CHAPTER 3

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Compendium

A. Types of reproduction
(i) Asexual reproduction
(a) Fission
(b) Budding
(c) Spore formation
(d) Fragmentation
(e) Regeneration
(f) Vegetative propagation
B. Natural
i. By leaves
ii. By stem
iii. By roots
C. Artificial
i. Cutting
ii. Grafting
iii. Layering
iv. Tissue culture
v. Sexual reproduction
vi. Flowering plants
D. Reproductive organ
E. Pollination
F. Fertilisation
G. Post fertilisation changes
(b) Animals : continued in part 2

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H. Bird’s-eye view
I. Solved examples
J. Practice yourself
K. Solutions

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A. Introduction

Reproduction is a process by which organisms produce offspring of

their own kind and perpetuate.
Reproduction is not an essential process to maintain the life of an
organism, but it is necessary to sustain life on earth and for the
sustenance of a species. It also decides the physical features of an
organism.
The genetic material (mostly DNA) present in the cell contains
information on synthesising proteins. These proteins are involved in
various processes, and slight changes in the information coded by
DNA leads to the production of different proteins, which will lead to
altered body designs.
An essential event in reproduction is the production of new DNA
copies in a reproducing cell. This copying mechanism is called DNA
replication. When the cell divides into two, each of the two daughter
cells gets a copy of the DNA.
Complete accuracy in DNA copying mechanism leads to two identical
cells, but any error in the process of replication can lead to variations
in daughter cells.
These variations form the basis for evolution.
Variations can enable members of a species to get adapted easily to a
particular inhabiting place/niche. Hence, reproduction can result in
the stability of population of species.
Favourable variations which accumulate over time help in the survival
of species and enable the organisms to withstand drastic alterations
in their habitats.

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Importance of reproduction
1. Maintenance of life:- Organisms are maintaining their existence
on the earth since their origin (million years ago) only because of
reproduction.
2. Preservation of species:- Species perpetuate because of
reproduction.
3. Role in evolution:- Few variations that are produced in the new
offspring during reproduction play an important role in evolution.

Types of reproduction

Two main methods of reproduction are observed in living organisms.

(1) Asexual reproduction.
(2) Sexual reproduction.

(1) Asexual reproduction :

The type of reproduction where a single parent produces

offspring without the formation and fusion of gametes is
called asexual reproduction.

• It is a primitive type of reproduction. In this type, offspring are

produced from a cell or any vegetative organ of an organism.
• In this type of reproduction, offspring are genetically identical to
their parents.
• Modes of asexual reproduction include fission, budding,
fragmentation, regeneration, spore formation, and vegetative
propagation.

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(i) Fission: It is a type of asexual reproduction seen in unicellular
organisms. Parent cell divide to form two new cells. It is of two types:
(a) Binary fission: One cell divides into two daughter cells of equal
size, e.g., many bacteria and protozoans like Amoeba (under normal
favourable conditions), Paramecium and Leishmania.

Fig 1 : Binary fission in Amoeba

.

(b) Multiple fission: One cell divides into multiple daughter cells
simultaneously, e.g., Plasmodium (malarial parasite), Amoeba in
unfavourable conditions.

Fig 2 : Multiple fission in Plasmodium

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Binary Fission Multiple Fission
In binary fission organism Multiple fission is the
Splits into two daughter simultaneous division of the
nuclei, followed by division parent body into many
of cytoplasm, thus resulting daughter Individual.
into two Identical
Individuals (daughter cell)
Nucleus divided only once Nucleus divides repeatedly to
during this from of form large number of nuclei.
reproduction.
Protective covering is not Protective covering, a cyst, is
formed around an formed around the organism
organism. during multiple fission.
Example: Amoeba, Example: Plasmodium.
Paramecium.

(ii) Budding: Process in which an outgrowth (bud) develops on the

body of the parent organism which later detaches and becomes a
new organism. e.g. Yeast and Hydra. In some instances, the bud
remains attached to the parent body. e.g. Yeast.

(iii) Spore formation: Spores are microscopic asexual reproductive

structures with a thick wall. Spores are formed in 'sporangium'. Each
spore on germination gives rise to a new organism, e.g. Rhizopus
(Bread Mould), Penicillium.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(iv) Fragmentation: In this method of asexual reproduction, an
organism breaks up into two or more fragments, and each of the
fragment develops into an adult organism. e.g. Spirogyra.

Fission vs fragmentation

Fission Fragmentation
A method of A method of reproduction
reproduction by the wherein a parent organism
spontaneous division of break into fragments, each
the parent cell into two capable of growing
or more parts, each of independently into a new
which grows into a organism
complete daughter cell
Occurs in unicellular Occurs in multicellular
organism such an organisms such a plants, sea
Amoeba, stars, Planaria, molds and
Bacteria Spirogyra
Nuclear division occurs No nuclear division occurs

Daughter cells are Daughter organism are

unicellular mainly multicellular
Occurs deliberately May or may not be deliberate
through mitosis as it can occur through
mechanical shearing as well

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Fig 3: Budding in Hydra (Left) and Yeast (right)

Fig 4: Bread infected by Rhizopus and

structure of Rhizopus Fig 5 : Fragmentation in Spirogyra

(v) Regeneration: The process in which an organism can replace lost

or injured body part is called
regeneration. Regeneration
can result in the formation of a
new individual in organisms
like Hydra, Planaria whose
body organisation is simple. A
lizard can regenerate its lost
tail, but the lost tail cannot Fig 6: Regeneration in Planaria and
Hydra
regenerate into an organism.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(vi) Vegetative propagation: Vegetative parts, namely root, stem and
leaves, give rise to new plants.
Two types of Vegetative propagation are : Natural vegetative
propagation and Artificial vegetative propagation.

(A) Natural vegetative propagation :

Natural vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction that

occurs in plants without any human intervention.
By leaves: Leaves of some plants produce adventitious buds on their
margin. These buds develop into new plants. e.g. Bryophyllum,
Kalanchoe , etc.
By stem: In many plants like Potato,
Ginger, Onion, Grass, aerial shoots
develop from underground stems
annually under favourable conditions.

Potato tuber has number of eyes (buds)

Fig7: Natural vegetative
on its surface which develops aerial propagation by leaves seen
shoots when buried under soil. in Bryophyllum

The bulb of Onion, rhizome

of Ginger, corm of Colocasia
and runner of grass are also
stem modifications which
can give rise to new plants.

Fig 8 : Rhizome of ginger ,corm of Colocasia bulb

of onion and tuber of potato

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
By roots: Roots produce adventitious buds which develop into a
new plant. e.g. Sweet potato, Tapioca, Beetroot etc
(B) Artificial vegetative
propagation
To prepare plants with
desirable characters. These
are of four types.
Fig 9: Adventitious buds which develop
(i) Cutting into a new plant in sweet potato
In this method, a small part of
the plant is cut and buried partly in the moist soil. The cut part
develops roots and eventually grows into a new plant. e.g. Rose,
Sugarcane, Cactus.

(ii) Grafting :
Two closely related varieties of plants are
joined together so that they live as one
plant. The plant whose roots remain in
the soil is called stock. Cut part of a plant Fig 10: Cutting in Bougainvillea

that is grafted on the other rooted plant

is called the scion. The scion contains the
desired genes to be duplicated in future
production by the grafted plant. e.g.
Mango, Apple, Lemon.

The joining of scion and stalk is known as

inosculation.
Fig 11- Scion and Stock
Stock is selected for its adaptability,
resistance to diseases etc.

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Scion is selected for good quality of fruits, flowers, resistance to
diseases etc.
For successful grafting to take place, the vascular cambium tissues of
the stock and scion plants must be placed in contact with each other.
Both tissues must be kept alive until the graft has "taken", usually a
period of a few weeks.

Fig 12: Illustration of grafting

Rough Space (use this to make notes)

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(iii) Layering

In this method, a branch of the parent

plant is incised and buried in the soil.
The portion of the branch, which is in
contact with the soil, develops roots,
and this rooted branch is called a
layer. It acts as a new plant once
detached from the parent. e.g.
Fig13: Illustration of layering
Jasmine, Hibiscus.

Grafting Layering

(1) Grafting is a technique (1) stems that form roots while still
of inserting a part of one attached to the parent plant are called
plant in such a way that layers.
the two will unite and Propagation of the plants in this method
continue their growth. is known as layering.
(2) Two plants of the same (2) Only one plant is required for
species are required layering.
for grafting.
(3) Grafting help to (3) In layering we can propagate the
preserve and perpetuate plant varieties which are required by us.
varieties that cannot
reproduce by vegetative
method
(4) Grafting is used to (4) In layering the plant already having
obtain a plant with desirable characters is propagated
desirable characters.

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(5) The two plants stock (5) The common practice in layering is
and scion and joined two injure the portion to be layered by
together in such a way notching, cutting, girdling, etc.
that two stems join and
grow as a single plant.

(iv) Tissue culture or micropropagation :

• Cells or tissue which is isolated from the growing tip of a plant

called explant.
• Cells of the explant divide and develops into an undifferentiated
mass called callus in a culture medium with sufficient nutrients.
• The callus is transferred to another culture medium containing
hormones for growth and differentiation, that forms plantlet.
• The plantlets are transplanted into pot or soil to form a mature
plant.
• This technique is known as micropropagation. e.g. Orchids,
Chrysanthemum.

Fig 14:
Callus differentiates into
shoot and root in growth
medium

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Fig 15 - Tissue culture steps

Natural vegetative propagation

Versus
Artificial vegetative propagation
Natural vegetative propagation Artificial vegetative propagation
refers to the natural refers to the artificial development of
development of a new plant new plants by means of human
without human intervention Intervention
Naturally occurs in plants Occurs under the influence of man
Occurs through roots, bulbs, Occurs through budding, grafting,
corms, tubers, suckers, rhizomes, layering cutting, tissue culture, etc.
runner etc.
Helps to avoid physical barriers Help to maintain desirable characters
in sexual reproduction over generations

Advantages Of vegetative propagation

• It is a fast, easy and cheap method of reproduction for developing
many plants at once.
• It allows the production of genetically identical plants.

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• Disease-free plants can be produced.
• Fruits or flowers of superior quality can be produced by grafting.
• Early flowering occurs in plants raised by vegetative propagation.
Hence, they bear fruits early.

Did you know?

• In budding, organisms have maintain their identity while in fission,

the organism has lost their parental identity because the parent
splits itself and divides into two.
• Grafting cannot be done in monocot plants as it requires the
presence of cambium which they lack.
• Tissue culture is also known as micropropagation because a large
number of plants are formed from a small tissue.
• Virus-free plants are produced by micropropagation.

Checkpoint- 1

1. What is meant by reproduction?

2. What are two general types of reproduction in organisms?
3. Name two organisms which reproduce by budding.
4. What is meant by vegetative propagation?
5. Write the advantages of vegetative propagation?
6. What is grafting? Mention any two advantages of grafting.
7. Which part of Bryophyllum exhibits vegetative propagation?
8. What is micropropagation? Explain the process of
micropropagation in vitro.

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Comparison of asexual and sexual reproduction

Features Asexual Sexual

Reproduction Reproduction
Number of One Two
parents
involved
Resemblance Organisms Organisms are
with parents produced are similar to both the
identical to the parents.
parent.
Type of cell Amitotic/mitotic Mitotic and meiotic
divisions both are present.
The time Takes less time. Takes more time.
duration for
multiplication
Variations Variations are Variations are
absent. present.
Adaptability Organisms Organisms
produced have produced have
less adaptability. more adaptability.
Examples Fission, budding, Observed in human
vegetative beings, higher
propagation. plants

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(2) Sexual Reproduction

It is a type of reproduction which involves the fusion of male

and female gametes that leads to the formation of a new
organism, which is genetically different yet similar to the
parent.

Sexual Reproduction In Flowering Plants

• Sexual reproduction occurs within flowers in angiosperms

(flowering plants).
• A flower is a modified shoot of flowering plants in which the
essential reproductive parts are found.
• A typical flower has four whorls arranged on the thalamus.
1. Calyx 2. Corolla
3. Androecium 4. Gynoecium
Calyx

• The calyx is the outermost whorl of green coloured leaf-like

structures called sepals.
• Calyx covers the flower bud and protects it before it blooms.
Corolla

• Corolla is the second whorl, inner to the calyx, consisting of petals

which are generally large, coloured and showy.
• Corolla attracts insects for pollination.
Stamen
• Stamen/Androecium is the third whorl, inner to corolla, consisting
of male reproductive parts.
• Each stamen has two parts – Filament and anther.
• The anther is a lobed structure present at the tip of the filament.

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• Each anther has pollen sacs (microsporangia) which contain
microscopic pollen grains, also called as microspores.
• Two male gametes are seen within each pollen grain
Carpel
• Carpel/Gynoecium is the fourth and innermost whorl consisting of
female reproductive parts.
• The carpel is present at the centre of the flower.
• Ovary, Style and Stigma are the three parts of the carpal.
• Ovary, the swollen basal part of carpel contains ovules which are
attached to the placenta. Each ovule contains an embryo sac
that bears an egg (female gamete) which is haploid in nature.
• The middle part of the carpel is style , above which lies the stigma
and has ovary below it.
• Stigma is the apical part of the carpel. It receives the pollen grains.

Fig 16: A labelled diagram of flower

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Did you know?

If both sepals and petals cannot be distinguished from each

other, then their whorl is known as perianth.

Calyx and corolla are non-essential parts of the flower

because they are not directly involved in reproduction.

Mental floss!

• When the female and male reproductive parts are present

in the same flower, it is called bisexual flower, e.g. Hibiscus,
Mustard.
• When the female and male reproductive parts are present
in different flowers, it is called unisexual flowers. e.g.,
Papaya, Date palm, Mulberry, Gourd, Watermelon.

Pollination

Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred from

the ripe anther to the stigma. It is of two types :
(i) Self-pollination:- It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma of the same plant. If it is in the same flower, it is called
autogamy (e.g. Pea), and if it is between flowers of the same plant,
then it is called geitonogamy (e.g. Oxalis).

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Fig- 17-Self Pollination in flower Fig- 18-Cross Pollination in flower

(ii) Cross-pollination (Allogamy) :- It is the transfer of pollen grains

from the anther to the stigma of different plants of the same species
(e.g. Mango).
• Agencies of pollination:- Transfer of pollen from one flower to
another is achieved by abiotic agents like wind (anemophily),
water (hydrophily) and biotic agents like animals (zoophily),
insects (entomophily) and birds (ornithophily).
• Significance of bright colour of flower:- The bright colour of flowers
is meant to attract insects which help in pollination.
• White colour shine in the dark which attracts insects at night.
Similarly, bright colour day-blooming flowers attract insects.

Fertilisation

• Fertilisation in plants is the fusion of the female and male

gametes, which takes place in the embryo sac of an ovule.
• After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma by
producing pollen tube.
• The nucleus in the pollen tube divides into two male gametes.
• Pollen tube penetrates the stigma and passes through the style
and enters the ovule through the micropyle.

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• It releases two male gametes in the embryo sac.
• One male gamete fuses with the egg cell and second male gamete
fuses with the two polar nuclei.
• One male gamete + Egg cell → Zygote (This event is called
Syngamy)
• Second male gamete + Two polar nuclei → Triploid
nucleus(Primary Endosperm Nucleus) (The formation of a triploid
nucleus is called Triple fusion)
• Syngamy + Triple fusion = Double fertilisation

Syngamy Triple fusion

It is the generative fertilisation. It is vegetative fertillisation.
Both male and female gametes Only are male gamete and two
are involved in syngamy. vegetative nuclei are involved in
triple fusion.
Syngamy produces a dipole It produces a triploid primary
zygote. endosperm cell.

Zygote forms the embryo. Primary endosperm cell

produces a food laden
endosperm.

Fig- 19- Cross sectional image

of seed showing Fig 20 - Embryo sac and its parts

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Fig 21 - Double fertilisation in embryosac

Post fertilisation changes in the flower

• Sepals, petals and stamen wither off.

• Style and stigma degenerate.
• The ovary develops into a fruit.
• Ovule grows into a seed.
Fig 22 : Parts of a seed
• The seed contains the embryo which
develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions.
• Endospermic seed: If endosperm is not consumed by embryo.
• Non-endospermic seed: Endosperm may be consumed by
embryo.
• Internally the seed contains the embryo . The seed is covered by
one or more seed coats which are formed from the integument.
• A separate food-laden tissue or the endosperm is present in some
of the seeds. In others, food is stored in the cotyledons. The axis of
embryo is called Tigellum.
• One end of tigellum bears the radicle or the future root. The other
end bears plumule or future shoot.
• Under favourable conditions, the root absorbs water and growth
begins. As the seed coat breaks, the radicle grows into the soil
forming the root system, and plumule comes above the soil
forming the shoot system.

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Fig 24: Post fertilisation change in ovule

Fig 23- a) Bean seed. B) parts of

seed showing tigellum

Checkpoint - 2

1. Name the various parts of a flower.

2. What are the non-essential parts of flowers?
3. Write the parts of stamen and carpel.
4. Name the swollen part of a carpel.
5. Describe the unisexual and bisexual flower.
6. Fertilisation occurs in which part of ovule?

Bird’s-eye view

• Reproduction is a process by which organisms produce offspring of

their kind and perpetuate.
• Two main methods of reproduction are observed in living
organisms are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
• The type of reproduction where a single parent produces offspring
without the formation and fusion of gametes is called asexual
reproduction.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
• In fission, the organism divides into two or more daughter cells
(binary fission and multiple fission respectively) like in Amoeba,
Plasmodium etc.
• An outgrowth develops and gets detached from the parent to
grow into an organism in the process of budding, like in Hydra.
• In Rhizopus, spores develop on blob-like sporangia which
dispersed on the moist surface of bread develop into new
individuals – a process called sporulation.
• The body fragments of an organism can also give rise to a new
organism, a process seen in organisms with simple body
organisation like Spirogyra.
• The process in which an organism can replace lost or injured body
part is called regeneration. Regeneration is observed in Hydra,
Planaria etc.
• Vegetative propagation is seen in plants where vegetative parts,
namely root, stem and leaves, give rise to new plants either
naturally or artificially.
• Natural vegetative propagation through leaves is seen in
Bryophyllum; through the stem in potato, ginger; through root in
sweet potato, tapioca etc.
• Artificial vegetative propagation is done through cutting, grafting,
layering and tissue culture.
• Sexual reproduction occurs within flowers in angiosperms
(flowering plants). A flower is a modified shoot of flowering plants
in which the essential reproductive parts are found.
• Stamen/Androecium consists of male reproductive parts, and
Carpel/Gynoecium is the consists of female reproductive parts.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
• Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred
from the ripe anther to the stigma.
• Fertilisation in plants is the fusion of the female and male gametes,
which takes place in the embryo sac of an ovule.
• Syngamy + Triple fusion = Double fertilisation.

Solved examples

1. Which life process ensures that a plant or animal species will not
disappear from this earth ?
Ans: Reproduction

2. What is the name of the reproductive process .

a. which involves two parents ?
b. which involves only one parent ?
Ans: a. Sexual reproduction b. Asexual reproduction
3. State whether the following statement is true or false :
Spores produced by the bread mould are actually its seeds.
Ans: False
4. Most of the plants reproduce by sexual method. Name two plants
which can reproduce asexually.
Ans: Ferns and Mosses
5. Which type of reproduction :
a. involves gametes ?
b. does not involve gametes ?
Ans: (a) Sexual reproduction

(b) Asexual reproduction

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
6. State whether human beings reproduce by sexual method or
asexual method.
Ans: Sexual method
7. Name two animals
a. which reproduce sexually.
b. which reproduce asexually.
Ans: (a) Dogs and cats (b) Amoeba and Hydra
8. Name one organism which reproduces by spore formation.
Ans: Bread mould (Rhizopus)

9. Name the method by which Paramecium reproduces. Is this

method sexual or asexual ?
Ans: Binary fission ; Asexual method

10. Name two plants :

(a) which can be grown from their broken stems.
(b) which can be grown from their leaves.
Ans: (a) Rose plant and Money plant
(b) Bryophyllum and Begonia

11. A worm “ X “ found in freshwater and slow-moving streams has

been accidently cut into three pieces. It was observed that in due
course of time, each cut piece of the worm develops to become a
complete worm by growing all the missing parts.
(a) Name the worm X which can exhibit this phenomenon of
making complete worm from its cut body parts.
(b) Name another organism Y which possesses the same
characteristic of growing fully from its cut body parts.
(c) What is the name of this process in which a complete organism
is formed from its cut body part.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(d)State whether X and Y are unicellular and/or multicellular
organisms.
(e)Can a dog be produced completely from its cut body part (say, a cut
tail) just like organisms X and Y ? Why ?
Ans: (a) Planaria (Flatworm) (b) Hydra
(c) Regeneration (d) Simple multicellular organisms
(e) No ; Because dog is a complex multicellular organism
12. A thickened underground stem “X” of a plant which is swollen with
stored food has a number of points “Y” on its surface. When the old
stem X is planted in the soil of a field in the next growing season, then
each point Y present on its surface grows into a new plant.
(a) What is the general name of the underground stems like “X” ?
(b) Give one example of X.
(c) What are points Y present on X known as ?
(d) Is it necessary to plant the whole of stem X in the ground to obtain
its new plants ? Explain your answer.
(e) What is the name of this method of reproduction of plants ?
Ans: (a) Stem tubers (b) Potato tuber (c) Eyes or Buds (d) No ; Even cut
pieces of X can be planted in the soil to obtain new plants provided
each cut piece has an eye or bud on it (e) Vegetative propagation by
tubers.

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Multiple Choice Type (Each carries one mark)

1. Which part of the plant exhibits vegetative propagation in
Bryophyllum?
(A) Root (B) Leaf
(C) Stem (D) None of the above
2. The group of petals is called:-
(A) Sepals (B) Calyx (C) Root (D) None of these
3. Name the portion of a plant that is grafted to another plant during
grafting?
(A) Stock (B) Scion (C) Stalk (D) Stem
4. In roses, the method of artificial vegetative propagation
commonly used is:-
(A) Tissue culture (B) Cutting
(C) Layering (D) None of these
5. Pollen grains are produced by:-
(A) Ovary (B) Anther (C) Stigma (D) Petal
6. Which one applies to insect-pollinated flowers?
(A) Flowers are very small and are produced in large quantities.
(B) Flowers are not prominent and without nectar.
(C) Flowers are conspicuous and scented having nectar.
(D) None of these
7. The group of sepals is called:-
(A) Gynoecium (B) Calyx
(C) Corolla (D) Androecium

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
8. Maize is:-
(A) Self-pollinated (B) Cross-pollinated by rain
(C) Cross-pollinated by insects (D) Cross-pollinated by wind
9. Which of the following produces male gametes in flower:-
(A) Sepals (B) Petals
(C) Carpels (D) Stamens
10. Pollen grains are deposited on which part of the carpel during
pollination?
(A) Ovary (B) Stigma
(C) Ovule (D) Stamens
11. When a pollen tube enters ovule, it has:-
(A) One male nucleus (B) Two male nuclei
(C) Three gamete nucleus (D) Four male gametes
12. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma is termed:-
(A) Ovulation (B) Double fertilization
(C) Pollination (D) Fertilization
13. Fertilisation in plants occurs in the:-
(A) Embryo sac (B) Style
(C) Pollen tube (D) Stigma
14. In which among the following stem cutting are commonly used for
propagation?
(A) Mango (B) Jasmine
(C) Cotton (D) Sugarcane
15. Vegetative propagation in plants like jasmine, citrus, and grapevine
is done by which of these processes?
(A) Stem layering (B) Stem cutting
(C) Stem grafting (D) None of these

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16. Asexual reproduction are :
(A) Fission (B) Budding
(C) Vegetative propagation (D)All of these
17. Binary fission occurs in :
(A) Plasmodium (B) Hydra
(C) Pomegranate (D) Amoeba
18. Multiple fission occurs in :
(A) Euglena (B) Yeast
(C) Plasmodium (D) Paramecium
19. Parental identity is lost in which of the following?
(A) Budding (B) Binary fission
(C) Multiple fission (D) Both B and C
20. Which of the following organisms shows budding :
(A) Spirogyra (B) Hydra
(C) Amoeba (D) Paramecium
Very Short Answer Type (Each carries one mark)

1. Mention the reproductive parts of a flower.

2. Vegetative propagation can occur through which parts of plants?
3. What is the function of pollen grains in flowers?
4. What is the other name of (i) Androecium (ii) Gynoecium?
5. Give an example each for a plant that propagates artificially by (a)
cutting, (b) layering.
6. Which part is used in the vegetative propagation of Bryophyllum?
7. What is stock in grafting?
8. Name the agencies through which cross-pollination take place.
9. Name two abiotic agents of pollination.
10. Which group of plants shows double fertilisation?

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Short Answer Type (Each carries two mark)
1. What methods will you use to grow jasmine and rose plant?
2. Leaves of Bryophyllum fallen on the ground produce new plants,
whereas the leaves of rose do not. Why?
3. What are the two possibilities of self-pollination?
4. What are the advantages of tissue culture?
5. Cross-pollination considered to be better than the self-pollination.
Why?
6. List two main advantages of sexual reproduction.
7. 'Grafting is a common method to obtain a superior plant from two
different plants'. Explain.
8. Describe the different parts of a stamen in the male reproductive
organ of a plant.
9. What is vegetative propagation? Classify it along with examples.
10. How are these ornamental plants propagated? Mention the name
of the method :
(i) Jasmine (ii) Rose
(iii) Bougainvillea (iv) Hibiscus

Long Answer Type (Each carries four mark)

1. Define the terms unisexual flower and bisexual flower, giving one
example of each.
2. Explain double fertilisation in plants.
3. What is vegetative propagation? When is it used? Name three
methods of vegetative propagation.
4. Differentiate between 'self-pollination' and 'cross-pollination'.

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5. Draw a diagram of a flower to show its male and female
reproductive parts. Label on it :
(i) The ovary (ii) The anther
(iii) The filament (iv) The stigma
6. Draw a labelled diagram of pollen tube formation & fertilisation in
plants.
7. Give two advantages of vegetative propagation.
8. What is pollination? Describe cross-pollination.

NCERT questions

1. What is the importance of DNA copying mechanism in

reproduction?
2. Why is variation mostly beneficial to the species but not necessary
for the individual?
3. How are the two types of binary fission different from each other?
4. What are the advantages of organism reproducing through spore
formation?
5. Comment on why complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration.
6. How is vegetative propagation useful for growing some types of
plants?
7. Why is DNA replication an essential part of the process of
reproduction?
8. How is pollination different from fertilisation?
9. How is sexual reproduction advantageous over asexual
reproduction?
10. Illustrate a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.

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11. How are the modes of reproduction different in unicellular and
multicellular organisms?
12. How does reproduction help in maintaining the stability of a
population of species?

Solutions

Novice level

MCQs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B D B B B C B D D B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C A D A D D C D B

VSA

1 Stamen and carpel 6 Leaf

2 Root, stem and leaves 7 Rooted plant is called
stock
3 It produces male 8 Water, Wind, Insect,
gametes Bird, Man
4 (i) Stamen, (ii) Carpel 9 Water and Wind
5 (a) Rose, (b) Jasmine 10 Angiosperms

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

COMPENDIUM

A. Human reproductive system

a) Male reproductive system
b) Female reproductive system
B. Fertilisation
C. What happens when the egg is not fertilised?
D. Reproductive Health
a) Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
E. Methods of contraception
(a) Natural method
(b) Mechanical method
(c) Chemical method
(d) Surgical method
F. Bird’s-eye view
G. Solved example
H. Practice yourself
I. Solutions

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A. Reproduction In humans
As discussed in prior, sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction
which involves the fusion of male and female gametes that leads to
the formation of a new organism, which is genetically different yet
similar from the parent.

• Important features of sexual reproduction are:

1. It is biparental (one male and one female).
2. Each parent produces reproductive units called gametes.
3. Sperm is the male gamete and ovum/egg is the female gamete.
4. Single diploid cell zygote is formed by the fusion of male and
female gamete.
5. An embryo forms from the repeated mitotic divisions of the
zygote.
6. The offspring are genetically different from both the parents and
can show resemblance to parents.

Human reproductive system

• Puberty: The age at which the gamete production starts and sex
hormones are produced and sexual maturity is attained is called
puberty.
• Generally, 10-12 years is the female pubertal age, and 13-14 years is
the male pubertal age.
Pubertal changes (secondary sexual characters) in male :
• Growth of sex organs, [Testes & Penis].
• Deepening of voice.
• Widening of shoulders.
• Appearance of beard and moustaches.

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• Growth of hair under armpits, chest, and around pubic area.
• Increased secretion of sweat and sebaceous glands due to which
there can be an appearance of pimples.

Pubertal changes (secondary sexual characters) in female :

• Initiation of the menstrual cycle.

• Growth of mammary glands (breasts).
• Widening of pelvis and hips.
• Growth of hair under armpits and around the pubic area.
• Maturation of secondary sex organs like uterus, fallopian tubes.

Fig-25 Puberty Changes in Male and Female

a) Male reproductive system:

• The male reproductive system consists of organs which produce
the germ-cells and other organs that conduct the germ-cells to the
site of fertilisation.
• The formation of sperms occurs in the testes. Testes are located
outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm
formation requires a lower temperature [1–3°C] than the normal
body temperature.
• Testes secrete testosterone which is a male sex
hormone(androgen).

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• Apart from regulating the formation of sperms, testosterone is
responsible for the changes that appear in boys during puberty
• The sperms formed in testes are conducted through the vas
deferens which combines with a tube coming from the urinary
bladder.
• The urethra/urinogenital duct hence forms a common passage
for both the sperms and urine.
• Into the conducting duct for sperms, glands like the seminal
vesicle and the prostate add their secretions which provide
nourishment. They also provide an easy medium for sperm
transport.
• The sperms consist of a head which contains the genetic material,
a constricted neck, a middle piece which contains mitochondria
and a long tail that helps them to move towards the female germ-
cell (ovum).

Fig-26 Male reproductive system

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
a) Female reproductive system:
• The female gametes or eggs are produced in the ovaries.
• The ovary is the source for female sex hormones, i.e., Oestrogen
and Progesterone.
• During birth, the ovaries of a female contain thousands of
immature eggs. On reaching puberty, each of these start maturing.
• Every month an egg is produced by one of the ovaries.
• The fallopian tube/oviduct carries the egg from the ovary to the
uterus.
• The two oviducts open into an inverted pear-shaped structure
known as the uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina/copulation
canal through the cervix.

Fig 27: Female reproductive system

B. Fertilisation
• The sperms enter through the vagina during sexual
intercourse/copulation.
• Uterine contractions and chemical attraction towards female
gamete play an important role in sperm ascent.

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 CHAPTER 3
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
• If there is a simultaneous release of ovum from the ovary
(ovulation), it results in fusion of the egg and sperm. This process
is known as fertilisation.
• The result of fertilisation is a single-celled diploid zygote.
• The zygote gets implanted/attached in the lining of the uterus.
• The mother's body prepares for the development of the embryo.
Hence the uterus thickens gradually from the nutrients it receives
through blood vessels, and it nurtures the growing embryo.
• The embryo develops into a foetus in two months as it starts to
look like a human baby.
The placenta is a disc-like
structure formed by maternal
(modified uterus) and foetal
(villi) tissue and it continues
to nourish the foetus.

Fig 28- Steps of Reproduction in Human

• The modified maternal
uterine wall contain blood spaces, which surround the villi.
• Placenta provides surface area for the exchange of oxygen and
nutrients between the mother and the foetus.
• The foetus will also generate waste substances which are
eliminated into the mother's blood through the placenta.
• The umbilical cord is the structure that connects the foetus to the
placenta. It takes nine months for the development of the foetus
inside the mother's body.
• Parturition is the last phase of pregnancy which result in the
delivery of the child as a result of uterine contractions which
intensify as a result of the hormone oxytocin.

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C. What Happens
When the Egg is
not Fertilised?
• If the egg is not fertilised, it
remains viable for about
one day.
Fig 29- Placenta and Umbilical cord
• Since the ovary releases an
egg every month, the uterus prepares itself every month to receive
a fertilised egg. Thus the uterine lining becomes thick, and blood
vessels that supply to it develop.
• The uterine lining is necessary for nourishing the embryo if
fertilisation takes place.
• If there is no fertilisation the uterine lining is not needed any longer.
• So, the lining slowly breaks, and
the developed blood vessel
ruptures and comes out through
the vagina.
• This cycle takes ideally repeats
every 28 days in the absence of
pregnancy and is known as
menstruation. It usually lasts for
about four to eight days. Fig 30 –Menstrual Cycle

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D. Reproductive Health
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
• STDs are infectious diseases which are spread by sexual contact.
e.g. AIDS, Hepatitis.
AIDS (Acquired HIV (Human Destroy the immune system of
Immuno Immuno the body - persistent cough and
Deficiency Deficiency fever. Body attacked by other
Syndrome) Virus) pathogens which cause diseases
like pneumonia, T.B. and certain
cancers.
Syphilis Treponema Causes lesions and sores in the
pallidum genital tract. Burning sensation
(a bacterium) during urination.
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Infects mucous membranes of
gonorrhoeae the urinogenital tract.
(a bacterium) Genital discharge, painful
urination
Trichomoniasis Trichomonas Vaginal discharge, itching,
vaginalis irritation and uncharacteristic
(a protozoan) discharge.

Methods of prevention of STDs :

(i) The people should be educated about various STDs.

(ii) Sexual intercourse with strangers should be avoided.

(iii) Unprotected sexual intercourse should be prevented.

(iv) High standard of moral education should be given to the people.

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E. Methods of contraception
The prevention of pregnancy or conception in women is called
contraception.
Natural method of contraception:-
(i) Rhythm method: Intercourse is safe for the week before and the
week after menstruation. This method has the maximum failure rates
(failure rate being the higher chances of conception).

(ii) Coitus interruptus involves the withdrawal of the penis before

ejaculation.

Mechanical methods:

(i) It includes the use of barriers like condoms which are the rubber or
latex sheets put on the penis before coitus/intercourse. These
structures prevent the fusion of gametes.
(ii) Use of cervical caps or diaphragms fitted in the vagina of female to
prevent the entry of sperms into the uterus hence avoiding
conception.
(iii) Use of IUCD/IUD, i.e.,
Intra-Uterine Contraceptive
Devices/Intra-Uterine Device
like copper-T fitted in the
uterus, help to prevent
implantation and copper
contain spermicidal activity.
These devices can cause side Fig-31- Methods of Contraception

effects due to the irritation of

uterus.

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 CHAPTER 3
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Chemical methods:

(i) It consists of using spermicidal chemicals. They may be in the form

of tablets, pastes, creams, and jellies introduced in the vagina before
intercourse.

(ii) Another method is the use of oral contraceptive (OC) pills which
inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland and thus
inhibiting ovulation from the
ovary. These contraceptives,
therefore, change the
hormonal balance so that egg
cell is not released and hence
prevent fertilisation. Fig-32- Types of Spermicide

Surgical methods:

(i) Tubectomy: A part of fallopian tubes in females is cut and tied.

(ii) Vasectomy: A part of vas deferens of each side is cut and tied. The
surgical process ensures the conduction of gametes is prevented.
(iii) Removal of testes is known as castration and removal of ovaries
surgically is known as ovariectomy
(iv) Another example of the surgical method is MTP, i.e. Medical
Termination of Pregnancy or abortion.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Fig-33- Tubectomy Fig 31: Vas deferens after vasectomy.

Checkpoint

1. Expand the following terms :

(i) IUCD (ii) STD (iii)HIV (iv) AIDS
2. How do oral contraceptives function?
3. What is contraception?
4. What is family planning?
5. What is a vasectomy?
6. What do you understand by fertilisation?
7. What is the product of the fusion of a sperm and an ovum known
as?
8. What changes occur in girls in the age group of 10-13 years?
9. Draw a well-labelled diagram depicting vasectomy and
tubectomy.
10. Why is fertilisation in humans possible, if copulation takes place
during the middle of the menstrual cycle?

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 CHAPTER 3
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Bird’s-eye view

• Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction which involves the

fusion of male and female gametes that leads to the formation of
a new organism, which is genetically different yet similar from the
parent.
• Puberty: The age at which the gamete production starts and sex
hormones to be produced and sexual maturity is attained is called
puberty.
• Generally, 10-12 years is the female pubertal age, and 13-14 years is
the male pubertal age.
• Pubertal changes/secondary sexual characters in male include in
growth of sex organs, [Testes & Penis], deepening of voice,
widening of shoulders, appearance of beard and moustaches, etc.
• Pubertal changes/secondary sexual characters in female Initiation
of the menstrual cycle, growth of mammary glands (breasts),
widening of pelvis and hips, etc.
• Growth of hair under armpits and around pubic area is a common
change for both boys and girls.
• Testes & ovaries are the primary male and female reproductive
organs respectively.
• Testes secrete testosterone which is a male sex
hormone(androgen).
• The ovary is the source for female sex hormones, i.e., oestrogen
and progesterone.
• Fertilisation of male and female gamete occurs in the female
reproductive system. Fertilisation results in successful pregnancy
if it occurs in fallopian tube.

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• The result of fertilisation is a single-celled diploid zygote.
• The embryo develops into a foetus in two months as it starts to look
like a human baby.
• The placenta is a disc-like structure formed by maternal tissue
(modified uterus) and foetal (villi) tissue and it continues to nourish
the foetus.
• The umbilical cord is the structure that connects the foetus to the
placenta. It takes nine months for the development of the child
inside the mother's body.
• When there is no fertilisation, the thickened uterine lining slowly
breaks, and the developed blood vessel ruptures and comes out
through the vagina.
• This cycle takes ideally repeats every 28 days in the absence of
pregnancy and is known as menstruation.
• STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) are infectious diseases which
are spread by sexual contact. e.g. AIDS, Hepatitis.
• The prevention of pregnancy or conception in women is called
contraception.
• There are natural methods, mechanical methods, chemical
methods and surgical methods of contraception.
• Tubectomy: A part of fallopian tubes in females is cut and tied.
Vasectomy: A part of vas deferens of each side is cut and tied. These
are the surgical methods of contraception.

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Solved examples

1. Name two animals which undergo external fertilisation and two

animals which undergo internal fertilisation ?
Ans: External fertilisation : Frog and Fish ; Internal fertilisation :
Dogs and Cows
2. Define sexual reproduction.
Ans: Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction which involves
the fusion of male and female gametes that leads to the formation
of a new organism, which is genetically different yet similar from
the parent.
3. Do all organisms give birth to individuals like humans ?
Ans: No
4. Write the full forms of the following as they occur in biology : (i)
STD (ii) AIDS (iii) HIV
Ans: (i) STD: Sexually Transmitted Diseases; (ii) AIDS: Acquired
Immunodeficiency Diseases; (iii) HIV: Human Immunodeficiency
Virus
5. What is the causative organism for the following diseases ?
(i) Gonorrhoea
(ii) Syphilis
(iii) AIDS
Ans: (i) Gonorrhoea: Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(ii) Syphillis: Treponema pallidum
(iii) AIDS: HIV ( Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
6. What are the organs in humans which produce the gametes ?
Ans: Testes in males and ovaries in females.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
7. (a) What are the male sex cells in humans called ?
(b) Name the organ which produces male sex cells.
Ans: (a) Sperms (b) Testes
8. What is the name of the process in which thickened uterus lining
along with blood vessels is removed from the body of a human
female through vaginal bleeding?
Ans: Menstruation
9. X and Y are two human beings. The organ A in the reproductive
system of X releases a mature gamete B once a month which goes
into a tube-like structure C through a funnel-like opening. The
organ D in the reproductive system of Y makes and releases
gametes E which pass through a duct F and are introduced by an
organ of Y, into the body of X. B and E fuse together in C to form a
new cell G. The cell G divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells H
which gets embedded in the lining of organ I of reproductive
system of X where it grows and develops into a baby.
(a) Name (i) organ A and (ii) gamete B
(b) Write two names of the tube like structure C.
(c) Name (i) organ D and (ii) gamete E.
(d) Write two names of duct F.
(e) Name (i) cell G, (ii) ball of cells H and (iii) organ I.
(f) Out of X and Y which is (i) male (ii) female?
Ans: (a) (i) Ovary (ii) Ovum (or Egg)
(b) Fallopian tube ; Oviduct
(c) (i) Testis (ii) Sperm
(d) Sperm duct ; Vas deferens
(e) (i) Zygote (Fertilised egg) (ii) Embryo (iii) Uterus (or Womb)
(f) (i) Y is male (ii) X is female

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Multiple Choice Type (Each carries one mark)

1. Binary fission occurs in :

(A) Amoeba (B) Paramecium
(C) Planaria (D) A & B both
2. Which one of the following is concerned with asexual
reproduction?
(A) Zygote (B) Spores (C) Gametes (D) Gonads
3. Which type of reproduction of Hydra is most common?
(A) Budding (B) Fragmentation
(C) Sexual reproduction (D) Gametogenesis
4. The most fundamental characteristics of a living being:-
(A) Locomotion (B) Regeneration
(C) Fragmentation (D) Reproduction
5. Multiple fission occurs in:-
(A) Hydra (B) Plasmodium
(C) Planaria (D) All of these
6. The animals consist of both male & female sex known as:-
(A) Viviparous (B) Oviparous
(C) Sterile (D) Hermaphrodite
7. What are the animals which give birth to young ones are called:-
(A) Fragmentation (B) Gametogenesis
(C) Triploblastic (D) viviparous
8. Testes of man occur:-
(A) Inside body

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CHAPTER 3
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(B) The upper side of the kidney
(C) On either side of the dorsal aorta
(D) In scrotal sacs
9. Fertilisation of ovum takes place in:-
(A) Ovary (B) Fallopian tube
(C) Cervix (D) Uterus
10. Oogenesis is a process of formation of:-
(A) Sperms (B) Ova
(C) Sperms and ova (D) Embryo
11. The middle piece of a mammalian sperm contains:-
(A) nucleus (B) acrosome (C) vacuole (D) mitochondria
12. Male hormone is:-
(A) Corpus luteum (B) Testosterone
(C) Progesterone (D) Gonadotropin
13. Sperms move by:-
(A) Head (B) Acrosome
(C) Middle piece (D) Tail
14. Binary fission is a form of:-
(A) Sexual reproduction (B) Asexual reproduction
(C) Both of these (D) None of these
15. Fertilisation of frog takes place in:-
(A) Uterus (B) Fallopian tube
(C) Water (D) Cervix
16. Which of the following animals can reproduce through
regeneration?
(A) Hydra (B) Planaria
(C) Wall lizard (D) Both (A) and (B)
17. Development of an organism from an unfertilised ovum is called:-

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
(A) Oogenesis (B) Parthenogenesis
(C) Vegetative propagation (D) Asexual reproduction
18. Egg-producing animals such as birds are called:-
(A) Unisexual (B) Oviparous
(C) Viviparous (D) Hermaphrodite
19. What is true for gametes?
(A) They are diploid (B) They form gonads
(C) They are formed from gonads(D) They produce hormones
20. Which of these secretes seminal fluid?
(A) Prostate gland (B) Cowper's gland
(C) Seminal vesicle (D) All of these
21. The normal duration of the menstrual cycle is:-
(A) 7-8 days (B) One day
(C) 3-4 days (D) 28 days
22. Female sex hormones are:-
(A) Progesterone (B) Estrogen
(C) Testosterone (D) A & B Both
23. The process of attachment of embryo in the endometrium (inner
wall of the uterus)
(A) Placentation (B) Implantation (C) Gestation (D) Cleavage
24. Which of the following is an IUCD?
(A) Copper-T (B) Diaphragm
(C) Oral pills (D) Tubectomy
25. The primary reason for the increase in the human population is:-
(A) The decrease in the death rate
(B) The increase in the birth rate
(C) The improvement in medical technology
(D) All of the above .

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Very Short Answer Type (Each carries one mark)

1. Where does fertilisation take place?

2. What is a foetus?
3. How is an embryo produced?
4. What is a zygote?
5. Write three examples of animals in which external fertilisation
occur.
6. Which is the primary sex organ in males?
7. Which is the primary sex organ in females?
8. What is the male and female gamete also called?
9. Name two surgical methods for contraception.
10. Expand IUD.
Short Answer Type (Each carries two marks)
1. What are the parts of a male reproductive system?
2. Define metamorphosis.
3. How is internal fertilisation differ from external fertilisation?
4. How does a sperm differ from an ovum?
5. Draw a well-labelled diagram of the female reproductive system.
6. What are oviparous & viviparous animals?
7. Describe the process of development from zygote to foetus in brief.
8. What is puberty?
9. At what age do human males and females attain puberty?
10. What is tubectomy?
11. Why is reproductive health important?
12. What is ovulation?
13. Which organ enables the developing foetus to obtain nourishment
from the mother's blood?

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14. What are Graafian follicles?
15. What is gestation?
16. How many follicles mature every month during the reproductive
phase of a human female?
17. What is internal fertilisation? Give an example.
18. What happens if the mature ovum is not fertilised in a female?
19. Distinguish between (i) Egg and Embryo (ii) Male and Female
Urethra
20. Why is vagina called as 'birth canal'?

Long Answer Type (Each carries four marks)

1. Why do female frogs produce eggs in large number?

2. "Sexual reproduction is more advance than asexual reproduction"
why?
3. How is foetus different from an embryo?
4. Where does the embryo get embedded after fertilisation?
5. How could a single cell become such a big individual?

NCERT questions

1. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland?
2. What is the change seen in girls at the time of puberty?
3. Inside the mother's body, how does the embryo get nourishment?
4. Will an IUD help in protecting a person from sexually transmitted
diseases?
5. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
6. Why does menstruation occur?
7. What are the different methods of contraception?

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CHAPTER 3
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Multiple Choice Type (Each carries one mark)

1. If the pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower, it is

termed:-
(A) Allogamy (B) Geitonogamy
(C) Autogamy (D) All of these
2. Which part of the flower forms the fruit?
(A) Whole flower (B) Only stamens and carpel
(C) Only ovary (D) Only carpel
3. In angiosperm after the fertilisation endosperm formed is:-
(A) Haploid (B) Diploid (C) Triploid (D) Tetraploid
4. After fertilisation ovule grows into:-
(A) Seed (B) Fruit (C) Placenta (D) None
5. Which is not a part of carpel:-
(A) Stigma (B) Ovary (C) Anther (D) Style
6. The nucleus of the bud is formed by the division of :
(A) Meiosis (B) Amitosis (C) Mitosis (D) All of these
7. Clones are formed as a result of :
(A) Budding (B) Regeneration
(C) Vegetative propagation (D) All of them
8. The malarial parasite reproduces by :
(A) Multiple fission (B) Binary fission
(C) Budding (D) Regeneration

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9. The outgrowth of Hydra is termed as :
(A) Bulb (B) Bud (C) Daughter Hydra (D) Tentacles
10. Budding is exhibited by which of the following?
(A) Plasmodium (B) Amoeba
(C) Yeast (D) Rhizopus
11. The importance of reproduction in organisms is because of:-
(A) Production of individuals with the same traits
(B) Formation of new individuals
(C) Production of individuals with different traits to being variation in
a population
(D) All of the above
12. Identical twins arise when:
(A) Same sperm fertilises two eggs
(B) Two similar sperms fertilise two similar eggs
(C) Two halves of the same egg develop separately after it is fertilised
by one sperm
(D) Two halves of the same egg are fertilised by two separate sperms
13. Coitus/copulation in human beings may result in fertilisation
during (a normal menstrual cycle is for 28 days)
(A) 4th day and 10th day
(B) 21st day and 28th day
(C) 11th day and 17th day
(D) Any day between 1st day and 28th day
14. The chart given beside shows a cell division.

The division is:-

(A) Mitosis
(B) Meiosis

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(C) Division of an Amoeba during binary fission
(D) Division of a zygote during development
15. The formation of gametes are as a result of:-
(A) Vegetative propagation (B) Asexual reproduction
(C) Meiosis (D) Mitosis
16. The structure which helps in the exchange of materials between
mother and the foetus is called:
(A) Uterus (B) Fallopian tube
(C) Oviduct (D) Placenta
17. Reproduction by budding takes place in:-
(A) Hydra and Earthworm (B) Hydra and Yeast
(C) Yeast and Bacteria (D) Bacteria and Amoeba
18. During mitosis, which structure contains DNA that is equally
distributed in daughter cells?
(A) Chloroplasts (B) Cytoplasm
(C) Chromosomes (D) Centrosome
19. Fertilisation of an ovum and sperm takes place in which
structure to result in pregnancy?
(A) Cervix (B) Vagina
(C) Fallopian tube (D) Uterus
20. A human zygote has:-
(A) 46 chromosomes (B) 23 chromosomes
(C) 47 chromosomes (D) 48 chromosome
21. Regeneration is a process in which:-
(A) A tumour is produced
(B) A new individual is produced
(C) Missing parts grow again
(D) New ones replace old individuals

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22. In comparison to human egg, the spermatozoa have less:-
(A) Chromosomes (B) Centrosomes
(C) Cytoplasm (D)Mobility

Fill in the blanks

1. In Rhizopus asexual reproduction takes place by .................

formation.
2. In Bryophyllum vegetative propagation takes place through their
..................
3. The process in which new organisms are formed by existing
organism is called .................
4. In Spirogyra, asexual reproduction, takes place by .................
5. Natural vegetative propagation takes place in sweet potato by
.................
6. In ................. method a branch of parent plant is buried in the soil.
7. In.................method a cutting part of a plant is grafted on the other
plant part.
8. Unorganised mass of cells is known as .................
9. Tissue culture is also known as .................
10. Grafting is not possible in ................. plants.
11. All floral leaves are placed on the ................. of flower.
12. Stalk of flower is known as .................
13. ................. protects the flower bud before it opens.
14. If both sepals and petals are coloured cannot be distinguished
from each other, then their whorl is known as.................
15. Each stamen has two parts filament and .................
16. Each pollen grain produces ................. male gametes.
17. A carpel has three parts ovary, ................. and stigma.

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18. ................. is a swollen basal part of carpel.
19. ................. of carpel receives pollen grains.
20. Second male gamete + Two polar nuclei = .................
21. The....................is also called as a womb.
22. The .................... is the primary reproductive organ in male.
23. The .................... is a structure that connects the mother and foetus.
24. The process of laying eggs in large number is called ....................
25. .................... is the primary reproductive organ in a female.
26. Testes produce....................
27. The cells involved in sexual reproduction are called ....................
28. In animals like fish and frog fertilisation takes place in ………………
29. The human zygote gets implanted in the ....................
30. IVF stands for....................
True or false

1. Internal fertilisation takes place outside the female's body.

2. Birds and snakes are oviparous animals.
3. A tadpole is the young one of a frog.
4. Animals like Amoeba multiply by budding.
5. The fusion of male and female sex cells is called fertilisation.
6. Internal fertilisation takes place outside the female's body.
7. Birds and snakes are oviparous animals.
8. A tadpole is the young one of a frog.
9. Animals like Amoeba multiply by budding.
10. The fusion of male and female sex cells is called fertilisation.

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Competitive Corner

Solved assertion and reason questions for board and

competitive exams

1. Assertion : DNA copying is necessary during reproduction.

Reason : DNA copying leads to the transmission of characters
from parents to offspring.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
DNA copying is necessary during reproduction because it leads to
the transmission of characters from parents to offspring and
brings about variation.
2. Assertion : Holoblastic cleavage with almost equal sized
blastomeres is a characteristic of placental animals.
Reason : Eggs of most mammals, including humans, are of
centrolecithal type.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false
3. Assertion : Sexual reproduction increases genetic diversities and
plays a role in origin of new species.
Reason : Sexual reproduction involves formation of gametes and
fusion of gametes.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Sexual reproduction involves two parents that results in the
offsprings that are not identical to the parents. If causes variations;
which are essential for evolution as well as survival of species
under unfavourable conditions.

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4. Assertion : An embryo is formed from fertilized egg.
Reason : A monocot embryo comprises embryonal axis with two
cotyledons.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false. Zygote, a
fertilized egg give rise to an embryo, which as the ability to develop
into a complete plant. A typical dicot embryo comprises an
embryonal axis with two cotyledons.
5. Assertion : Testes is present outside the abdominal cavity.
Reason : It stores sperms which require a lower temperature than
the normal body temperature.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is
the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Scrotum, a pouch containing testis is present outside the
abdominal cavity because sperms require a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.
6. Assertion : Vagina and cervix together are also called as birth canal.
Reason : During birth, the baby passes through the vagina.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is
the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Vagina is called as birth canal, because the baby passes through the
vagina during birth.
7. Assertion : Individuals produced by asexual reproduction are
known as clones.
Reason : They are known as clones because they are genetically
identical.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is
the correct explanation of assertion (A).

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The new individuals produced after cell divisions in asexual
reproduction are always genetically identical or clone to each
other and their parents.
8. Assertion : Vasectomy is a surgical method of birth control.
Reason : In vasectomy, small portion of oviduct is cut or tied
properly.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false.
Vasectomy is a surgical method of birth control. in which small
portion of the sperm duct is cut and tied properly.
9. Assertion : HIV-AIDS is a bacterial disease.
Reason : It spreads through sharing of food and water.
Ans : (e) Both Assertion and Reason are false. HIV-AIDS is viral
disease that is transmitted sexually or through transmission of
blood.
10. Assertion : Amoeba reproduces by Binary fission.
Reason : All unicellular organisms reproduce asexually.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Amoeba is a unicellular organism. It reproduces asexually through
binary fission. It is the division of one cell into two similar or
identical cells.
11. Assertion : In morula stage, cells divide without increases in size.
Reason : Zona pellucida remain intact till cleavage is complete.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
12. Assertion : Double fertilisation is unique to angiosperms.
Reason : Triple fusion occurs in both fertilization.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false.

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Double fertilization is a characteristic feature of flowering plants.
In this process, out of the two sperm nuclei, one sperm nucleus
fuses with the egg nucleus to form an embryo (process is called
syngamy) and another fuses with two secondary nucleus to form
an endosperm (process is called triple fusion). Because two kinds
of fusion-syngamy and triple fusion-take place, the process is
known as double fertilisation.

13. Assertion : Unisexual flowers have separate male and female

flowers whereas a typical monocot embryo comprises an
embryonal axis with single cotyledon.

Reason : Cucumber, pumpkin and water melon are example of

unisexual flowers.
Ans : (b) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R)
is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Unisexual flowers have separate male and female flowers. The
example includes cucumber, pumpkin and watermelon
14. Assertion : Plants are vegetatively propagated even though they
bear seeds.
Reason : Potatoes reproduces through tubers, apples by cutting
etc.
Ans : (b) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R)
is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Vegetative reproduction happens through the use of vegetative
parts of the plants, such as leaves, stems, and roots to produce
new plants or through growth from specialized vegetative plant
parts.

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15. Assertion : Pollen grains from the carpel stick to the stigma of
stamen.
Reason : The fertilised egg cells grow inside the ovules and
become seeds.
Ans : (d) Assertion (A) is false but reason (R) is true.
16. Assertion : Characteristics of parental plants can be preserved
through asexual reproduction.
Reason : Vegetative reproduction involves only mitosis.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Asexual reproduction involves a single individual, which give rise
to new individual that are genetically identical to parents. It is
because, when organisms reproduce asexually, only mitotic
divisions are involved and the chromosome number remains the
same.
17. Assertion : Urethra in human male acts as urinogenital canal.
Reason : Urethra carries only urine while sperms are carried by
vasa deferentia only.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false
18. Assertion : During fertilization only head of spermatozoa enters
egg.
Reason : If several spermatozoa hit the egg at same time, all can
enter the egg.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false.
19. Assertion : Asexual reproduction is also called blastogenesis.
Reason : In asexual reproduction, there is no formation and fusion
of gametes.

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Ans : (b) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R)
is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).
20. Assertion : Amoeba shows multiple fission during unfavourable
conditions.
Reason : Chances of survival are less during unfavourable
conditions.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
21. Assertion : Plasmodium reproduces by multiple fission.
Reason : Multiple fission is a type of asexual reproduction.
Ans : (b) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R)
is not the correct explanation of assertion (A). Plasmodium
preproduces asexually by multiple fission.
22. Assertion : In human male, testes are extra-abdominal which are
present inside scrotum.
Reason : Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for
the production and storage of sperms.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A). Formation of sperms
needs lower temperature than the normal body temperature.
Hence, testes lie outside the body cavity in the scrotum.
24. Assertion : At puberty, in boys, voice begins to crack and thick hair
grows on face.
Reason : At puberty, there is decreased secretion of testosterone
in boys.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false.
Puberty in boys is regulated by male sex hormone called
testosterone, which are secreted by testes. In puberty, secondary

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sexual characters like growth of hair on face, chest, broadening
of shoulders and deepening of voice occurs.
25. Assertion : Spores are unicellular bodies.
Reason : The parent body simply breaks up into smaller pieces
on maturation.
Ans : (c) Assertion (A) is true but reason (R) is false.
26. Assertion : Surgical methods are most effective methods of
contraception.
Reason : Surgical method blocks gametes transport and hence
prevent fertilisation.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
Surgical method like vasectomy in male and tubectomy in
female prevent pregnancy. These methods block gamete
transport and hence prevent fertilisation. They are very effective
but reversibility is very poor.
27. Assertion : Asexual reproduction is a primitive type of
reproduction.
Reason : Asexual reproduction involves only mitotic cell division.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R)
is the correct explanation of assertion (A).
28. Assertion : Clones are offspring of an organism formed by
asexual reproduction.
Reason : Clones have exact copies of DNA as their parent.
Ans : (b) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true but reason (R)
is not the correct explanation of assertion (A).

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29. Assertion : Colonies of yeast multiply in sugar solution. Reason :
Sugar is made of sucrose which provides energy for sustaining all life
activities.
Ans : (a) Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true and reason (R) is
the correct explanation of assertion (A).

Solutions

Novice level

MCQs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B A D B D D D B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D B D B C D B B C D
21 22 23 24 25
D D B A D

VSA:
1 Fallopian tube 6 Testes

2 Developed embryo after 8 7 Ovary

weeks

3 When zygote divides 8 Sperm, ova

continuously

4 Single cell formed on 9 Vasectomy Tubectomy

fertilisation

5 Most cnidarians, starfish, 10 Intra-Uterine Device

frog

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Advanced level
MCQs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C C A C C D A B C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D C C B C D B C C A
21 22
C C

Fill in the blanks

1. Spore
2. Leaf
3. Reproduction
4. Fragmentation
5. Root
6. Layering
7. Grafting
8. Callus
9. Micropropagation
10. Monocot
11. Thalamus
12. Pedicel
13. Calyx
14. Perianth
15. Anther
16. Two
17. Style

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18. Ovary
19. Stigma
20. Primary endosperm nucleus
21. Uterus
22. Testes
23. Placenta
24. Super ovulation
25. Ovary
26. Testosterone
27. Germ cells
28. External
29. Uterus
30. Invitro fertilisation

True or false:
1 2 3 4 5
F T T F T

END

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