2.

1 Discovery of Subatomic Particles

Atoms, once thought to be indivisible, were later shown to consist of subatomic particles. This section
explores the discovery of these particles.

2.1.1 Discovery of Electron

Cathode ray tube experiments led to the discovery of electrons, negatively charged particles that are
components of all atoms. The movement of these particles was observed in vacuum tubes, and J.J.
Thomson was the first to identify their properties.

2.1.2 Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron

J.J. Thomson measured the charge-to-mass ratio of electrons by applying both electric and magnetic
fields to cathode rays. The value he derived for this ratio was e/me=1.758820×1011 C/kg.

2.1.3 Charge on the Electron

R.A. Millikan's oil drop experiment determined the charge of an electron as −1.602176×10 −19, and
combined with the charge-to-mass ratio, the mass of the electron was calculated as 9.1094×10−31 kg.

2.1.4 Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

The proton, a positively charged particle, was discovered through modified cathode ray tube
experiments, while neutrons, particles with no charge but a mass slightly greater than protons, were
discovered by James Chadwick.

2.2 Atomic Models

Atomic models were proposed to explain the distribution of subatomic particles and the stability of
atoms.

2.2.1 Thomson Model of Atom

Thomson proposed that an atom is a sphere of positive charge with electrons embedded within, similar
to a plum pudding or watermelon, where the seeds (electrons) are scattered in the positively charged
mass.

2.2.2 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom

Rutherford, through his gold foil experiment, concluded that atoms have a small, dense nucleus where
all positive charge is concentrated, with electrons orbiting this nucleus. This model resembled a
miniature solar system.

2.2.3 Atomic Number and Mass Number

 Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus and defines the element.

 Mass Number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

2.2.4 Isobars and Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to varying
numbers of neutrons.

2.2.5 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

Rutherford’s model couldn’t explain the stability of electrons in orbit. According to classical mechanics,
electrons should spiral into the nucleus as they emit radiation, but this does not happen in reality.

2.3 Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom

The limitations of classical mechanics led to new developments in understanding atomic structure.

2.3.1 Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

James Maxwell explained that light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation consist of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields. These waves travel through space at the speed of light, c=3.0×10 8 m/s and
have properties like frequency and wavelength.

2.3.2 Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Theory

Max Planck proposed that radiation is quantized and can be absorbed or emitted in discrete energy
packets called quanta. The energy of these quanta is E=hν, where h is Planck’s constant.

2.3.3 Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels: Atomic Spectra

When light interacts with atoms, electrons absorb energy and move to higher energy levels. Upon
returning to lower levels, they emit radiation in specific wavelengths, leading to a line spectrum unique
to each element.

2.4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom

Neils Bohr expanded on Rutherford's model by incorporating quantum theory.

2.4.1 Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

Bohr explained that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed paths (orbits) with quantized energy levels.
When electrons transition between orbits, they absorb or emit energy corresponding to the difference
between these levels, resulting in the observed line spectrum for hydrogen.

2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

Advances in physics led to the development of the quantum mechanical model, which provides a more
accurate description of atomic behavior than classical mechanics.

2.5.1 Dual Behavior of Matter

2.5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg stated that it is impossible to simultaneously know both the exact position and
momentum of a particle. This principle imposes limits on how accurately we can describe subatomic
particles.

2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

The quantum mechanical model provides a more detailed understanding of atomic structure by
incorporating the wave-like behavior of electrons.

2.6.1 Important Features of Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

Electrons are described by wave functions, and the probability of finding an electron in a certain region
around the nucleus is given by this wave function. The most probable regions where electrons are found
are known as orbitals.

2.6.2 Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers describe the properties of orbitals and the electrons within them:

 Principal Quantum Number (n): Describes the size and energy level of an orbital.

 Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Describes the shape of the orbital.

 Magnetic Quantum Number (m_l): Describes the orientation of the orbital.

 Spin Quantum Number (m_s): Describes the spin of the electron.

2.6.3 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Orbitals have characteristic shapes depending on their quantum numbers. For instance, s-orbitals are
spherical, while p-orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

Key Formulas

1. Charge-to-Mass Ratio of Electron:

e/me=1.758820×1011 C/kg

2. Energy of a Photon (Planck’s Equation):

E=hν

3. Bohr's Energy Levels:

En=−RH/n2

4. Photoelectric Equation (Einstein’s Equation):

5. Wave Equation:

c=λν

where c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength, and ν is the frequency.