Mobile communication

 Today, more people use mobile phones than traditional

fixed phones.
 How will users access networks with the help of
computers or other communication devices?
 Without any wires, i.e., wireless.
 Wireless – This describes the way of accessing a network,
i.e., without a wire.
 Mobile communication is the backbone of our connected
world, enabling seamless wireless communication
between individuals and devices.
 Mobile Communication
 Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to
communicate with others in different locations without the use of any
physical connection (wires or cables).
 Mobile communication makes our life easier.

Definition of Mobile Communication:

Mobile communication refers to the exchange of information, voice,
data, and multimedia content through wireless means, allowing
individuals and devices to communicate without the need for physical
connections.
 Mobile communication
 From the early days of analog cellular networks to the 5G, mobile
communication has evolved rapidly.
 The evolution from 1G to 5G represents a journey marked by
increased data speeds, reduced latency and enhanced connectivity,
transforming the way we communicate.
 Why do we need Mobile communication

 Mobile communication is essential for providing wireless

connectivity, enabling global communication.
 It plays a crucial role in emergency situations, allowing
individuals to report and respond to crises promptly.
 In the business context, mobile communication enhances
productivity by facilitating remote work and information
exchange.
 Personal convenience is greatly improved, as smartphones and
other mobile devices offer a portable means to access
information, manage daily tasks, and stay connected with
others.
 Moreover, mobile communication has transformed various
sectors, including finance, healthcare, and entertainment,
making services more accessible and efficient.
 Applications

 Vehicles
 Emergencies
 Traveling salesmen
 Entertainment
 Education and so on…
 Radio Transmission

 Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls

whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and bounce
back.
 Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel
on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s
surface.
 Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed
by rain and other obstacles. They use Ionosphere of earth
atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and
VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach
Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.
How does the data transfer take place using this Infrared light?

When we press a button on the remote, how is it changing the channel on the TV?

 An Infrared Light emitting diode is embedded into the TV remote and an IR

detector is inserted into the TV. This detector converts the Infrared light signal
from the remote and converts it into an electrical signal. Hence, the remote
acts as a transmitter and the TV as a receiver.

 All the buttons on a TV remote are connected to a microprocessor which

generates a unique binary code for each button pressed.

 The detector on the TV will be pre-programmed to interpret the binary codes

and perform the requested actions.
 Other Applications of Infrared transmissions

 Laptops to printers
 Development of high-speed LANs
 Cordless microphones, headsets
 LASER communications
 Modems, robot control systems, etc.
For traditional wired networks,

• Frequencies of up to several hundred kHz are

used for distances up to some km with twisted
pair copper wires,
• while frequencies of several hundred MHz are
used with coaxial cable
• Fiber optics are used for frequency ranges of
several hundred THz
 Unit - I Introduction to Wireless Communication

Wireless transmission – Frequencies for radio

transmission – Signals – Antennas – Signal
Propagation – Multiplexing – Spread spectrum –
cellular systems- MAC for Motivation – SDMA –
FDMA – TDMA – CDMA
 Contents

Frequencies for radio transmission

Regulations
Signals
Antennas
Signal propagation
 Path loss of radio signals
 Additional signal propagation effects
 Multi-path propagation

Multiplexing
 Space division multiplexing
 Frequency division multiplexing
 Time division multiplexing
 Code division multiplexing

Spread spectrum
 Direct Sequence and Frequency Hopping

Cellular systems
MAC for Motivation – SDMA – FDMA – TDMA – CDMA
 Frequency

Frequency : The rate at which something occurs over a particular

period of time.

 The frequency of a wave is the number of waves that

pass a point in a certain period of time.
 The unit of frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
 Radio frequency can penetrate through walls and
structures alike.
 Radio waves can have frequency ranging from 3 Hz
(Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely
High Frequency).
 Frequencies for radio communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
Figure - frequency spectrum that can be used for
data transmission.
Frequency and wave length:
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f
 Frequencies for Radio Communication
 Radio transmission starts at the very low frequency (VLF) range.
 Waves in the low frequency (LF) range are used by submarines, because
they can penetrate water and can follow the earth’s surface.
 The medium frequency (MF) and high frequency (HF) ranges are typical for
transmission of hundreds of radio stations.
 As we move to higher frequencies, the TV stations follow. Conventional analog
TV is transmitted in ranges of 174–230 MHz and 470–790 MHz using the very
high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF) bands. Digital TV is
planned or currently being installed (470–862 MHz). UHF is also used for
mobile phones.
 Super high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed microwave links
(approx. 2–40 GHz) and fixed satellite services
 Some systems are planned in the extremely high frequency (EHF) range
which comes close to infra red.
 Infra red (IR) transmission is used for directed links, e.g., to connect different
buildings via laser links
 Regulations

 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) located in Geneva

is responsible for worldwide coordination of telecommunication
activities (wired and wireless)
 The ITU Radiocommunication sector (ITU-R) handles standardization
in the wireless sector,
 To have success in worldwide coordination and to reflect national
interests, the ITU-R has split the world into three regions:
 Region 1 covers Europe, the Middle East, countries of the former
Soviet Union, and Africa.
 Region 2 includes Greenland, North and South America, and
region 3 comprises the Far East, Australia, and New Zealand.
 Within these regions, national agencies are responsible for further
regulations,
 Systems and their frequency allocations (all values in MHz)

Europe USA Japan

Mobile NMT 453-457MHz, AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC

phones 463-467КMHz; 824-849КMHz, 810-826КMHz,
GSM 890-915КMHz, 869-894КMHz; 940-956КMHz;
935-960КMHz; TDMA, CDMA, GSM 1429-1465КMHz,
1710-1785КMHz, 1850-1910КMHz, 1477-1513КMHz
1805-1880КMHz 1930-1990КMHz;
Cordless CT1+ 885-887КMHz, PACS 1850-1910КMHz, PHS
telephones 930-932КMHz; 1930-1990КMHz 1895-1918КMHz
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930КMHz JCT
864-868КMHz 254-380КMHz
DECT
1880-1900КMHz
Wireless IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483КMHz 2400-2483КMHz 2471-2497КMHz
HIPERLAN 1
5176-5270КMHz
 Signals I

 Signals are the physical representation of data.

 Users of a communication system can only exchange data through the
transmission of signals.
 Layer 1 of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is responsible for the
conversion of data, i.e., bits, into signals and vice versa.
 Signals are functions of time and location.
 The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission are
periodic signals, especially sine waves.
 The general function of a sine wave is:

s(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

Signal parameters are the amplitude A, the frequency f, and the phase
shift φ.
 Signals I

signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data

 classification
 continuous time/discrete time
 continuous values/discrete values
 analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
 digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
 signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift 
 Signals II
 Different representations of signals
 amplitude (amplitude domain)
 frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
 phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase  in polar coordinates)

A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 

t[s] 
I= M cos 

Time domain Frequency domainf [Hz] Phase domain

representation of a signal
 Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier
transformation
 Digital signals need
 infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
 modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
 A typical way to represent signals is the time domain (Figure). Here
the amplitude A of a signal is shown versus time (time is mostly
measured in seconds s, amplitudes can be measured in, e.g., volt V).
 Representations in the time domain are problematic if a signal consists
of many different frequencies (as the Fourier equation indicates).
 In this case, a better representation of a signal is the frequency
domain. Here the amplitude of a certain frequency part of the signal is
shown versus the frequency. Figure only shows one peak and the
signal consists only of a single frequency part (i.e., it is a single sine
function).
 A third way to represent signals is the phase domain shown in
Figure. This representation, also called phase state or signal
constellation diagram, shows the amplitude M of a signal and its phase
φ in polar coordinates. (The length of the vector represents the
amplitude, the angle the phase shift.) The x-axis represents a phase of
0 and is also called In-Phase (I). A phase shift of 90° or π/2 would be
a point on the y-axis, called Quadrature (Q).
 Antennas

 As the name wireless already indicates, this communication mode

involves ‘getting rid’ of wires and transmitting signals through space
without guidance. We do not need any ‘medium’ for the transport of
electromagnetic waves.

 An antenna is a device that has the purpose of transmitting and/or

receiving electromagnetic waves, usually radio wave signals. The
purpose of transmitting and receiving radio waves is to communicate
or broadcast information.
 Antennas: isotropic radiator
 Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a
theoretical reference antenna

 The radiation pattern is symmetric in all directions.

 However, such an antenna does not exist in reality. Real antennas all have
directive effects, i.e., the intensity of radiation is not the same in all
directions from the antenna.

z
y z

y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator
 Antennas: isotropic radiator

 Marconi antenna (dipole antenna)

 Omnidirectional
 Directional
 Sectorized
 switched diversity or selection diversity
 diversity combining
 Antennas: simple dipoles
The simplest real antenna is a thin, center-fed dipole, also called Hertzian dipole.
The dipole consists of two collinear conductors of equal length, separated by a small feeding gap.

 shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

/4 /2

Simple antennas

 Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z

simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

 Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
 The length of the dipole is not arbitrary, but, for example, half the
wavelength λ of the signal to transmit results in a very efficient
radiation of the energy. If mounted on the roof of a car, the length of
λ/4 is efficient. This is also known as Marconi antenna.

 A λ/2 dipole has a uniform or omni-directional radiation pattern in

one plane and a figure eight pattern in the other two planes as shown
in Figure. This type of antenna can only overcome environmental
challenges like mountains, valleys, buildings etc.

 If an antenna is positioned, e.g., in a valley or between buildings, an

omnidirectional radiation pattern is not very useful. In this case,
directional antennas with certain fixed preferential transmission
and reception directions can be used. Figure shows the radiation
pattern of a directional antenna with the main lobe in the direction of
the x-axis. A special example of directional antennas is constituted by
satellite dishes.
 Directed antennas are typically applied in cellular systems. Several
directed antennas can be combined on a single pole to construct a
sectorized antenna. A cell can be sectorized into, for example,
three or six sectors, thus enabling frequency reuse. Figure shows the
radiation patterns of these sectorized antennas.
 Two or more antennas can also be combined to improve reception by
counteracting the negative effects of multi-path propagation. These
antennas, also called multi-element antenna arrays, allow different
diversity schemes. One such scheme is switched diversity or
selection diversity, where the receiver always uses the antenna
element with the largest output.
 Diversity combining constitutes a combination of the power of all
signals to produce gain. The phase is first corrected (cophasing) to
avoid cancellation.
 As shown in Figure, different schemes are possible. On the left, two λ/4
antennas are combined with a distance of λ/2 between them on top of a
ground plane. On the right, three standard λ/2 dipoles are combined
with a distance of λ/2 between them. Spacing could also be in multiples
of λ/2.
 Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

y y z

directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

 Antennas: diversity

 Grouping of 2 or more antennas

 multi-element antenna arrays
 Antenna diversity
 switched diversity, selection diversity
 receiver chooses antenna with largest output
 diversity combining
 combine output power to produce gain
 cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2

+ +

ground plane
 A more advanced solution is provided by smart antennas which
combine multiple antenna elements (also called antenna array) with
signal processing to optimize the radiation/reception pattern in
response to the signal environment. These antennas can adapt to
changes in reception power, transmission conditions and many signal
propagation effects.
 Antenna arrays can also be used for beam forming. This would be an
extreme case of a directed antenna which can follow a single user thus
using space division multiplexing. It would not just be base stations
that could follow users with an individual beam.
 Wireless devices, too, could direct their electromagnetic radiation, e.g.,
away from the human body towards a base station. This would help in
reducing the absorbed radiation. Today’s handset antennas are omni-
directional as the integration of smart antennas into mobiles is difficult
and has not yet been realized.
 Signal propagation

Like wired networks, wireless communication networks also have

senders and receivers of signals. However, in connection with signal
propagation, these two networks exhibit considerable differences. In
wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the direction of
propagation, whereas signals in wired networks only travel along the
wire (which can be twisted pair copper wires, a coaxcable, but also a
fiber etc.).
 Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
 Within a certain radius of the sender transmission is possible,
 Receiver receives the signals with an error rate low enough to be able to communicate.

Detection range
 Within a second radius, detection of the transmission is possible
 However, the error rate is too high to establish communication.
Interference range
 Within a third even larger radius, the sender may

interfere with other transmission.

 A receiver will not be able to detect the signals. sender

transmission

distance
detection

interference

Ranges for transmission, detection and

interference of signals
 Path loss of radio signals

Signal Propagation in free space always like light

(straight line).
 If such a straight line exists between a sender and a receiver
it is called line-of-sight (LOS).
 The received power Pr is proportional to 1/d² (d
being the distance between sender and receiver)
(inverse square law).
 Receiving power proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
 Most radio transmission takes place through the atmosphere
– signals travel through air, rain, snow, fog, dust particles,
smog etc.

 While the path loss or attenuation does not cause too

much trouble for short distances, e.g., for LANs , the
atmosphere heavily influences transmission over long
distances, e.g., satellite transmission).

 Even mobile phone systems are influenced by weather

conditions such as heavy rain. Rain can absorb much of the
radiated energy of the antenna (this effect is used in a
microwave oven to cook), so communication links may
break down as soon as the rain sets in.
 Radio wave Propagation

 Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviors

depending on their frequency:
 Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies follow the
earth’s surface and can propagate long distances. These waves are
used for, e.g., submarine communication or AM radio.
 Sky wave (2–30 MHz): Many international broadcasts and amateur
radio use these short waves that are reflected2 at the ionosphere.
This way the waves can bounce back and forth between the
ionosphere and the earth’s surface, travelling around the world.
 Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile phone systems, satellite systems,
cordless telephones etc. use even higher frequencies. The emitted
waves follow a (more or less) straight line of sight. This enables direct
communication with satellites (no reflection at the ionosphere) or
microwave links on the ground. However, an additional consideration
for ground-based communication is that the waves are bent by the
atmosphere due to refraction (see next section).
 Additional signal propagation effects

Receiving power additionally influenced by

 fading (frequency dependent)
 shadowing
 reflection at large obstacles
 refraction depending on the density of a medium
 scattering at small obstacles
 diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

 Multi-path propagation

 Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due
to reflection, scattering, diffraction.

 Figure shows a sender on the left and one possible receiver on the
right. Radio waves emitted by the sender can either travel along a
straight line, or they may be reflected at a large building, or scattered
at smaller obstacles. This simplified figure only shows three possible
paths for the signal. In reality, many more paths are possible.

 Due to the finite speed of light, signals travelling along different paths
with different lengths arrive at the receiver at different times. This effect
(caused by multi-path propagation) is called delay spread: the
original signal is spread due to different delays of parts of the signal.
 Multipath propagation

Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

 interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

 distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
 Effects of mobility

Channel characteristics change over time and location

 signal paths change
 different delay variations of different signal parts
 different phases of signal parts

 quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in long term

power
 distance to sender fading
 obstacles further away
 slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
The Doppler shift caused by a moving
t
sender or receiver. short term fading
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to share a common
transmission resource.
 Multiplexing is not only a fundamental mechanism in communication systems
but also in everyday life.
 Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference.
 One example, is highways with several lanes. Many users (car drivers) use the
same medium (the highways) with hopefully no interference (i.e., accidents). This is
possible due to the provision of several lanes (space division multiplexing)
separating the traffic. In addition, different cars use the same medium (i.e., the same
lane) at different points in time (time division multiplexing).
 For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions:
space, time, frequency, and code.
 In this field, the task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code
to each communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum of
medium utilization.
 The term communication channel here only refers to an association of sender(s) and
receiver(s) who want to exchange data.
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions:

 space (si)
 time (t)
 frequency (f)
 code (c)

Goal: multiple use of a shared medium

Important: guard spaces needed!

 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
Figure shows six channels ki and introduces channels ki
a three dimensional coordinate system. This
system shows the dimensions of code c, time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
t and frequency f.
c
For this first type of multiplexing, space
division multiplexing (SDM), the (three t c
dimensional) space si is also shown. Here t
space is represented via circles.
s1
f
The channels k1 to k3 can be mapped onto s2
the three ‘spaces’ s1 to s3 which clearly f
separate the channels and prevent the c
interference ranges from overlapping.
t
The space between the interference ranges
is sometimes called guard space. Such a
guard space is needed in all four multiplexing s3
f
schemes presented.

For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three

additional spaces would be needed.
 SDM (Cont..)

 This multiplexing scheme is used, for example, at FM radio stations

where the transmission range is limited to a certain region – many
radio stations around the world can use the same frequency without
interference.

 Using SDM, obvious problems arise if two or more channels were

established within the same space, for example, if several radio
stations want to broadcast in the same city. Then, one of the following
multiplexing schemes must be used (frequency, time, or code division
multiplexing).
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

describes schemes to subdivide the
frequency dimension into several non-
overlapping frequency bands as shown in
Figure.
Each channel ki is allotted its own
frequency band. k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Senders using a certain frequency band can
c
use this band continuously.
Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid f
frequency band overlapping (also called
adjacent channel interference).

t
 FDM (Cont..)
 This scheme is used for radio stations. within the same region,
where each radio station has its own frequency. This very simple
multiplexing scheme does not need complex coordination between
sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the specific
sender.
 For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached
to the customer's locality, but the service provider can send multiple
television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all
customers without any interference. The customers have to tune to the
appropriate frequency (channel) to access the required signal.
 However, this scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations
broadcast 24 hours a day, mobile communication typically takes place
for only a few minutes at a time. Assigning a separate frequency for
each possible communication scenario would be a tremendous waste
of frequency resources.
 Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the
scheme very inflexible and limits the number of senders.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical
mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM).

Here a channel ki is given the whole

bandwidth for a certain amount of time, i.e., all
senders use the same frequency but at different
points in time (Figure). k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Again, guard spaces, which now represent
time gaps, have to separate the different periods
when the senders use the medium. c
f

t
 TDM (Cont..)
 In our highway example, this would refer to the gap between two cars. If two
transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel interference.
 (In the highway example, interference between two cars results in an
accident.)
 To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between different
senders is necessary. This is clearly a disadvantage, as all senders need
precise clocks or, alternatively, a way has to be found to distribute a
synchronization signal to all senders.
 For a receiver tuning in to a sender this does not just involve adjusting the
frequency, but involves listening at exactly the right point in time. However,
this scheme is quite flexible as one can assign more sending time to senders
with a heavy load and less to those with a light load.
Advantages:
 only one carrier in the medium at any time
 throughput high even for many users

Disadvantages:
 Precise synchronization necessary
 Time and frequency multiplex
 Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel
ki can use a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in
Figure.
 A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
 Example: GSM uses this combination of frequency and time division
multiplexing.
Advantages:
 better protection against k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
tapping
 protection against frequency c
selective interference f
 higher data rates compared to
code multiplex

t
 Disadvantage: precise coordination required (Two senders will interfere as soon as they select the same frequency at the same
time.)
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
 While SDM and FDM are well known from the early
days of radio transmission, and TDM is used in
connection with many applications, code division k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
multiplexing (CDM) is a relatively new scheme
in commercial communication systems.
 First used in military applications due to its inherent c
security features.
 Figure shows how all channels ki use the same
frequency at the same time for transmission.
 Separation is now achieved by assigning each
channel its own ‘code’, guard spaces are realized
by using codes with the necessary ‘distance’ in
code space, e.g., orthogonal codes. f
 The typical everyday example of CDM is a party
with many participants from different countries
around the world who establish communication
channels, i.e., they talk to each other, using the
same frequency range (approx. 300–6000 Hz
depending on a person’s voice) at the same time.
t
 CDM (Cont..)

Each channel has a unique code

All channels use the same spectrum at the same time

Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 no coordination and synchronization necessary
 good protection against interference and tapping

Disadvantages:
 lower user data rates
 more complex signal regeneration
 Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow band
signals for duration of the interference

Solution: spread narrow band signal into broad band signal using special code
As the name implies, spread spectrum involve spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data.

power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver
protection againstf narrowband interference f

Side effects:
 coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
 tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

 Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel narrowband channels (without spread

quality Spectrum)

Six different channels use FDM for multiplexing,

which means that each channel has its own
1 2 5 6 narrow frequency band for transmission.
3 Between each frequency band a guard space is
4 needed to avoid adjacent channel interference.
frequency Figure depicts a certain channel quality. Channel
quality changes over time – the diagram only
narrow band guard space shows a snapshot at one moment. Depending on
signal receiver characteristics, channels 1, 2, 5, and 6
could be received while the quality of channels 3
channel and 4 is too bad to reconstruct transmitted data.
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2 All narrowband signals are now spread into
2
1 broadband signals using the same frequency
range. All senders use the same frequency
band.
spread frequency
spectrum
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS

 Whenever a user wants to send data using this

DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user
data is multiplied by a secret code, called
as chipping code. This chipping code is nothing
but the spreading code which is multiplied with the
original message and transmitted. The receiver
uses the same code to retrieve the original
message.
 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

 many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
 reduces frequency selective tb
fading
user data
 in cellular networks
 0 1 XOR
base stations can use the
same frequency range tc
 several base stations can chipping
detect and recover the signal sequence
 soft handover 01101010110101 =

Disadvantages resulting
signal
 precise power control necessary
01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence

receiver
 FHSS Process
 A pseudorandom code generator, called
pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit
pattern for every hopping period Th
 The frequency table uses the pattern to find
the frequency to be used for this hopping
period and passes it to the frequency
synthesizer.
 The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier
signal of that frequency, and the source
signal modulates the carrier signal.
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS

 This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are

made to change the frequencies of usage, from one to
another in a specified time interval, hence called
as frequency hopping.
 For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a
particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender 1 hops
to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first
frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is
called as frequency reuse.
 The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to
another in order to provide a secure transmission. The
amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called
as Dwell time.
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number
sequence
Two versions
 Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
 simple implementation
 uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages
 not as robust as DSSS
 simpler to detect
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 2.65
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequenc
transmitter e

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequenc synthesizer
e receiver
 Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Cross-talk elimination
Better output with data integrity
Better security
Reduction in noise
Difficult to jam the signals
 Cell structure

 Cellular networks divide geographical areas into smaller units called

cells.
 Each cell is served by a base station or cell tower, which is responsible
for transmitting and receiving signals to and from mobile devices within
its coverage area.
 Frequency Reuse: Cellular networks use the concept of frequency
reuse to to minimize interference, to increase Network Capacity, to
improve signal quality
 Cluster: A group of neighboring cells forms a cluster. Cells within a
cluster use different sets of frequencies to avoid interference.
 Cellular Architecture: Cellular networks are often designed using
hexagonal cell structure. In this structure, cells are shaped like
hexagons, and the base stations are located at the corners of these
hexagons.
 Cell structure
 Advantages of cell structures
 higher capacity, higher number of users
 less transmission power needed
 more robust, decentralized
 base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

 Problems
 fixed network needed for the base stations
 handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
 interference with other cells
 Frequency planning I
 Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
 Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2
 Fixed frequency assignment:
 certainfrequencies are assigned to a certain cell
 problem: different traffic load in different cells

 Dynamic frequency assignment:

 base station chooses frequencies depending on the
frequencies already used in neighbor cells
 more capacity in cells with more traffic
Frequency planning II

f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f3 f7
f3 f3 3 cell cluster f5 f2
f2 f2 f2 f4 f6 f5
f1 f1 f1 f4
f3 f3 f3 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2

7 cell cluster

f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
h h
3
h 2
3
h 2
g2 1h3 g2 1h3 g2
3
3 cell cluster
g1
g3
g1
g3
g1
g3 with 3 sector antennas
 Cell breathing

 Cell breathing adjusts the coverage area of a cellular base station

based on varying user traffic. It dynamically expands during high traffic
to improve service quality and contracts during low traffic to conserve
resources. It helps maintain consistent quality of service in cellular
networks.