Mobile Computing Unit 2

Unit 2 Wireless Transmission – I

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Frequencies for Communication
2.3 Signals
2.4 Antennas
2.5 Signal Propagation
2.6 Multiplexing
2.7 Summary
2.8 Terminal Questions
2.9 Answers

2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you read about the importance of the Mobile
Communications. You read about the various applications of mobile
communications and different types of Mobile and Wireless Devices. You
have also read on the history of Wireless Communication and had a brief
introduction to simple reference model used for communication.
In this unit, you are introduced to the range of frequencies used for
communication and the necessity of regulating it. You will also be
introduced to the concept of signals and its representation in terms of
frequency domain and time domain with the help of Fourier analysis. You
will also study the Antennas and the characteristics of signal propagation. A
brief introduction to different multiplexing schemes is also described in this
unit.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 list various ranges of frequencies used for communication
 explain the significance of frequency regulation
 define signal, frequency spectrum, and Fourier transformation
 explain the characteristics and effects of signal propagation
 discuss the effects of device mobility
 explain the various multiplexing schemes

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2.2 Frequencies for Communication

Radio transmission can take place using different frequency bands. Each
frequency band exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages. We can
transmit any data by the technique of Modulation. Modulation is a process of
mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This new signal is
capable of travelling through wired media or the wireless media to the
farther distance depending upon the band of frequency used for modulation.
Figure 2.1 gives a rough overview of the frequency spectrum that can be
used for data transmission. The figure shows frequencies starting at 300 Hz
and going up to over 300 THz. Frequency for communication ranges from
Very Low Frequency (VLF) to Ultra Violet light (UV). Other frequencies are
Low Frequency (LF), Medium Frequency (MF), High Frequency (HF), Very
High Frequency (VHF), Ultra High Frequency (UHF), Super High Frequency
(SHF), and Extra High Frequency (EHF), infrared and visible light.

Figure 2.1: Frequency Spectrum that can be used for Data Transmission.

The relation between the frequency and the wavelength of the signal is
given via the equation:
λ = c/f,………………………….. (2.1)

Where  is wave length, c 3x108m/s (speed of light) and f is the frequency.

For traditional wired networks, frequencies of several hundred kHz are used
for distances up to some km with twisted pair copper wires, while
frequencies of several hundred MHz are used with coaxial cable
(new coding schemes work with several hundred MHz even with twisted pair
copper wires over distances of some 100 m). Fiber optics are used for
frequency ranges of several hundred THz through the use of infra-red
technology in the light region. Radio transmission starts at several kHz in
the very low frequency (VLF) range. These are very long waves. Waves in

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the low frequency (LF) range are used by submarines, because they can
penetrate water and can follow the earth’s surface. The medium frequency
(MF) and high frequency (HF) ranges are used for transmission of hundreds
of radio stations either as amplitude modulation (AM) between 520 kHz and
1605.5 kHz, as short wave (SW) between 5.9 MHz and 26.1 MHz, or as
frequency modulation (FM) between 87.5 MHz and 108 MHz.
The use of these frequencies are typically fixed by national regulation and,
vary from country to country. Short waves are typically used for (amateur)
radio transmission around the world, enabled by reflection at the ionosphere.
As we move to higher frequencies, the TV stations follow. Conventional
analog TV is transmitted in ranges of 174–230 MHz and 470–790 MHz
using the very high frequency (VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF) bands.
In this range, digital audio broadcasting (DAB) takes place (223–230 MHz
and 1452–1472 MHz) and digital TV is planned or currently being installed
(470–862 MHz) for reusing some of the old frequencies for analog TV. UHF
is also used for mobile phones with analog technology (450–465 MHz), the
digital GSM (890–960 MHz, 1710–1880 MHz), digital cordless telephones
following the DECT standard (1880–1900 MHz), 3G cellular systems
following the UMTS standard(1900–1980 MHz, 2020–2025 MHz,
2110–2190 MHz) and many more. VHF and especially UHF allow for small
antennas and relatively reliable connections for mobile telephony.
Super high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed microwave
links (approx. 2–40 GHz) and fixed satellite services in the C-band (4 and
6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band (19 and 29 GHz). Some
systems use extremely high frequency (EHF) range which comes close to
infra-red.
Higher frequencies are used for optical transmission, which is not only used
for fiber optical links but also for wireless communications.
Infra-red (IR) transmission is used for directed links, e.g., to connect
different buildings via laser links. The most widespread IR technology,
Infra-red Data Association (IrDA), uses wavelengths of approximately
850–900 nm to connect laptops, PDAs etc. Finally, visible light has been
used for wireless transmission for thousands of years.

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Regulations
Radio frequencies are scarce resources as all the communicating devices
need to communicate using the frequencies within the available frequency
band. The frequencies used for transmission are regulated to avoid
interference. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) located in
Geneva is responsible for worldwide coordination of telecommunication
activities (wired and wireless). ITU is a sub-organization of the United
Nations (UN). The ITU Radio communication sector (ITU-R) handles
standardization in the wireless sector, so it also handles frequency planning
(formerly known as Consultative Committee for International Radio
communication, CCIR).
ITU-R has split the world into three regions to co-ordinate the use of
frequencies in the world. They are region 1, region 2 and region 3. Region 1
covers Europe, the Middle East, countries of the former Soviet Union, and
Africa. Region 2 includes Greenland, North and South America, and
Region 3 comprises the Far East, Australia, and New Zealand.
There are National agencies responsible to further regulate in these regions.
For e.g., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for
frequency regulation in the US. Several nations have a common agency
such as European Conference for Posts and Telecommunications (CEPT)
in Europe. CEPT is still responsible for the general planning but many tasks
have been transferred to other agencies and so the regulation process is
confusing. For example, the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) is responsible for standardization and it consists of national
standardization bodies, public providers, manufacturers, user groups, and
research institutes.
The ITU-R holds the World Radio Conference (WRC) to periodically discuss
and decide frequency allocations for all three regions so that some
harmonization can be achieved. ITU-R is responsible to hold auctions for
new frequencies and manage frequency bands worldwide (WRC, World
Radio Conferences). Table 2.1 gives some example of frequencies used for
(analog and digital) mobile phones, cordless telephones, wireless LANs,
and other radio frequency (RF) systems for countries in the three regions
representing the major economic power.

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Table 2.1: Frequency allocations (all values in MHz)

Self Assessment Questions

1. We can transmit any data by the technique of __________________.
2. Which of the following wave transmits around the world due to
reflection at the ionosphere?
(a) Short wave
(b) medium wave
(c) high frequency wave
(d) Very high frequency wave
3. Which organization is responsible to hold auctions for new frequencies
and manage frequency bands worldwide?
(a) Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
(b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
(c) European Conference for Posts and Telecommunications (CEPT)
(d) European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)

2.3 Signals
Signals are the physical representation of data. Signals are functions of time
and location. Signal parameters represent the data values.
Users of a communication system can only communicate data through the
transmission of signals. Layer 1 (physical layer) of the ISO/OSI basic
reference model, is responsible for the conversion of data, i.e., bits, into
signals and vice versa.
The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission are periodic

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signals, especially sine waves as carriers.

The general function of a sine wave is:
g(t) = A(t)sin(2 π f t + φ(t)) ………………………..(2.2)
Signal parameters are the amplitude A, the frequency f, and the
phase shift φ. The amplitude as a factor of the function g may also change
over time, thus the function g is represented at A(t) times the sine function
where t represents time.
The frequency f expresses the periodicity of the signal with the period
T = 1/f. (In equations, ω is frequently used instead of 2πf as ω=2πf.)

Figure 2.2: Time domain representation of a signal

A typical way to represent signals is the time domain as shown in figure 2.2.
Figure in 2.2 is the representation of the equation 2.2 with a single
frequency of f, amplitude of A and with the phase shift of φ. Here the
amplitude A of a signal is shown versus time (time is mostly measured in
seconds s, amplitudes can be measured in, e.g., volt V).
According to a fundamental equation of Fourier, we can construct every
periodic signal g by using only sine and cosine functions. Signals according
to Fourier can be represented mathematically as:

….. (2.3)
In equation 2.3, the parameter c determines the Direct Current (DC)

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component of the signal, the coefficients an and bn are the amplitudes of the
nth sine and cosine function.
The equation 2.3 shows that an infinite number of sine and cosine functions
can construct any arbitrary periodic functions. The frequencies of these
functions (the so-called harmonics) increase with a growing parameter n
and are a multiple of the fundamental frequency f.
We can represent signals in the time domain but as indicated by the Fourier
equation, it is problematic if a signal consists of many different frequencies.
It is better to represent signal in the frequency domain if signal consists of
different frequencies and time that are not important factor for analysis. In
frequency domain, the amplitude of a certain frequency part of the signal is
shown vis-à-vis the frequency.

Figure 2.3: Frequency domain representation of the signal

Figure 2.3 shows only one peak and the signal consists of a single
frequency part (i.e., it is a single sine function). Arbitrary periodic functions
may consist of many peaks and can be shown in the frequency spectrum of
a signal. A tool used to display frequencies is called spectrum analyzer.

Figure 2.4: Phase domain representation of signal

Signals can also be represented in the phase domain, also called phase
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state or signal constellation diagram. This type of representation is shown in

figure 2.4 which shows the amplitude M of a signal and its phase φ in polar
coordinates. In this figure 2.4, the length of the vector represents the
amplitude whereas the angle represents the phase shift. The x-axis
represents a phase of 0 and is also called In-Phase (I). A phase shift of
90° or π/2 would be a point on the y-axis, called Quadrature (Q).
In equation 2.2, you can see how signals are represented as mathematical
functions. Fourier transformations are a mathematical tool for translating a
signal from the time domain into the frequency domain. Similarly signals in
frequency domain can be translated into the time domain using the inverse
Fourier transformation.
Digital signals need infinite frequencies for perfect transmission modulation
with a carrier frequency for transmission.
Self Assessment Questions
4. Signal parameters represent the __________ values.
5. According to a fundamental equation of Fourier transformation, we can
construct every periodic signal g by using only __________ and
__________ functions.
6. A tool used to display frequencies is a ____________________.

2.4 Antennas
In a wireless mode of communication, we do not involve any form of wires
for communication. The wireless communication occurs due to the
electromagnetic waves that can be transmitted and received in the air or
vacuum through specialised transducer. This transducer is called antenna. It
is sometimes called aerial.
An antenna is a conductor that can transmit and receive electromagnetic
signals such as microwave, radio or satellite signals. Antennas couple
electromagnetic energy to and from space, to and from a wire or coaxial
cable or any other appropriate conductor.
Isotropic Radiator
A theoretical reference antenna is the isotropic radiator, a point in space
radiating equal power in all directions, i.e., all points with equal power are
located on a sphere with the antenna as its centre. The radiation pattern is

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symmetric in all directions as shown in Figure 2.5. This figure is a two

dimensional cross-section of the real three-dimensional pattern.

Figure 2.5: Radiation pattern of an isotropic radiator

However, such an antenna does not exist in reality. All real antennas exhibit
directive effects. The intensity of radiation is not the same in all directions
from the antenna and is probed towards certain direction.
Simple Dipoles
The simplest real antenna is a thin, centre-fed dipole, also called Hertzian
dipole, as shown in Figure 2.6. The dipole consists of two collinear
conductors of equal length, separated by a small feeding gap. The length of
the dipole is not arbitrary and is shown in relation to the wavelength of the
signals. For example, length of dipole is half the wavelength λ of the signal
to transmit results in a very efficient radiation of the energy. If the length of
dipole is λ/4, it is also efficient and this type of antenna is known as Marconi
antenna.

Figure 2.6: Simple antenna

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Directional antenna
A λ/2 dipole has a uniform or Omni-directional radiation pattern in one
plane. It is shown as an eight pattern in the other two planes in Figure 2.7.
This type of antenna can boost the power level of the signal to overcome
the challenges. Challenges could be mountains, valleys, buildings etc.

Figure 2.7: Radiation pattern of a simple dipole

Antenna that is positioned, for e.g., in a valley or between buildings, needs

to be directional antennas with certain fixed preferential transmission and
reception directions to gain the signal. Figure 2.8 shows the radiation
pattern of a directional antenna with the main lobe in the direction of the
x-axis. A special example of directional antenna is constituted by satellite
dishes.

Figure 2.8: Radiation pattern of a directed antenna

Sectorized antenna
Directed antennas are typically applied in cellular systems. Several directed
antennas can be combined on a single pole to construct a sectorized
antenna. A cell can be sectorized into three or six sectors. In each sector
different frequency can be used and so the other cell which is again
sectorized would be able to reuse the frequency. Figure 2.9 shows the
radiation patterns of these sectorized antennas for 3 sector and 6 sector.

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Figure 2.9: Radiation patterns of sectorized antennas

Two or more antennas can also be combined to improve reception by

counteracting the negative effects of multi-path propagation. These
antennas are also called multi-element antenna arrays. This type of antenna
allow diversity schemes such as switched diversity or selection diversity,
where the receiver always uses the antenna element with the largest output.
Diversity combining constitutes a combination of the power of all signals to
produce gain.
We also have a smart antenna which combines multiple antenna elements
(also called antenna array) with signal processing to optimize the
radiation/reception pattern in response to the signal environment. These
antennas can adapt to changes in reception power, transmission conditions
and many signal propagation effects. Today’s handset antennas are Omni-
directional as the integration of smart antennas into mobiles is difficult and
has not yet been realized.
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO)
Nowadays Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) transmission systems
comprising the use of multiple input multiple output (MIMO) antennas are
used on both the receiving and transmitting end.
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) technology is a wireless technology
that uses multiple transmitters and receivers to transfer more data at the
same time. MIMO antenna uses multiple transmit and multiple receiver
antennas for a single user. MIMO technology provides increased data rates
and transmission range without additional transmit power or bandwidth via
higher spectral efficiency, higher link robustness, reduced fading.

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In order to implement MIMO, either the station (mobile device) or the access
point (AP) needs to support MIMO. For optimal performance and range,
both the station and the AP must support MIMO.
Legacy wireless devices use Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) technology.
These devices cannot take advantage of multipath, and can only send or
receive one spatial stream at a time.
MIMO technology takes advantage of a natural radio-wave phenomenon
called multipath. With multipath, transmitted information bounces off walls,
ceilings, and other objects, reaching the receiving antenna multiple times via
different angles and at slightly different times.
In the past, multipath caused interference and slowed down wireless signals.
MIMO technology takes advantage of multipath behavior by using multiple,
smart transmitters and receivers with an added spatial dimension, to
dramatically increase performance and range.
Self Assessment Questions
7. Antennas couple _________________________ energy to and from
space, to and from a wire or coaxial cable or any other appropriate
conductor.
8. The dipole consists of two collinear _____________ of equal length,
separated by a small ___________ gap.
9. Two or more antennas combined to improve reception by counteracting
the negative effects of ________________ propagation is called multi-
element antenna arrays.
10. MIMO technology takes advantage of a natural radio-wave
phenomenon called _________________.

2.5 Signal Propagation

In wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the direction of
propagation, whereas signals in wired networks travel only along the wire
(which can be twisted pair copper wires, a coax cable, fiber cable etc.).
We need to check the characteristics of signal like (i) Transmission range
(ii) Detection range (iii) Interference range in both the wired and wireless
communication. Figure 2.10 shows the ranges for transmission, detection,
and interference of signals with respect to the distance.

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Figure 2.10: Ranges for transmission, detection, and interference of signals

Signals in wired communication exhibit the same characteristics at each

point. But in wireless communication these predictable behaviors are valid
only in vacuum.
 Transmission range: This range is within a certain radius of the sender
where signal transmission is possible. In this range, receiver receives
the signals with a low error rate to communicate with the sender.
 Detection range: This range is farther than transmission range. In this
range, detection of the signal transmission between sender and receiver
is possible but the transmitted power is large enough to differ from
background noise. However, due to high error rate it is difficult to
establish communication.
 Interference range: This range is farther than detection range. In this
range, the sender may interfere with other transmission by adding to the
background noise. A receiver will not be able to detect these signals, but
the signals may disturb other signals.
Signal Propagation Effects
In free space, radio signals propagate similar to the light independently of
their frequency. They travel in a straight line besides gravitational effects. If
straight line exists between a sender and a receiver, it is called line-of sight

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(LoS). Even if no matter exists between the sender and the receiver (i.e., if
there is a vacuum), the signal still experiences the free space loss. The
received power of the receiver, Pr is proportional to 1/d2, with d being the
distance between sender and receiver (inverse square law). The received
power also depends on the wavelength and the gain of receiver and
transmitter antennas.
Most radio transmission takes place through the atmosphere – signals travel
through air, rain, snow, fog, dust particles, smog etc. The atmosphere
heavily influences transmission over long distance communication such as
satellite communication.
Depending on the frequency, radio waves can also penetrate objects.
Generally lower the frequency, better is the penetration. Long waves can be
transmitted through the oceans to a submarine while high frequencies can
be blocked by a tree. The behavior of the radio waves resemble that of light
if the frequency of radio wave is higher.
Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviors
depending on their frequency:
 Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies (<2 MHz) follow
the earth’s surface and this type of waves can be propagated over long
distances. These waves are used for submarine communication, AM
radio etc.
 Sky wave (2–30 MHz): Short waves (2–30 MHz) are propagated by the
reflection of signal at the ionosphere and so they are also called sky
waves. These waves can bounce back and forth between the
ionosphere and the earth’s surface, travelling around the world. Many
international broadcasts and amateur radio use these short waves that
are reflected at the ionosphere.
 Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Waves with frequency greater than 30 MHz
follow a (more or less) straight line of sight. But sometimes these waves
are bent by the atmosphere due to refraction. Mobile phone systems,
satellite systems, cordless telephones etc. use even higher frequencies.
The communication between the sender and the receiver depends upon the
quality of signal being received by the receiver. Receiving power of the
receiver is influenced by (i) fading (frequency dependent) (ii) shadowing or

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blocking (iii) reflection (iv) refraction and (v) scattering of the signals in the
environment through which they propagate.
(i) Fading (frequency dependent): When both wireless transmitter and
receiver are moving, the channel characteristics change over time, and
the travel path of a signal also may vary. Due to this, the power of the
received signal changes considerably over time. These quick changes
in the received power are called short-term fading. The received signal
is affected by long term fading due to varying distance to the sender or
more remote obstacles.
(ii) Shadowing or blocking: Radio signals can be blocked by any kinds of
physical obstacles. The higher is the frequency of a signal, the more it
behaves like light. Even small obstacles like a simple wall, a truck on
the street, or trees in an alley may block the signal.
(iii) Reflection: If any object is large compared to the wavelength of the
signal, the signal is reflected. The reflected signal is not as strong as
the original, as objects can absorb some of the signal’s power.
(iv) Refraction: This effect occurs because the velocity of the
electromagnetic waves changes due to the difference in the density of
the medium through which it travels. Only in vacuum, it equals to the
velocity of light. Waves that travel into a denser medium are bent
towards the medium.
(v) Scattering: If the size of an obstacle is in the order of the wavelength
or less, then waves can be scattered. An incoming signal is scattered
into several weaker outgoing signals.
(vi) Diffraction: This effect is similar to that of scattering but in this case,
radio waves will be deflected at an edge and propagated in different
directions.

Figure 2.11: Shadowing, reflection and refraction of waves

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Figure 2.11 shows the waves that undergo shadowing, reflection and
refraction. Figure 2.12 shows the scattering and diffraction of waves.
Effects like attenuation, scattering, diffraction, and refraction all happen
simultaneously and they are frequency and time dependent. It is very
difficult to predict the precise strength of signals at a certain point in space.

Figure 2.12: Scattering and diffraction of waves.

Multi-path propagation
You have read in the previous section that signal can take different paths
from sender to receiver, due to reflection, scattering, diffraction etc. The
effect that the signal takes different paths to reach the receiver from sender
is called multi-path propagation.
Effects of mobility
As fading occurs due to the movement of either transmitter or receiver or of
both. When both or either of the transmitter or the receiver is moving, the
channel characteristics change over time and location and signal paths also
change. This results in delay variations between different signal parts and
also between different phases of signal parts. These quick changes in the
power received is called short term fading. Long-term fading of the received
signal is caused due to varying distance to the sender or more remote
obstacles.
Another effect that results due to the movement of transmitter or receiver or
of both is the Doppler Shift. Doppler shift is caused by a moving sender or
receiver. If the source and the receiver approach each other (because of the
motion of either or both), the frequency of the waves will increase and the
wavelength will get shortened. This effect of change in the frequency and
the wavelength is called Doppler shift. So Doppler shift causes random
frequency shifts.
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Self Assessment Questions

11. The atmosphere heavily influences transmission over long distance
communication. (True/False)
12. Waves with higher frequencies (>200 MHz) follow the earth’s surface
and can propagate long distances. (True/False)
13. Doppler shift is caused by a moving sender or receiver. (True/False)

2.6 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique in communication that allows several users to
share a medium with minimum or no interference. In the case of wired
communication, there are many senders and receivers who use the same
wire media to communicate with each other. Similarly in the case of wireless
communication, many senders and receivers share the same media that is
air or space. Since the medium of transmitting or receiving the signal is
same, data collision is likely to occur if many senders send the data at the
same time. So to allow communication between multiple senders and
receivers at the same time through a common media, we deploy a
technique called Multiplexing.
Technically, multiplexing is of different types. For wireless communication,
multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions: frequency, time, space,
and code. So the most common method of multiplexing are (i) Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM) (ii) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) (iii) Space
Division Multiplexing (SDM) (iv) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
(v) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). The task of
multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each
communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum of
medium utilization. The term communication channel here refers only to an
association of sender(s) and receiver(s) who want to exchange data.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) scheme, the available frequency
band for communication is divided into several non-overlapping frequency
bands as shown in Figure 2.13. Each channel ki is now allotted to its own
frequency band. Each channel is allotted to the sender at one end and
receiver at the other end. The receiver tunes in to the frequency band of the
transmitter to which it wants to communicate.

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Figure 2.13: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Scheme

Senders using a certain frequency band can use this band continuously. In
between the two adjacent frequency bands, Guard spaces (bands) are
needed to avoid adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interference occurs when the frequency band overlaps each other resulting
in the unwanted signal called noise. FDM is generally used for radio stations
within the same region, where each radio station has its own frequency. The
main advantage of this scheme is that it is very simple multiplexing scheme
and does not need complex coordination between sender and receiver.The
main disadvantage of this scheme is that it is easy for tapping.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In this scheme, the frequency band for the communication remains the
same for both the sender and the receiver. But the time is divided into slots
and each slot is allotted to a sender to use this frequency band for
communication. In this scheme, a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth
for a certain amount of time, i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at
different points in time. In this scheme also, guard spaces represent time
gaps which separate the different periods when the senders use the
medium. If two transmissions overlap in time, it is called co-channel
interference. To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization
between different senders is necessary. The main advantage of this scheme
is that this scheme is quite flexible as one can assign more sending time to
senders with a heavy load and less to those with a light load. The main
disadvantage of this scheme is that all senders need precise clocks or,
alternatively, a way has to be found to distribute a synchronization signal to
all senders. Figure 2.14 shows the Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

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Figure 2.14: Time division Multiplexing (TDM)

Combined Frequency and time division multiplexing: Frequency and

time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel ki can use a
certain frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in Figure 2.15.
In this type of scheme too, guard spaces are needed both in the time and in
the frequency dimension. This scheme is more robust against frequency
selective interference and hence the interference occurs in a certain small
frequency band. A channel may use this band only for a short period of time.
The main advantage of this scheme is that it provides some (weak)
protection against tapping. It is because the sequence of frequencies that a
sender uses, has to be known by others in order to listen (tune) in to a
channel. The mobile phone standard GSM uses this combination of
frequency and time division multiplexing for transmission between a mobile
phone and a so-called base station. The main disadvantage of this scheme
is that one has to control the sequence of frequencies and the time of
changing to another frequency.

Figure 2.15: Frequency and time division multiplexing combined

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Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

In Space division multiplexing scheme, the common space is divided into
the smaller spaces as s1, s2, s3 .... sn. The communication channels k1,
k2,......kn are mapped for each smaller space s1, s2, s3 ....sn which clearly
separate the channels and prevent the interference ranges from overlapping.
In figure 2.16, you can see six channels ki which introduce a three
dimensional coordinate system. This system shows the dimensions of code
c, time t and frequency f. Here space is represented via circles as s1,
s2..... and the space between the interference ranges is called guard space.

Figure 2.16: Space division Multiplexing (SDM)

An example of SDM for wired communication is the old analog telephone

system where each subscriber is given a separate pair of copper wires to
the local exchange as if it is mapped in one space. An example of SDM for
wireless communication is FM radio stations where the transmission range

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is limited to a certain region and hence this region acts as the space for its
channel. In SDM, if two or more channels are established within the same
space then, one of the multiplexing schemes among frequency, time, or
code division can be used.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
In this scheme, all channels ki use the same frequency at the same time for
transmission. But the signal spectrum is "spread" either by the Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) systems or by Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum (FHSS) systems. The signal after being spread is again
despread in the receiver side to get the original signal. Separation of
channel is achieved by assigning own ‘code’ to each channel due to DSSS
or FHSS. Here the guard spaces are realized by using orthogonal codes.
In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) systems, XOR operation is
performed between a user bit stream and a so-called chipping sequence
(e.g.: 10110111000) to spread the signal spectrum. At the receiver side,
same chipping sequence is used to spread the received signal. In
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) systems, the total available
bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard
spaces between the channels. Transmitter and receiver stay on one of
these channels for a certain time and then hop to another channel. That is,
this system uses both FDM and TDM technique as a method of transmitting
the signal. This pattern of channel usage is called hopping sequence.
The main advantage of CDMA for wireless transmission is that it gives good
protection against interference and tapping. The main disadvantage of this
scheme is the relatively high complexity of the receiver.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM is a multi-carrier modulation technique that employs FDM of
orthogonal sub-carriers, each channel modulating a low-bit rate digital
stream. Multi-carrier modulation is a technique for data-transmission by
dividing a high-bit rate data stream in to several parallel low bit-rate data
streams. These low bit-rate data streams are used to modulate several
carriers.
In OFDM, the signal is initially split into independent channels, is modulated
by data and then it’s re-multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier.

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Self Assessment Questions

14. In this multiplexing scheme, the frequency band for communication is
divided into several non-overlapping frequency bands.
(a) FDM
(b) TDM
(c) CDMA
(d) SDM
15. In this multiplexing scheme, the frequency band for the communication
remains the same for sender and receiver.
(a) FDM
(b) TDM
(c) CDMA
(d) SDM
16. In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) systems, the total
available bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth
plus _________________ between the channels.

2.7 Summary
Let us summarize the important points discussed in this unit:
 The frequencies used for transmission are all regulated to avoid
interference.
 Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a
new signal. This new signal is capable of travelling through wired media
or the wireless media to the farther distance.
 Frequency for communication ranges from Very Low Frequency (VLF) to
Ultra Violet light (UV). Other frequencies are Low Frequency (LF),
Medium Frequency (MF), High Frequency (HF), Very High Frequency
(VHF), Ultra High Frequency (UHF), Super High Frequency (SHF), and
Extra High Frequency (EHF), infrared and visible light.
 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) located in Geneva is
responsible for worldwide coordination of telecommunication activities
(wired and wireless).
 Signals are the physical representation of data. Signals are functions of
time and location. Signal parameters represent the data values.
 According to a fundamental equation of Fourier, we can construct every

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periodic signal g by using only sine and cosine functions.

 Signals can be represented in time domain, frequency domain and
phase domain.
 An antenna is a conductor that can transmit and receive signals such as
microwave, radio and satellite signals.
 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) technology is a wireless
technology that uses multiple transmitters and receivers to transfer more
data at the same time.
 Receiving power of the receiver is influenced by (i) fading (frequency
dependent) (ii) shadowing or blocking (iii) reflection (iv) refraction and
(v) scattering of the signals in the environment through which they
propagate.
 Multiplexing is a technique in communication that allows several users to
share a medium with minimum or no interference.
 The most common methods of multiplexing are (i) Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) (ii) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) (iii) Space
Division Multiplexing (SDM) (iv) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
(v) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).

2.8 Terminal Questions

1. Why are frequency bands regulated? How are they regulated? Explain
briefly.
2. Define Signal, Frequency domain and phase domain.
3. What is an antenna? Differentiate Omni-directional antenna, directional
antenna and sectorized antenna.
4. What are the three fundamental propagation behaviors that the radio
waves can exhibit depending on their frequency? Explain in brief.
5. Differentiate FDM and TDM.

2.9 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Modulation
2. (a) Short wave
3. (b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
4. data

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5. sine, cosine
6. spectrum analyzer
7. electromagnetic
8. conductors, feeding
9. multi-path
10. multipath
11. True
12. False
13. True
14. (a) FDM
15. (b) TDM
16. guard spaces

Terminal Questions
1. Radio frequencies are scarce resources as all the communicating
devices needed to communicate using the frequencies within the
available frequency band. The frequencies used for transmission are all
regulated to avoid interference. (Refer to section 2.2 for more details)
2. Signals are the physical representation of data. (Refer to section 2.3 for
more details)
3. An antenna is a conductor that can transmit, send and receive
electromagnetic signals. (Refer to section 2.4 for more details)
4. Three fundamental propagation behaviors exhibited by radio waves are:
Ground wave, sky wave, line of sight. (Refer to section 2.5 for more
details)
5. The available frequency band for communication is divided into several
non-overlapping frequency bands in FDM whereas in TDM, the
frequency band for the communication remains the same but the time is
divided into time slots and each slot is provided to sender to use this
frequency band for communication. (Refer to section 2.6 for more
details)

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