic table
according to
atomic mass,
which makes
sense (look at a
few in a row)
 The Periodic Law

• However this does not work for a 100% of the

elements
 The Periodic Law

• In 1913, Henry Moseley decided to arrange

the periodic table by the number of protons,
a.k.a The atomic number
– This is the version that we use today
 The Periodic Law

• Mendeleev and Moseley understood the ‘Periodic

Law’ which states:
• When arranged by increasing atomic number, the
chemical elements display a regular and repeating
pattern of chemical and physical properties.
 The Periodic Law

• “Which elements act alike?” Lab

• Review
– Precipitate
– Cation
– Family names
 The Periodic Law

• “Which elements act alike?” Lab

• What’s new?
– Soluble (s) vs insoluble (i)
– Polyatomic ions
» Poly(many)atomic(atoms) ions(charged molecules)
» Phosphate, Carbonate, Nitrate
 The Periodic Law

“Which elements act alike?” Lab

• Things to focus on
– The Cations
» Where are they on the periodic table?
• Are they reacting similarly in the same group/family or the same period
(row)?
 The Periodic Law

• “Which elements act alike?” Lab

• Goggles on, Closed toed shoes on and…

GO FORTH AND SCIENCE!

 The Periodic Law

• Atoms with similar properties appear in

groups or families (vertical columns) on the
periodic table.
• They are similar because they all have the
same number of valence (outer shell)
electrons, which governs their chemical
behavior.
 Valence Electrons

• Do you remember how to tell the number of

valence electrons for elements in the s- and
p-blocks?
• How many valence electrons will the atoms in
the d-block (transition metals) and the f-block
(inner transition metals) have?
• Most have 2 valence e-, some only have 1.
 A Different Type of Grouping

• Besides the 4 blocks (s,p,d,f) of the table,

there is another way of classifying element:
• Metals
• Nonmetals
• Metalloids or Semi-metals.
Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids
 Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

• There is a zig-zag
or staircase line
that divides the
table.
• Metals are on the
left of the line, in
blue.
• Nonmetals are on
the right of the
line, in orange.
 Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

• Elements that
border the stair
case, shown in
purple are the
metalloids or
semi-metals.
• There is one
important
exception.
• Aluminum is a
metal
 Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

• How can you identify a metal?

• What are its properties?
• What about the less common nonmetals?
• What are their properties?
• And what is a metalloid?
Metals

• Metals are lustrous

(shiny), malleable,
ductile, and are
good conductors
of heat and
electricity.
• They are mostly
solids at room
temp.
• What is one
exception?
Nonmetals

• Nonmetals are the

opposite.
• They are dull,
brittle,
nonconductors
(insulators).
• Some are solid, but
many are gases,
and Bromine is a
liquid.
Metalloids
• Metalloids, aka semi-
metals are just that.
• They have
characteristics of both
metals and nonmetals.
• They are shiny but
brittle.
• And they are
semiconductors.
• What is our most
important
semiconductor?
 Periodic Trends

• There are several important atomic

characteristics that show predictable trends
that you should know.
• The first and most important is atomic radius.
• Radius is the distance from the center of the
nucleus to the “edge” of the electron cloud.
 Atomic Radius

• Since a cloud’s edge is difficult to define,

scientists use define covalent radius, or half
the distance between the nuclei of 2 bonded
atoms.
• Atomic radii are usually measured in
picometers (pm) or angstroms (Å). An
angstrom is 1 x 10-10 m.
 Covalent Radius

• Two Br atoms bonded together are 2.86

angstroms apart. So, the radius of each atom
is 1.43 Å.

2.86 Å
1.43 Å 1.43 Å
 Atomic Radius

• The trend for atomic radius in a vertical

column is to go from smaller at the top to
larger at the bottom of the family.
• Why?
• With each step down the family, we add an
entirely new energy level to the electron
cloud, making the atoms larger with each
step.
 Atomic Radius

• The trend across a horizontal period is less

obvious.
• What happens to atomic structure as we step
from left to right?
• Each step adds a proton and an electron (and
1 or 2 neutrons).
• Electrons are added to existing sublevels.
(They are not getting bigger)
 Atomic Radius

• The effect is that the more positive nucleus

has a greater pull on the electron cloud.
• The nucleus is more positive and the electron
cloud is more negative.
• The increased attraction pulls the cloud in,
making atoms smaller as we move from left to
right across a period.
 Effective Nuclear Charge

• We call this effect…

• Effective nuclear charge is the pull that an
electron “feels” from the nucleus.
• The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the more
pull it feels.
• As effective nuclear charge increases, the
electron cloud is pulled in tighter.
 Atomic Radius

• Here is an animation to explain the trend.

• It might help to draw arrows like this:
 Practice…
1. Explain why a magnesium atom is smaller than
atoms of both sodium and calcium

2. Predict the size of the astatine (At) atom compared

to that of tellurium (Te). Explain your prediction.

3. Which effect on atomic size is more significant, an

increase in nuclear charge across a period or an
increase in occupied energy levels within a group?
Explain.
 Ionization Energy
• This is the second important periodic trend.
• If an electron is given enough energy to overcome
the effective nuclear charge holding the electron
in the cloud, it can leave the atom completely.
• The atom has been “ionized” or charged.
• The number of protons and electrons is no longer
equal.
 Ionization Energy
• The energy required to remove an electron from an
atom is ionization energy. (measured in kilojoules,
kJ)
• The larger the atom is, the easier its electrons are to
remove.
• Ionization energy and atomic radius are inversely
proportional.
Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy (Potential)
 Ionization Energy
• If an atom as a low ionization energy, will it be easy
or hard to remove an electron?
– Think about the energy required to remove it, is it high or low? Do
you have to put a large amount of energy into it or a small
amount?

• What if the atom has a high ionization energy?

 Practice…

1. Compare the first ionization energy of

sodium to that of potassium.
2. Compare the first ionization energy lithium
to that of beryllium.
 Metallic Character

• This is simple a relative measure of how

easily atoms lose or give up electrons.
• Your help sheet should look like this:

Which
element
is most
metallic?
 Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s
attraction for another atom’s electrons.
• It is an arbitrary scale that ranges from 0 to 4.
• Generally, metals are electron donators and have
low electronegativities.
• Nonmetals are electron takers and have high
electronegativities.
• What about the noble gases?
– Do they need any electrons?
Electronegativity

0
 Electronegativity
• What is the most electronegative atom?
– Why?

• Fluorine
– It has a small atomic radius, and a high (relative) effective nuclear
charge
 Practice…

1. Is the electronegativity of barium larger or

smaller than that of strontium? Explain.

2. Arrange oxygen, fluorine, and sulfur in order

of increasing electronegativity.
 Overall Reactivity
• This ties all the previous trends together in one
package.
• However, we must treat metals and nonmetals
separately, as one will gain electrons and one will
lose electrons.
• The most reactive metals are the largest since
they are the best electron givers.
• The most reactive nonmetals are the smallest
ones, the best electron takers.
 Overall Reactivity

• Think corners

0
 Overall Reactivity

• Take out a piece of scrap paper or just find a

spot in your notes…
• We are going to watch a video that will react
sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium
with water.
• Prediction: Order the 4 elements from least
reactive to most reactive.
– Justify your reasoning!
 Alkali metal video
• Extra link (slow motion):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iP6CRZdDu6o
 Ionic Radius

• Cations are always smaller than the original

atom.
• The entire outer PEL is removed during
ionization.
• Conversely, anions are always larger than the
original atom.
• Electrons are added to the outer PEL.
 Cation Formation
Na atom Effective nuclear
charge on remaining
1 valence electrons increases.
electron

11p+ Remaining e- are

pulled in closer to
the nucleus. Ionic
Valence e- size decreases.
lost in ion
formation Result: a smaller
sodium cation, Na+
 Anion Formation A chloride ion is
produced. It is
Chlorine larger than the
atom with 7 original atom.
valence e-

17p
+

One e- is added
to the outer
shell.
Effective nuclear charge
is reduced and the e-
cloud expands.
 Practice…

1. Explain why the sulfide ion (S-2) is larger

than the chloride ion (Cl-).

2. Would you expect a S-2 ion to be larger or

smaller than an K+ ion? Explain.
 Apply…

• Would you expect a Cl- ion to be larger or

smaller than an Mg+2 ion? Explain.
 Miscellaneous

• HONClBrIF’s/H7’s (diatomics)
• Polyatomic Ions:
– Phosphate
– Carbonate
– Nitrate