POS 212

Political Ideas

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2008, Revised 2015, 2023 by Distance Learning Centre, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.

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ISBN: 978-2828-14-9

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Foreword
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 Table of Contents
Course overview 11
Timeframe ....................................................................................................................... 12
Study skills ...................................................................................................................... 12
Assessments .................................................................................................................... 13

Study Session 1 14
The Nature of Political Ideas .......................................................................................... 14
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 14
1.1 Central Questions to Political Ideas ................................................................ 14
1.2 Some Answers to the Central Questions of Political Ideas ............................. 16
1.2.1 Divine Theory ..................................................................................... 16
1.2.2 Natural or Organic Theory .................................................................. 16
1.2.3 The Force Theory................................................................................ 16
1.2.4 Social Contract Theory ....................................................................... 17
1.2.5 Socialist Theory .................................................................................. 17
1.2.6 Conservative Theory ........................................................................... 17
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 19
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 20
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 21

Study Session 2 21
Democracy: Its Meaning, Development, Varieties ......................................................... 22
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 22
2.1 The Meaning of Democracy ............................................................................ 22
2.2 The Development of Democracy .................................................................... 23
2.3 Varieties of Democracy ................................................................................... 25
2.3.1 Direct democracy ................................................................................ 25
2.3.2 Representative Democracy ................................................................. 25
2.3.3 Liberal or Constitutional Democracy.................................................. 25
2.3.4 Social Democracy ............................................................................... 26
2.4 Principles of Democracy ................................................................................. 30
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 31
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 32
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 32

Study Session 3 33
Monarchical Absolutism ................................................................................................. 33
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 33
3.1 The Development of Monarchy as a Political Institution................................ 33
3.2 Thomas Hobbes and the Theory of Monarchical Absolutism ......................... 35
 Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 38
Assessment ............................................................................................................ 38
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 38

Study Session 4 39
Conservatism .................................................................................................................. 39
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 39
4.1 The Development of Conservatism ................................................................. 39
4.2 Principles of Conservatism .............................................................................. 41
4.2.1 The Limited Capacity of Human Reason............................................ 41
4.2.2 The Importance of Traditional and Existing Institution ..................... 41
4.2.3 Inequality ............................................................................................ 41
4.2.4 The Importance of Private Property.................................................... 42
4.2.5 The Rule of Enlightenment Minority or Aristocracy .......................... 42
4.2.6 Respect for Religion ........................................................................... 42
4.2.7 Representative Democracy ................................................................. 42
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 43
Assessment ............................................................................................................ 43
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 44

Study Session 5 45
Classical Liberalism ........................................................................................................ 45
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 45
5.1 The Development of Classical Liberalism ...................................................... 45
5.2 Principles of Classical Liberalism ................................................................... 48
5.2.1 Human Reason .................................................................................... 48
5.2.2 Natural Laws ....................................................................................... 48
5.2.3 Natural Rights and Liberties ............................................................... 48
5.2.4 Equality of all Individuals ................................................................... 49
5.2.5 Importance of Private Property ........................................................... 49
5.2.6 Economic Liberty or Free Enterprise Economy ................................. 49
5.2.7 Government as Defender of Private Property ..................................... 50
5.2.8 Parliamentary Rule.............................................................................. 50
5.2.9 Supremacy of Parliament over the Monarchy .................................... 50
5.2.10 Right of Rebellion ............................................................................. 50
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 51
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 51
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 51

Study Session 6 52
Modern Liberalism ......................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52
6.1 Reasons for the Development of Modern Liberalism ..................................... 53
6.1.1 Need to Extend the Gains of Classical Liberalism to Lower Classes . 53
6.1.2 The Need for Liberalism to Accommodate New Theories of Man and
Society.......................................................................................................... 53
 6.1.3 The Need to Abandon Individualism .................................................. 53
6.1.4 Realization that Government Action was Necessary to Promote liberty
among the Under-Privileged ........................................................................ 54
6. 2 Principles of Modern Liberalism .................................................................... 54
6.2.1 Government as a supporter and promoter of Liberty .......................... 55
6.2.2 Rejection of Natural Law .................................................................... 55
6.2.3 Rejection of Free Enterprise Economy without Government
Regulation .................................................................................................... 55
6.2.4 Rejection of government activities that do not promote human liberty
...................................................................................................................... 55
6.2.5 Belief in Social Engineering ............................................................... 55
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 57
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 57

Study Session 7 58
Fascism ........................................................................................................................... 58
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 58
7.1 The Development of Fascism .......................................................................... 58
7.2 Principles and Features of Fascism ................................................................. 60
7.2.1 Nationalism and Militarism ................................................................ 60
7.2.2 Totalitarianism .................................................................................... 60
7.2.3 Centralized Economy Planning........................................................... 61
7.2.4 Party Rule............................................................................................ 61
7.2.5 Personal Dictatorship .......................................................................... 61
7.2.6 Terrorism and Repression ................................................................... 61
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 62
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 62
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 62

Study Session 8 63
Anarchism: Its Meaning and Development .................................................................... 63
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 63
8.1 The Meaning of Anarchism ............................................................................. 64
8.2 The Development of Anarchism ..................................................................... 66
8.2.1 Socialism Tendencies in Early Anarchism ......................................... 66
8.2.2 Nihilistic Tendencies in Anarchism .................................................... 67
8.2.3 Utopian Elements in Anarchism ......................................................... 68
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 69
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 69
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 69

Study Session 9 71
Socialism: Its Meaning & Development ......................................................................... 71
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 71
9.1 Elements in the Definition of Socialism.......................................................... 71
9.1.1 Public Ownership and Control of the Means of Production ............... 71
 9.1.2 Public Ownership and/or control of the means of distribution ........... 72
9.1.3 A Goal of bringing about an Egalitarian Society ................................ 72
African Socialism .................................................................................................. 73
9.2 The Development of Socialism ....................................................................... 74
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 79
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 80
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 80

Study Session 10 82
Marxism: Origins, Sources and General Legacy of Marx .............................................. 82
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 82
10.1 Marxism: Origin and Sources........................................................................ 83
10.2 General Legacy of Karl Marx ....................................................................... 85
10.3 The Other Legacies of Marx ......................................................................... 87
10.3.1 Legacy in Economic Thought ........................................................... 87
10.3.2 Legacy in Sociology ......................................................................... 88
10.3.3 Legacy in Philosophy ........................................................................ 89
10.3.4 Legacy in Politics .............................................................................. 90
10.4 Elements of Marxism .................................................................................... 91
Study Session Summary ................................................................................................. 93
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 93

Study Session 11 95
Other Ideological Traditions ........................................................................................... 95
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 95
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................... 102
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 102
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 102

.................................................................................................................... 103

Revision Session 103

Appendix A ................................................................................................ 106
Appendix B ................................................................................................ 107
 Course overview

This is a compulsory course which introduces political ideas

in their historical contexts. The course will provide answers to
such germane questions such as: just what is the state? What
is the origin of the state?
The course will start with an introductory study session; and
proceed to discuss the various political ideas in subsequent
sessions. The political ideas discussed include: democracy,
monarchical absolutism, conservatism, liberalism, fascism,
anarchism, socialism. Once you learn the various political
ideas, you can easily provide answers to questions relating to
justification to the existence of the state and the purpose for
which the state is created.
This course manual supplements and complements POS212
UI Mobile Class Activities as an online course. The UI
Mobile Class is a virtual platform that facilitates classroom
interaction at a distance where you can discuss / interact with
your tutor and peers while you are at home or office from
your internet-enabled computer. You will also use this
platform to submit your assignments, receive tutor feedback
and course news with updates.
This course is intended for people who intends to: understand
the origin and features of political ideas and how these ideas
have changed over time. The course will provide a working
knowledge of the debates that have occurred within and
between political ideas.

Course outcomes
Upon a successful completion of course you will be able to:

 describe the context in which political ideas came into

being.
 distinguish each of the ideas from the others.
Outcomes
Timeframe

This is a one semester course.

45 hours of formal study time is required.

How long?

Study skills

As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different

to that from your school days: you will choose what you want
to study, you will have professional and/or personal
motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting
your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning
environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goal setting,
stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to
reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space
i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the
environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your
self-study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are
a number of excellent web links & resources on the Course
website. Go to ―Self-Study Skills‖ menu in course website.

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Assessments

There are two basic forms of assessment in this course: self

assessment questions (SAQs) and tutor marked assessment
(TMAs). Feedbacks to the SAQs are at the manual. You will
Assessments need to forward responses to activities to your tutor via the UI
Mobile Class. Feedbacks to TMAs will be provided by your
tutor in not more than 2-week expected duration.
Schedule dates for submitting assignments and engaging in
course / class activities is available on the course website.
Kindly visit your course website often for updates / to be on
top of information.
Study Session 1

The Nature of Political Ideas

Introduction
In this study session you will learn about: the basic nature of
political ideas; how political ideas arose, the questions which
they are designed to answer; and the different ways in which
they have answered them.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key words printed in bold.
(SAQ 1.1)
 explain the central questions which have given rise to
political ideas. (SAQ 1.2)
Learning  discuss at least four representative answers to these
Outcomes questions. (SAQs 1.2 and 1.3)

1.1 Central Questions to Political Ideas

State could be Political ideas arose out of attempts to understand and explain
conceived as an entity political life. There are many questions which political ideas
that exercises sovereign
authority over a given
seek to answer but generally, these questions relate to the
set of people through origins of the state and the justification for its existence.
the instrument of Some of the specific questions which political ideas seek to
government in a answer are: Just what is the state? How did it emerge? Does
specified given God ordain it, or is it the product of a common agreement
territory. among citizens? Does the state promote good or evil? How
much power should the state have and in what spheres of
human activity? The concept of the state is central to political
ideas.

Pick up as many dictionaries as you can find and write down

the definition of the state in each of them. Look for
introductory texts on political science and also see if you can
Activity 1.1
find additionally very good and clear definitions of the state.
Allow 5 minutes

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 o ITQ What is a political idea?
 A. It is a theory of political science
 B An idea that seeks to explain and justify the
existence of state
 C It is all about politics and leadership
Feedback on ITQs answers
 The correct answer was B
 It was not A because political idea is more than
political theory.
 It was not D because political ideas are not about
politics and leadership.
Sovereign supreme The state is a sovereign or independent association exercising
independent authority authority over defined territorial boundaries and people
exercised by a State in a
defined territory
through the machinery of a government. Although
government and the state are often used as if they mean the
same thing, you should realize that government is simply the
machinery or institutional framework of authority in a state.

Read the section on ‗Essential Elements of the State‘, in the

book by Rodee and others, Introduction to Political Science.
Activity 1.2
Allow 15 minutes

○ ITQ What do you consider to be the essential attributes of

a state?
Feedback on ITQ
 We do not know what you considered, but you
probably thought of some of the following:
 sovereignty
 authority
 population
 territory
 ○ ITQ Give a short definition of the state
Feedback on ITQ
Your definition should include the following elements:
 state is a sovereign or independent association
 state exercises authority over people in a defined
territorial boundaries through the machinery of
government

1.2 Some Answers to the Central Questions of Political Ideas

In this section, we shall consider some specific answers to the
central questions of political ideas that are highlighted in
study session 1.1. The answers we shall consider in this
section includes: divine theory; the force theory; natural or
organic theory; the social contract theory; liberal theory;
socialist theory and conservative theory.
1.2.1 Divine Theory
This is perhaps the oldest of the ideas on the origin and nature
of the state. The divine theory simply states that God Himself
ordained and established the state. The rulers are therefore
regarded as descendants or agents of God and opposition to
them must be regarded as opposition to God.
1.2.2 Natural or Organic Theory
This political idea argues that the state arose out of people‘s
natural desire to interact with their fellow men and achieve
moral perfection. Accordingly then, people are human only
within the state and an individual outside of the state was
either a god or a beast. The state is an organism and the
citizens are its organs. The government is the brain of the
state and its task is to control other organs – the citizens – in
the interest of the whole organism.
1.2.3 The Force Theory
According to the force theory, the state arose out of conquest
and domination of the weak by the powerful. There is no
ethical or moral justification for the state. Rulers govern
because they have the power to do so. Subjects obey because
if they did not they would be punished heavily. In a word, the
subjects are merely the tools of their rulers.

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1.2.4 Social Contract Theory
According to liberal theory, the state is needed to provide
security of life and property and to settle disputes which
cannot be resolved directly by citizens themselves. Beyond
the protection of life and property and the settlement of
disputes, government intervention in social life becomes
unnecessary, oppressive and illegitimate. The state should
permit citizens the greatest possible freedom and liberty to
express their abilities or creativity.
1.2.5 Socialist Theory
This political idea argues that the state should do more than
protect life and settle disputes. The state should be
responsible for meeting the welfare needs of citizens in
education, health, pensions, water supply, electricity, housing
etc. In other words, the state should seek to meet the material
needs of citizens and should intervene actively in social life in
order to achieve this.
1.2.6 Conservative Theory
Conservatism as a political idea attacks all those political
ideas which seek to use human reason to explain the nature of
the state. According to the conservatives, no citizen should
regard the state as an association to do certain jobs for him or
as a partnership agreement in a trade that must yield profit.
The state is a legitimate institution because it is the product of
historical wisdom, tradition, laws, customs and established
practices and institutions. These traditional or historical
factors and forces, rather than human reason, provide an
adequate basis for understanding the nature of the state.
Flowing from all the above explanations and notwithstanding
the disagreement amongst these writers, all agree in ascribing
to the State four elements namely: people, territory,
government and last but not the least, sovereignty. Some
writers define the state as essentially a class structure. Others
regard it as the one organization that transcends class and
stands for the whole community. Some interpret it as a power
system. Some view it as a legal construction. To some, it is a
necessary evil, and to a very few an evil that is or will be
unnecessary someday, while to others it is the world that God
has made for itself. Yet to others, it is a community
―organized for action under legal rules.‖ Taking cognizance
of all such considerations, Garner, gives a matter-of-fact
definition of the state:
 “a community of persons, more or less
numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, independent or nearly so, of
external control, and possessing an organized
government to which the great body of
inhabitants render habitual obedience”.

The state is a political association that exercises

sovereign jurisdiction within defined territorial borders.
In contrast to government, which is merely one of its
parts, the state encompasses all public bodies and
exercises impersonal authority on the basis of the
assumption that it represents the permanent interests of
society rather than the partisan sympathies of any
group of politicians.
There are a number of rival theories of the state.
Pluralists hold that the state is neutral body that
arbitrates between the competing interests of society.
Marxists argue that the state maintains the class system
by either oppressing subordinate classes or
ameliorating class conflict. The New Right portrays the
state as a self-serving monster that is intent on
expansion and aggrandisement. Radical feminists point
to patriarchal biases within the state that support a
system of male power.
Those who support the state see it either as a means of
defending the individual from the encroachments of
fellow citizens or as a mechanism through which collec
tive action can be organised. Critics, however, tend to
suggest that the state reflects either the interests of
dominant social groups, or interests that are separate
from, and antithetical to, society.
States have fulfilled very different roles. Minimal
states merely lay down the con- ditions for orderly
existence. Developmental states attempt to promote
growth and economic development. Social-democratic
states aim to rectify the imbalances and injustices of a
market economy. Collectivised states exert control over
the entirety of economic life. Totalitarian states bring
about all-encompassing politicisation and, in effect,
extinguish civil society.

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 The modern state is confronted by a variety of threats.
Chief amongst these are: globalisation in the form of
economic interdependence and the emergence of supra-
national bodies; privatisation through the 'hollowing
out' of the state as responsibilities are transferred to
private institutions; and localisation through the
transfer of responsibilities from central bodies to a
local or community level.

So far, we have discussed some representative political ideas

about the nature of the state. Which of these ideas or theories
do you find most attractive or reasonable? Rank all the seven
Activity 1.3 political ideas in the order (i.e. 1st, 2nd, 3rd… 7th) in which you
Allow 5 minutes think they adequately explain the nature of the state.

Study Session Summary

In this Study session you learned that political ideas are

attempts to explain and understand political life particularly
the origins of the state and the justification for its existence.
Summary Political ideas differ greatly in the answers they provide to
questions regarding the origins and nature of the state. Some
political ideas see the state as a product of force or conquest,
while others see it as a divine creation or even as a product of
common agreement among citizens. Some political ideas
envisage a limited role for the state in social life while others
expect to be an active agent in the lives of citizens. Whatever
may be the differences among political ideas, however, they
share one thing in common; they all seek to answer important
questions about the nature of the state.
Assessment

SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1)

A. What is a state?
Self Assessment B. Give a brief definition of political ideas.

SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

A. Compare the following theories of the state: natural
theory, social contract theory & socialist theory.
B. What is the underlining difference between divine
right theory, force theory & conservative theory? Do
these theories have a point of convergence?
SAQ 1.3 (tests Learning Outcome 1.3)
Fill the table below with the most suitable answers
from the array of options.

S/n Scenario Applicable

Idea

1 Mrs. Amordi, the minister of

information, maintained that the
primary aim of the State is the welfare
concern of her citizenry.

2 Mr. Tolu, a national activist,

proclaims that the state is a product of
collective bargaining designed to
make ends meet for her citizenry.

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 Options
A. Socialist theory
B. Divine contract theory

TMA 1.1 What is the relationship between political ideas

and the concept of state?
Send your answer to the class at Study Session 1 Assignment
Page on Course Website.
Assignment

Bibliography

Textbooks ‗Theories are concerning the origins of the state‘, in chapter

two of C. Rodee, T. Anderson, C. Christol and T. Greene
(1976), Introduction to Political Science. Tokyo: McGraw-
Hill.
Study Session 2

Democracy: Its Meaning, Development,

Varieties

Introduction
In this session, you will be exposed to a major concept in
political ideas, namely democracy. This study session is
divided into four sections. Section one discusses the meaning
of democracy while section two traces the historical
development of democracy. The third section looks at types of
democracy. We conclude our discussion of democracy in the
fourth section by looking at principles of democracy.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:

 define democracy as a method of government. (SAQ 2.1)

 explain the development of democracy. (SAQ 2.2)
Learning  Identify and explain two types of democracy. (SAQ 2.2)
Outcomes

2.1 The Meaning of Democracy

Democracy as a system Democracy is a very controversial term. C.B. Macpherson
of government can be points out that ‗the word democracy has changed its meaning
related to participation
in the affairs of
more than once and in more than one direction‘. One
government either important reason why democracy is very controversial to
directly by the people define is that it has become very fashionable for different
or via elected types of governments to lay claim to being democratic. We
representatives. As a will therefore attempt to clarify the meaning of the term in this
body of ideas, section.
democracy is
considered as the basic A useful way of clarifying the concept of democracy is to
idea that political realize that it is used to refer both to a system of government
power arises from the
and to a set of principles. As a system of government,
people.
democracy simply means rule by the people or their elected
representatives. When people rule themselves directly, we
talk of direct democracy; when people are ruled by their
elected representatives we talk of indirect democracy. There
are some other senses in which democracy can be understood
as a system of government which we shall discuss in
subsequent sections (sections 2.3 & 2.4).

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 Democracy can also be viewed as a set of principles or ideas
as earlier noted. The most important principle associated with
democracy is the idea that political power originates from the
people and that government is therefore legal or legitimate
only when it is based on the consent of the people. You will
immediately notice the close connection between democracy
as a set of ideas and democracy as a system of government.
For, it is precisely because of the idea that power belongs to
the people that a democratic system of government either
takes the form of direct democracy in which people rule
themselves directly or indirectly when people are ruled by
those they themselves have elected. We shall discuss in
greater details the ideas and principles of associated with
democracy in section 2.4.

Look for as many dictionaries and introductory texts on

government and politics as you can find and write down the
definition of democracy in each of them.
Activity 2.1 See whether there are any contradictions in all the definitions
of democracy you have been able to find including the one
Allow 10 minutes
provided in this section.
Write down your own preferred definition of democracy.

2.2 The Development of Democracy

Democracy developed first among the ancient Greeks.
Indeed, the word democracy has its roots in two Greek words,
demos meaning the people and kratien meaning to rule. Thus,
democracy in ancient Greece was understood as direct
democracy, that is, rule by the people or the whole body of
citizens.
Ancient Athens was the Greek city state in which direct
democracy flourished most. In the fourth century B.C.,
Athens had a population of some 40,000 citizens and meetings
or assemblies were usually held when important decisions
were to be taken. However, less than ten per cent of
Athenians actually attended or participated in these meetings.
The type of town-meeting democracy associated with Athens,
however, had to be abandoned as societies became larger and
people lost the opportunity for face-to-face interaction. The
best that can be done under these modern circumstances is for
all citizens to participate in government through their elected
 representatives. Modern democracy is therefore a government
of elected representatives i.e. it is based on representation
rather than the direct participation.
The history of the development of modern democracy is a
very complex one. After the fall of the Greek city states, it
was not until the American Revolution of 1776 and the French
Revolution of 1789 that representative democracy fully came
alive. The American Revolution saw the beginning of a series
of political reforms which led to the introduction of universal
male suffrage – the right of all men to vote – in 1845. Five
years later, in 1850, women‘s suffrage was introduced in
America. The French Revolution of 1789 also proclaimed the
right of the people to choose those who will rule them and
since that revolution, elections and even plebiscites based on
universal suffrage has become a familiar feature of French
life.
For a very long time, Britain practiced a system of
representative democracy in which only a few – namely those
who had enough property or wealth – were allowed to
participate in electing the increasingly powerful parliament.
In 1918, however, Britain recognized the right of all adult
males to vote. Ten years later in 1928, full women‘s suffrage
was introduced.
Other countries in Europe, Asia and the Americas soon
followed the example of America, France and Britain so that
by the end of the second world war in 1945, virtually all
independent countries of the world proclaimed their
commitment to one form of representative democracy or the
other. When the colonies in Asia and Africa also gained
independence from alien rule, they adopted democratic forms
of government although in many cases, democracy eventually
gave way to military rule and one-party dictatorship.
Look for as many dictionaries and introductory texts on
government and politics as you can find and write down the
definition of democracy in each of them.
Discussion on See whether there are any contradictions in all the definitions
Activity of democracy you have been able to find including the one
provided in this section.
Post your own preferred definition of democracy on course
forum at UI Mobile Class. Your definition should not be more
than a paragraph or 80 words.

24
2.3 Varieties of Democracy
In the last section (2.2), we spoke of two broad types of
democratic governments, namely direct democracy and
indirect democracy. In this section, we shall not only examine
the essential features of direct and indirect democracy, but
also discuss two other sub-types of democracy namely liberal
democracy and social democracy.
2.3.1 Direct democracy
This is the original meaning of democracy as a system of
government. Under direct democracy, the right to make
political decisions is exercised directly by the whole body of
citizens acting under procedures of majority rule. Thus, the
essential characteristic of direct democracy is the direct
participation of citizens or a majority of them in government.
As we noted earlier, Greek democracy as practiced in the
small Greek city state of Athens during the 4th century B.C.
was the closest approximation to direct democracy.
2.3.2 Representative Democracy
This is also known as modern or indirect democracy. It is a
form of democratic government where citizens exercise their
right to take part in the affairs of government through
representatives chosen and responsible to them. As we
observed while discussing the historical development of
democracy in the last section, modern societies are very large
ones and the greater the number of people involved, the less
meaningful and possible their direct participation in
government. Thus, modern democracy, unlike direct
democracy, is based on representation rather than
participation of the people in government. The people who
are governed are not the same people who govern. Instead of
the people directly making laws or policies themselves, they
elect representatives or legislators to do so for them. An
important feature of representative democracy is therefore the
right of the people to elect those who will govern them and
the regular conduct of such elections.
2.3.3 Liberal or Constitutional Democracy
Democracy is also understood, particularly in countries of
North America and Western Europe, to mean a form of
government usually a representative democracy, where the
powers of government are exercised within a framework of
constitutional restraints. These constitutional restraints or
 checks are designed to protect certain political rights of
citizens – such as freedom of speech, religion and association
from arbitrary interference by the government. Thus, in a
liberal democracy, there are limits on what the government
may do and the government does not control or even largely
influence such institutions as the mass media, religious groups
and pressure groups. In short, the liberal democratic
government operates at the margin of social activity.
2.3.4 Social Democracy
This is a form of government which regardless of whether or
not it is democratic in any of the three senses above, tends to
minimize social and economic differences among citizens.
This type of democratic government has had the greatest
influence in Russia and the other socialist countries of
Western Europe. Usually, a government of social democracy
would intervene actively in the economy or even assume
direct control of it in order to ensure that resources are evenly
distributed among various groups in society and that citizens
are provided with basic needs such as employment, education,
electricity, water supply housing etc. Social democracy is
based on the principle that the right of the people to elect
those who will govern them will be meaningless unless it is
accompanied by the right of citizens to have a fair access to
the economic resources of society.
Social democracy lacks the theoretical coherence of, say,
classical liberalism or fundamentalist socialism. Whereas the
former is ideologically committed to the market, and the latter
champions the cause of common ownership, social democracy
stands for a balance between the market and the state, a
balance between the individual and the community. At the
heart of social democracy there is a compromise between, on
the one hand, an acceptance of capitalism as the only reliable
mechanism for generating wealth, and, on the other, a desire
to distribute wealth in accordance with moral, rather than
market, principles. For socialists, this conversion to the
market was a difficult, and at times painful, process that was
dictated more by practical circumstances and electoral
advantage than by ideological conviction.
The chief characteristic of modern social democratic thought
is a concern for the underdog in society, the weak and
vulnerable. There is a sense, however, in which social
democracy cannot simply be confined to the socialist
tradition. It may draw on a socialist belief in compassion and

26
a common humanity, a liberal commitment to positive
freedom and equal opportunities, or, for that matter, a
conservative sense of paternal duty and care. Whatever its
source, it has usually been articulated on the basis of
principles such as welfarism, redistribution and social justice.
2.3.5 Classical democracy
The classical model of democracy is based on the polis, or
city-state, of Ancient Greece, and particularly on the system
of rule that developed in the largest and most powerful Greek
city-state, Athens. The form of direct democracy that operated
in Athens during the fourth and fifth centuries BCE is often
portrayed as the only pure or ideal system of popular
participation. Nevertheless, although the model had
considerable impact on later thinkers such as Rousseau (See p.
73) and Marx (see p-51), Athenian democracy developed a
very particular kind of direct popular rule, one that has only a
very limited application in the modern world. Athenian
democracy amounted to a form of government by mass
meeting. All major decisions were made by the Assembly, or
Ecclesia, to which all citizens belonged. This met at least 40
times a year. When full-time public officials were needed,
they were chosen on a basis of lot or rota to ensure that they
constituted a microcosm of the larger citizenry, and, terms of
office were typically short to achieve the broadest possible
participation.
What made Athenian democracy so remarkable was the level
of political activity of its citizens. Not only did they
participate in regular meetings of the Assembly but they were,
in large numbers, prepared to shoulder the responsibility of
public office and, decision-making.
2.3.6 Protective democracy
When democratic ideas were revived in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, they appeared in a form that was very
different from the classical democracy of Ancient Greece. In
particular, democracy was seen less as a mechanism through
which the public could participate in political life, and more as
a device through which citizens could protect themselves from
the encroachments of government, hence protective
democracy. This view appealed particularly to early liberal
thinkers whose concern was, above all, to create the widest
realm of individual liberty. The desire to protect the individual
from over-mighty government was expressed in per- haps the
 earliest of all democratic sentiments, Aristotle's response to
Plato: 'quis custodiet custodes? (who will guard the
Guardians?").
However, to justify democracy on protective grounds is to
provide only a qualified endorsement of democratic rule. In
short, protective democracy is but a limited and indirect form
of democracy. In practice, the consent of the governed is
exercised through voting in regular and competitive elections.
This thereby ensures the accountability of those who govern.
Moreover, this is above all a system of Constitutional
democracy that operates within a set of formal or informal
rules that check the exercise of government power.
Ultimately, protective democracy aims to give citizens the
widest possible scope to live their lives as they choose.
Protective democracy has therefore particularly appealed to
classical liberals and, in modern politics, to supporters of the
New Right.

2.3.7 Developmental democracy

Although early democratic theory focused on the need to
protect individual rights and interests, it soon developed an
alternative focus: a concern with the development of the
human individual and the community. This gave rise to quite
new models of democratic rule which can broadly be referred
to as systems of developmental democracy.
However, a more modest form of developmental democracy
has also been advanced that is compatible with the liberal
model of representative government. This view of
developmental democracy is rooted in the writings of John
Stuart Mill (see p. 44). For Mill, the central virtue of
democracy was that it promotes the "highest and harmonious'
development of individual capacities. By participating in
political life, citizens enhance their understanding, strengthen
their sensibilities, and achieve a higher level of personal
development. In short, democracy is essentially an educational
experience. As a result, Mill proposed the broadening of
popular participation, arguing that the franchise should be
extended to all but those who are illiterate. In the process, he
suggested (radically, for his time) that suffrage should also be
extended to women. In addition, he advocated strong and
independent local authorities in the belief that this would
broaden the opportunities available for holding public office.

28
 2.3.8 People's democracy
The term 'people's democracy' is derived from the orthodox
communist regimes that sprang up on the Soviet model in the
aftermath of the Second World War. It is here used, however,
to refer broadly to the various democratic models that the
Marxist tradition has generated. Although they differ, these
models offer a clear contrast to the more familiar liberal
democratic ones. Marxists have tended to be dis missive of
liberal or parliamentary democracy, seeing it as a form of
'bourgeois or capitalist' democracy. Nevertheless, Marxists
were drawn to the concept or ideal of democracy because of
its clear egalitarian implications. The term was used in
particular to designate the goal of social equality brought
about through the common ownership of wealth ('social
democracy' in its original sense), in contrast to 'political'
democracy, which establishes only a facade of equality.
Marx believed that the overthrow of capitalism would be a
trigger that would allow genuine democracy to flourish.
However, the weakness of this model is that Lenin failed to
build into it any mechanism for checking the power of the
Communist Party (and particularly its leaders) and for
ensuring that it remained sensitive and accountable to the
proletarian class. To rephrase Aristotle, 'who will guard the
Communist Party?

There are eight varieties of democratic government, namely

direct, indirect, liberal and social democracy. What are the
differences and similarities among these varieties of
Reflection government?
Allow 10 minutes What would you consider to be the relative advantages and
disadvantages of direct and indirect democracy?
Write down your answer clearly and concisely.
You may see Political Ideologies, pages 104 – 107 by Leo P.
Baradat and Rodee and others, Introduction to Political
Science, page 35 – 36 for further notes.
 ○ ITQ Define liberal democracy?
It a democracy where the powers of government are
exercised within a framework of:
A. constitutional restraints.
B. by the principle of majority rule.
C. by the king.
D. by the representatives of the people.

Feedback on ITQ
 The correct answer was A
 It was not B because it is not democracy by majority
rule of face to face democracy
 It was not C because it is not a monarchical
government where the king has absolute power
 It was not D because the representatives do not rule by
their whims and caprices

2.4 Principles of Democracy

Democracy, as we have observed, is more than a method of
government. It also embodies a set of ideas or principles.
Some of the principles or ideas of democracy are:
Social contract the a Political power comes from the people and
belief that government government; it is therefore legal or legitimate only by
should be a contract the consent of the governed. In order to justify this
between the people and principle of popular sovereignty, early democratic
the governing body. theorists argued that in the past people had come
together and agreed to establish a government to
regulate their common affairs and enhance their
collective security. This agreement was called the
Social Contract and it was regarded as the source of
the authority of the government.
Rights a power or b Another principle of democracy is the belief that the
privilege possessed by individual is of major value or importance in society
a particular person by and that he has some rights that are inalienable and
virtue of law. Each fundamental or that cannot be taken away without the
right that an individual due process of law. The rights to life, freedom of
possesses usually
association and speech are commonly regarded as the
relates to a
corresponding legal most important of these rights. Other democratic rights
duty imposed on include the rights to property, employment, and
another. For example, financial support in old age, education and other socio-
when a person owns a economic benefits.

30
home and property, he c Another principle of democracy is the idea that each
has the right to possess individual is basically equal to all other individuals
and enjoy it free from
and, therefore, that no human being is more human
the interference of
others, who are under a
than the other. However, the precise meaning of this
corresponding duty not equality is uncertain. While some democrats argue that
to interfere with the people are equal in all ways, others argue that while
owner's rights by people have the same fundamental human rights they
trespassing on the differ widely in such qualities as intelligence and
property or breaking business ingenuity.
into the home.

d Lastly, all democrats share the idea that men are

basically rational and that they should therefore be
given a role in the activities of government or in the
process of electing or choosing the government.

Study Session Summary

In this Study session, we have tried to clarify the meaning of

democracy as well as trace its historical development.
Although democracy is a very controversial term, it can
Summary adequately be understood as a method of government and a set
of ideas or principles. Historically, democracy first developed
in Ancient Greece where it took the form of direct or ‗town
meeting democracy‘. But modern democracy developed in
America, France and Britain and as it is widely practiced
today, it is the indirect or representative type of democracy in
which people participates by electing representatives to do so
for them.

A democratic system of government can take the form of any

one or more of the following varieties of democracy: direct
democracy, indirect or representative democracy, liberal
democracy and social democracy. Direct democracy is based
on the direct participation of the people in government and is
hardly possible in modern times. Most democratic systems in
the world today take the form of representative democracy.
Liberal democratic regimes are those operating within
restraints imposed by the constitutional guarantee of certain
rights to citizens and are common in countries of North
America and Western Europe. Social democratic
governments seek to meet the economic needs of the majority
of citizens and are usually to be found among the socialist
countries of Eastern Europe including Russia. As a system of
 ideas, democracy embodies principles that emphasize popular
sovereignty, human rights, human equality and human
rationality.

Assessment

Now that you have completed this study session, you can
assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by
answering these questions. Write your answers in your Study
Self Assessment Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next Study
Support Online Meeting. You can check your answers with
the Feedbacks on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of
this Manual.
SAQ 2.1 (tests Learning Outcome 2.1)
How will you define democracy?
SAQ 2.2 (tests Learning Outcome 2.2 & 2.3)
Explain two types of democracy and briefly explain how
each of them evolved.

Bibliography

Textbooks Allan Ball, (1977). Modern Politics and Government London:

Macmillan.

C. Rodee, T. Anderson, C. Christol and T. Greene, (1976)

Introduction To Political Science Tokyo: McGraw-Hill.
C.B. Macpherson, (1966). The Real World of Democracy
London: Oxford University Press.
Glenn Tinder, (1974). Political Thinking: The Perennial
Political Questions Boston: Little Brown and Company,
Kapur, A.C. (1981). Principles of Political Science New
Delhi. (S. Chand & Co. Ltd
L.P. Baradat, (1979) Political Ideologies: Their Origins and
Impact New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Robert Dahl, (1963). A Preface to Democratic Theory
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
S.E. Finer, (1970). Comparative Government Penguin.

32
Study Session 3

Monarchical Absolutism

Introduction
In this study session, you will be exposed to one of the most
important ideas in political thought, monarchical absolutism.
We will discuss the nature of monarchy as a political
institution, and also review the theory of monarchical
absolutism as expounded by Thomas Hobbes.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key words printed in bold.
(SAQ 3.1)
 trace the historical development of monarchy as a political
Learning institution. (SAQ 3.1)
Outcomes  discuss the ideas of the theory of monarchical absolutism
by Thomas Hobbes. (SAQ 3.2)

3.1 The Development of Monarchy as a Political Institution

Monarchy a form of Monarchy refers to the rule of one man, and monarchical
government with absolutism refers to the idea that the monarch should exercise
undivided rule or absolute or unrestricted powers over his subjects. Usually,
absolute sovereignty monarchy takes the form of a hereditary system of rule in
by a single person, which succession is by inheritance or blood descent.
usually holding such
authority by birthright. The monarchical system of rule can be traced back to ancient
times and was particularly popular among the Teutonic tribes
(people who lived in north-western Europe in former times).
Among early political theorists, monarchy was also
considered the best of all possible forms of government. For
instance, Plato argued that power in a good system of
government should be concentrated in the hands of a
‗philosopher-king‘ or a knowledgeable monarch.
Initially, ancient kings were elected by tribal councils.
Gradually, the kings began to suggest those who should
succeed them and the councils approved these people without
opposition or criticism. In the course of time, kings began to
choose their successors without consulting the councils. By
the late sixteenth century, supporters of the monarchy started
to use the theory of the divine right of kings to justify the
 powers of the monarch. According to this theory, God had
personally chosen the king to rule and opposition to the king
was therefore opposition to God.
Much of the history of Europe between the sixteenth century
and the early twentieth century was dominated by a struggle
between the defenders of monarchy and the advocates of
democracy who favoured a system of government controlled
by the elected representatives of the people. So bitter was this
struggle that in 1815, an agreement known as the Concert of
Europe was signed among the kings of Europe under which
they resolved to perpetuate the absolute rule of the monarch
despite mounting popular pressures for democracy.
Nonetheless, the forces of democracy remained steadfast and
by the end of the First World War, monarchy had been
eliminated as an important political institution in Europe.
With respect to Africa, most of the pre-colonial monarchical
systems had their powers reduced when the colonial masters
handed over power to new and modern political elite at
independence.
There are some countries in the world today that have retained
their monarchical institutions. Great Britain, Sweden,
Denmark, Holland, Norway, Morocco and Saudi Arabia are
just a few of such countries. It is important to note however
that most of the present-day monarchies have no governing
functions at all. For example, in Great Britain today, the king
or queen occupies a merely symbolic or ceremonial position.
He or she merely performs such ceremonial functions such as
reading the government‘s legislative programme at the
beginning of a new parliamentary term, approving the laws
made by parliament and calling for elections when the
government decides it is time to seek the peoples‘ mandate.
In Europe generally, those monarchies that have survived to
the present day are those that accepted the democratic
revolution and the consequent reduction in their powers. In
countries like France and Russia where the monarchies
refused to accept political democracy, the institution of
monarchy was completely wiped out after very bloody
revolutions in which the monarch, his family and loyal
supporters were killed.

34
 ○ ITQ Which of the following statement is false.
A. Monarchy developed from ancient times as a
system of rule supported by tribal councils.
B. The power of the institution of monarchy was
strengthened by the theory of the divine right of
kings.
C. Most present-day monarchies play ceremonial
role.
D. In Europe generally, the monarchies that have
survived to the present day were those that
resisted reduction in their powers.
Feedback on ITQs answers
Only D is false. In fact, it is only monarchies that
accepted a very substantial reduction in their powers that
have survived to the present day. Others who resisted
democracy were completely annihilated.

3.2 Thomas Hobbes and the Theory of Monarchical Absolutism

The most famous exponent of monarchical absolutism was
Absolutism
Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679). He developed his ideas in
Absolutism is the theory or practice England during a period in which conflict between the
of absolute government, most
parliament and monarchy led to a civil war in which the
commonly associated with an
absolute monarchy (see p. 324). monarchy was violently overthrown before it was later
Government is 'absolute' in the sense restored after eleven years of army control. Hobbes therefore
that it possesses unfettered power: developed his ideas which were published in the book
government cannot be constrained by Leviathan to justify the restoration of the English monarchy.
a body external to itself. The
absolutist principle nevertheless The most important feature of Thomas Hobbes idea is that
resides in the claim to an unlimited unlike most supporters of the institution of monarchy during
right to rule (as in Divine Right), his time, he rejected the theory of the divine right of kings.
rather than in the exercise of Rather, Hobbes argued that the absolute powers of the
unchallengeable power.
monarch came from the people through a social contract.
Rationalist theories of absolute According to Hobbes, man was naturally and basically an
power generally advance the belief aggressive creature. Before the making of a social contract
that only absolute government can which enthroned the monarch, man lived in a state of nature in
guarantee order and social stability.
Absolutism should, however, be which people acted as they wished and pursued their selfish
distinguished from autocracy and interests without any concern for the interests and security of
dictatorship (see p. 363). As it is others. Each man was insecure and committed every kind of
based on a principled claim, whether falsehood or violence in order to prevent himself from being
religious or rational, it does not harmed by another. Also, according to Hobbes, ‗if any two
invest government with arbitrary and
men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot
unlimited power.
both enjoy, they become enemies and endeavour to destroy or
 subdue one another‘. The state of nature was therefore ‗a war
of all against all‘; it was full of conflict and without peace and
could only lead to arbitrary death. According to Hobbes, the
life of man in a state of nature was ‗solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish and short.
Hobbes however argued that men in spite of their natural
greed and aggression, were rational and could reason with
each other in order to end the insecurity and chaos of the state
of nature. Men therefore entered into a social contract or
agreement with each other in which they agreed to submit
themselves to the authority of a monarch in return for the
security and order to be provided by the monarch. Each man
therefore laid down his right of self-protection and is
contented with the security which the monarch would provide
for him and his colleagues. It is after this social contract that
human beings are really able to live reasonably and
comfortably; it is only after this contract that art, science,
morality, law, peace and tranquillity are able to develop.
Under the contract, the monarch‘s only obligation to the
people is to keep order and maintain peace and only if he
failed to do so can the people rise against him. Other than the
provision of order and security, the people had no rights to
claim against the monarch. On the other hand, the monarch
exercises absolute powers. For Hobbes, monarchical
absolutism was the price people had to pay for the movement
from the chaos of the state of nature to a civilized society of
order and security.
Despite Hobbes‘ argument that the monarch should enjoy
absolute powers, he was very unpopular among the defenders
of monarchy or the monarchists. This should not surprise
you. While the defenders of monarchy believed that the
king‘s authority arose directly from God‘s will, Hobbes
argued that the authority of the monarch came from the people
through a social contract.

36
 ○ ITQ Highlight what you think is peculiar to Thomas
Hobbes theory of monarchical absolutism.

Feedback on ITQs answers

 We don‘t know exactly what you identified, but
you probably thought of the following:
1. Hobbes argued that the absolute powers of
the monarch arose from a social contract
among the people; and
2. Hobbes believed that monarchical
absolutism was the price people had to pay
in order to escape the solitary, poor, nasty
brutish and short‘ life in the state of nature.

1. Study these materials that comes with your course

manual to access more information on
A. The Nature of the State and the Relation between
the State and the Individual I (Appendix A, linked
Activity 3.1 here).
Allow 10 minutes B. The Nature of the State and the Relation between
the State and the Individual II (Appendix B, linked
here).
2. As you study the materials, try to
A. Examine Machiavelli‘s thesis that the ‗end justifies
the means‖ in the action of rulers.
B. Examine the social contract theory of John Locke
C. Review how Hobbes conceives the state of Nature?

Post your findings in Activity 3.1 on course forum at UI

Mobile Class. Your response should not be more than a
paragraph or 80 words on each of the questions.
Discussion
Study Session Summary

In this Study session, we have tried to define Monarchical

absolutism as an idea that the monarch should exercise
absolute or unrestricted powers over his subjects. Monarchy
Summary as a political institution developed from ancient times, and
was subsequently strengthened especially in the sixteenth
century when the theory of the divine right to kings claimed
that the monarch was chosen by God.
Thomas Hobbes was the most famous exponent of
monarchical absolutism in that he argued in his book,
Leviathan, that the monarch should exercise absolute powers
over his subjects. Hobbes, however, did not believe in the
divine right of kings by arguing that the monarch‘s absolute
powers came from the people.

Assessment

TMA 3.1 Examine Machiavelli‘s thesis that the ‗end

justifies the means‖ in the action of rulers.
TMA 3.2 Examine the social contract theory of John
Locke.
Assignment Make a summary of your findings, and send your response to
your tutor at Study Session 3 Assignment Page on Course
Website.

Bibliography

Textbooks Read page 52 of Baradat‘s Political Ideologies and pages 31

and 32 of C. Rodee‘s Introduction to Political Science for
additional information on the institution of monarchy.
For a very interesting discussion of the ideas of Thomas
Hobbes read pages 53 – 66 of David Thompson‘s edited book,
Political Ideas.
Another interesting discussion of the ideas of Hobbes can be
found in pages 54 – 57 of Baradat‘s book, Political Ideologies.
See Hale, J.F. (1966). ―Machiavelli and the Self-Sufficient
State‖ in David Thomson, Political Ideas (Penguin Books
Ltd.) Pp. 25 – 28.

38
Study Session 4

Conservatism

Introduction
In this study session, we shall be discussing a major political
philosophy in the countries of Western Europe, namely:
conservatism. The study session is divided into two sections:
section one discusses the historical context within which
conservatism emerged while section two discusses the ideas
and principles associated with conservatism.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key words printed in bold.
(SAQ 4.1)
 highlight the historical circumstances that gave birth to
Learning conservatism as a major political philosophy.
Outcomes  identify the major principles or ideas associated with
conservatism as a political philosophy.

4.1 The Development of Conservatism

Conservatism a The English philosopher, Edmund Burke (1729 – 1797), was
systematic. the most famous philosopher of conservatism. It was not
Anarchy term often until Burke wrote his famous work, Reflections on the
used to describe a state Revolution in France, that conservatism became a very
of disorder due to important philosophy in the West. As the title of Burke‘s
absence or non- work suggests, the French Revolution (1789) was an
recognition of important factor in the development of conservatism. Indeed,
authority; but as a the French Revolution was the most important single
political idea, it influence on the development of conservatism as a political
actually refers to philosophy. In his work, Burke condemned the French
advocacy for absence
revolutionaries for assassinating a legitimate monarch,
of government and
absolute freedom of the
destroying the nobility, undermining religion, and breaking
individual. the loyalty of citizens to the government. In short, Burke
resented the French revolutionaries for destroying existing
traditions and institutions which had survived for centuries.
Burke feared that the French Revolution would turn into total
anarchy which would create conditions for the rise of
arbitrary and violent dictatorship and that this new
dictatorship would spread to the rest of Europe.
 This conservatism was starkly autocratic and reactionary,
rejecting out of hand any idea of reform. A more cautious,
more flexible, and ultimately more successful form of
conservatism nevertheless developed in the UK and the USA
that was characterised by Edmund Burke's belief in 'change in
order to conserve'. This stance enabled conservatives in the
nineteenth century to embrace the cause of social reform
under the paternalistic banner of 'One Nation'. The high point
of this tradition in the UK came in the 1950s as the
Conservative Party came to accept the post-war settlement and
espouse its own version of Keynesian social democracy.
However, such ideas increasingly came under pressure from
the 1970s onwards as a result of the emergence of the New
Right. The New Right's radically antistatist and antipaternalist
brand of conservatism draws heavily on classical liberal
themes and values.
Apart from the French Revolution, two other events of the
18th century also helped to give birth to conservatism. These
were the Industrial Revolution which introduced man to new
and sophisticated technologies, and the Enlightenment, which
made reason rather than tradition the most important guide to
human conduct.
In reaction to these three forces of change in the 18th
century – The French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution
and the Enlightenment – Conservatism emerged as a
philosophy which emphasized stability rather than change,
Tip and tradition rather than reason.
○ ITQ Which of the following events influenced the
development of conservatism?
A. The French Revolution
B. The Glorious Revolution
C. The Industrial Revolution
D. The Enlightenment
Feedback on ITQs answers
 Options A,C & D are correct. If you choose B,
you are wrong. In fact, conservatism as idea
started as a response to events in the 18th
century:
We will identify the major ideas associated with conservatism
in the next section.

40
4.2 Principles of Conservatism
The following are some of the major ideas or principles
associated with conservatism:
4.2.1 The Limited Capacity of Human Reason
Conservatives were pessimistic about man‘s ability to
improve his condition through the use of human reason.
While not denying the importance of human reason,
conservatives argued that it is dangerous for men to rely on it
for understanding the nature of man and the nature of society
and for solution to all human problems. In short,
conservatives believed that human reason is an imperfect
guide to the analysis and solution of man‘s problems.
4.2.2 The Importance of Traditional and Existing
Institution
Existing institutions and traditions are to be valued because
they reflect the accumulated wisdom of the past. Any attempt
to change or destroy existing practices or traditions will
produce unpredictable and unfavourable consequences that
are likely to bring great suffering and hardship to the people.
Furthermore, a new institution can never be as valuable and
effective as an old one. This is not to say that conservatives
did not want changes at all. Indeed, conservatives argued that
existing institutions and traditions must be adjusted to cope
with new developments. Conservatives however insisted that
new institutions or practices should be introduced after very
careful reflection and discussion and in an orderly rather than
abrupt manner.
4.2.3 Inequality
Conservatives believed that men were naturally unequal in
most human qualities. These natural inequalities are
responsible for differences in the properties and social status
of individuals. Hence, a person who has greater property and
status is naturally superior to another person who has little or
no property and status. Conservatives also argued that all
societies through recorded history have been characterized by
inequality and that it will be unwise for anyone to attempt to
eliminate by force this inequality as the French revolutionaries
did.
 4.2.4 The Importance of Private Property
Like the classical liberals (see classical liberalism in the next
course) conservatives emphasized the importance of private
property. The conservatives believed that private property is
an inalienable right of the individual and that it is one of the
important factors that can be used to distinguish men of high
character from those of low character. Government should
not interfere with private ownership of property but should
defend and encourage property owners.
4.2.5 The Rule of Enlightenment Minority or Aristocracy
Conservatives believed that social chaos would result if the
masses were allowed to rule. Burke in particular argued that
the well-governed society is one which the few men of ability,
property and high birth ruled. Ability is necessary if
government is to be efficient. Property is an important
qualification for rulership because if those who do not own
property assume leadership, they are likely to attempt to
deprive the wealthy of their property and thus disrupt society.
High birth of membership of the aristocracy or the middle-
class is important because it makes the ruler sensitive to his
heritage and to the established traditions of society. People
who are lower on the social scale- who are of low birth, and
do not have the ability or property should willingly submit to
the rulership of those who are higher on the social scale.
4.2.6 Respect for Religion
Conservatives believed in the value of religion and in the
moral code which religion provides. According to the
conservatives, stability in society must rest ultimately on
man‘s faith in God and on his willingness to obey God‘s
commandments. The many problems of human existence can
be solved not by the use of human reason but by relying on
God and religion.
4.2.7 Representative Democracy
Conservatives did not oppose a democratic system of rule in
which people will choose who will rule them. Burke, in
particular, argued that the elected parliament was the proper
governing agency of England. Burke, however, did not
believe that the Member of Parliament should be bound by the
wishes of those who elected him. He argued that while
legislators should always consider the wishes of those who
elected them in making decisions, they should not let such

42
 wishes prevent them from exercising their better judgement.
As Burke puts it: ‗while a member of the legislature ought to
give a great weight to the wishes of his constituents, he ought
never to sacrifice to them his unbiased opinion, his mature
judgement and his enlightened conscience‘.
In this study session, we identified seven principles of
conservatism as a philosophy. Which of these principles are
in your opinion, reasonable and acceptable? Which of them
Discussion would you consider unfair and unacceptable? What are the
reasons for your answers? Post your response at e-class forum.

Study Session Summary

Conservatism developed as a reaction to three forces of

change in the 18th century – the French Revolution, the
Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. Its leading
exponent was Edmund Burke whose philosophy of
conservatism was particularly influenced by what he regarded
as the excesses of the French Revolution. Among the ideas or
principles associated with conservatism as a philosophy are:
limited capacity of human reason, importance of traditions
and institutions, the natural inequality of men, the importance
of private property, the rule of the enlightened minority,
respect for religion and representative democracy.

Assessment

TMA 4.1 Conservatives are in the habit of revering the

founders, but a founding is an unconservative action. Discuss
TMA 4.2 The seven principle of conservatism is valid.
Assignment True / False?
Post your response to course forum for Study Session 4 on
Course Website.
Bibliography

Textbooks You will find a very good discussion of the French Revolution
on pages 263 – 268 of Samuel Finers‘s Comparative
Government.
For more facts about the principles or ideas associated with
conservatism, read pages 73 – 77 of Baradat‘s Political
Ideologies; pages 106 – 109 of Rodee and others, and
Introduction to Political Science: pages 118 – 129 of David
Thompson (ed) Political Ideas.

44
Study Session 5

Classical Liberalism

Introduction
In this study session, we will discuss a tradition of political
ideas known as classical liberalism. The study session is
divided into two sections. Section one discusses the historical
development of classical liberalism and section two discusses
its central or important principles.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key words printed in bold.
(SAQ 4.1)
 trace the historical development of classical liberalism in
Learning
Outcomes medieval England;
 highlight the central principles of classical liberalism.

5.1 The Development of Classical Liberalism

Liberalism refers to a Liberalism refers to those sets of ideas and policies that have
particular set of ideas as their common aim, greater freedom or liberty for
which focus on the
attainment of greater
individual men. Liberals all over the world support policies
freedom (i.e. liberty) that permit the free expression of individual personality
for all men and women. because they believe that that expression is valuable not only
Liberals people who to the individual but also to the society. Liberalism was the
support idea and product of the break- down of feudalism and the growth, in its
practices that permits place, of a market or capitalist society. Early liberalism
and deepens certainly reflected the aspirations of a rising industrial middle
fundamental freedom class, and liberalism and capitalism have been closely linked
and rights because they
(some have argued intrinsically linked ever since. In its
belief enjoyment by
individuals is an earliest form, liberalism was a political doctrine. It attacked
instrument for the absolutism and feudal privilege, instead advocating
creation of a healthy constitutional and, later, representative government.
and progressive society.
Classical liberalism refers to that version of liberalism that
Medieval period a time was first developed in England in the medieval period. It is
between the 5th to 15th
century. to be distinguished from modern or neo-classical liberalism
(to be discussed in the next study session) which is largely a
 phenomenon of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The central theme of classical liberalism is a commitment to

an extreme form of individualism. Human beings are seen as
egoistical, self-seeking and largely self- reliant creatures. In
what C. B. Macpherson (1962) termed 'possessive individual-
ism, they are taken to be the proprietors of their own persons
and capacities, owing nothing to society or to other
individuals. This view is underpinned by a belief in "negative'
liberty, meaning non-interference, or the absence of external
constraints upon the individual. This implies a deeply
unsympathetic attitude towards the state and all forms of
government intervention.

Classical Liberalism Modern Liberalism

Started in the medieval Started in 19th
period century

As already pointed out, classical liberalism developed in

medieval England. During this period, men suffered under the
dictatorship of absolute monarchy and the church. Men lost
faith in their own abilities and looked heaven-ward to God for
the solution to the many problems of human existence.
Gradually, however, the use of scientific methods to make
improvements in man‘s material existence led people to begin
to develop confidence in their ability to solve many problems
which they had previously borne with little complaint. People
began to conclude that if technological problems could be
solved through the use of human reason, the same could be
done with social and political problems. They began to attack
monarchical government and the church as institutions which
prevented the development of man‘s abilities and abused
human dignity.

In particular, liberals argued that government was bad if

it was given too much power and, therefore, that the less
power of the government the better.
Tip

The revolution which took place in England in 1688,

otherwise called the Glorious Revolution, was the first liberal
revolution in human history. The Glorious Revolution was

46
the end-product of a long struggle between the king and
parliament for dominance in England. The reigning monarch
in this period, King James II (1685 – 1688) who was a
catholic, exercised absolute powers in spite of protests from
the parliament and a number of nobles. In June 1687, a group
of English nobles sent an invitation to King William of
Orange, the ruler of Holland and the husband of Mary Stuart,
daughter of James II, to rescue England from the tyranny of
King James II. William accepted the invitation and came to
England with a small army. William was so popularly
received in England that James II fled to France.
○ ITQ Classical liberalism developed in an atmosphere
of political and religious dictatorship as well as
a general lack of faith in man‘s abilities. True/
false?
Feedback on ITQs answer
 The statement is true.

Before allowing William and Mary to ascend the throne

jointly as the monarchs of England, the parliament adopted a
document, the Bill of Rights that limited the power of the
English king. The bill guaranteed the parliament, acting as
the representatives of the people, the right to hold free
elections, to meet regularly, to make known their views on
various issues to the king and to make laws. The king was not
allowed to suspend any law made by parliament and was
prevented from levying taxes or keeping a standing army in
peace-time without the approval of parliament.
The Revolution of 1688 was thus a major revolution in that it
led to major changes in English government but was
practically, bloodless hence, the label: ―The Glorious
Revolution‖. Modern British government developed from this
revolution. The powers of the monarchy were steadily
reduced until the monarch stopped playing an active role in
government and was replaced by a prime-minister elected
form parliament. This, in short, is the story of the first liberal
revolution in human history.
 ○ ITQ Which of the following was the major political
expression of the determination of men to resist the political
and religious dictatorship which restrained the free expression
of individual freedom.
A. The French Revolution
B. The Industrial Revolution
C. The Enlightenment
D. The Glorious Revolution

Feedback on ITQs answer

 The correct answer is D. Options A,B & C were
invalid as the focus of the question is on
individual freedom i.e. liberalism and not just an
attempt to wipe off absolute monarchism.

5.2 Principles of Classical Liberalism

In the previous section, we discussed the circumstances that
led to the development of classical liberalism. In this section,
we shall identify the major ideas or principles associated with
classical liberalism and classical liberals.
5.2.1 Human Reason
The most important principle of classical liberalism is faith in
human reason. Classical liberals were optimistic about the
ability of human beings to solve their problems or improve
their existence through the use of human reason.
5.2.2 Natural Laws
Classical liberals believed that just as there were scientific
laws so also there were certain rules of nature governing
human conduct that could be discovered through the use of
human reason and utilized to improve human existence.
These rules were called natural law.
5.2.3 Natural Rights and Liberties
Classical liberals argued that Natural Law guaranteed to each
individual certain rights that could not be legally taken away
without due process of law. John Locke (1632 – 1704)
history‘s leading classical liberal, identified three of these
rights, namely, the rights to life, liberty and property.

48
5.2.4 Equality of all Individuals
The principle of individual equality was very important in
classical liberalism. Classical liberals argued that no
individual is more human than the next or had greater claim
on life, liberty and property than anyone else. The argument
here was not that all people were equal in all ways. Classical
liberals recognized that people could differ in intelligence,
physical ability and so on. Classical liberals however insisted
that in spite of differences in human ability, all people had the
same natural rights.
5.2.5 Importance of Private Property
We have pointed out that John Locke identified three natural
rights of man namely: life, liberty and property. He and many
other classical liberals attached great importance to the right
to private property because of two reasons:
 They argued that possession of private property
allowed people to provide for themselves and their
families the basic necessities of life. Once they were
able to satisfy these basic necessities, man could turn to
the task of developing their character or human
qualities. In short, the possession of private property
frees men from the pressures of daily survival thereby
allowing them to develop their human qualities.
 The classical liberals also argued that private property
is an extension of man‘s personality. They argued that
when people applied their labour to produce or acquire
private property, they transferred something of
themselves into it. Therefore, private property is
important because it embodies the personality of its
owner.
5.2.6 Economic Liberty or Free Enterprise Economy
Classical liberal economists like Adam Smith and David
Ricardo argued for the extension of liberalism to economic
sphere. They argued that the production of goods and services
should be left to private individuals and groups whose
activities will be regulated by impersonal market forces i.e.
the forces of supply and demand. The government should not
interfere with the market forces because such intervention is
likely to hamper free competition and efficiency in the
production of goods and services.
 5.2.7 Government as Defender of Private Property
In line with the importance which they attached to private
property, classical liberals argued that a primary function of
government was to defend or protect men‘s right to private
property. Government cannot therefore take away the private
property of an individual except when it is very clear that a
man‘s possession of property has hampered the natural rights
of another.
5.2.8 Parliamentary Rule
Classical liberals argued that people should be governed by
parliament elected by citizens who owned property and were
therefore free from the ordinary pressures of survival (see
principle Five). Those elected by parliament are
representatives of the people and they should take decisions
which reflect the preferences or interests of the people who
elected them.
5.2.9 Supremacy of Parliament over the Monarchy
Classical liberals argued that parliament which was the direct
agent of the people should exercise more powers than the
monarchy. Indeed, they argued that the parliament should
decide on policies while the monarch should execute or carry
out the directives or policies of parliament.
5.2.10 Right of Rebellion
Classical liberals argued that government should never
become more powerful than the people it serves. All just
powers of government were given to it by the people and the
government should serve the people rather than the people
serving the government. Hence, if government tried to
oppress the people or to interfere too much in their affairs,
then, the people had the right to remove that government and
to create a new one that would serve them better.
Read pages 57 – 65 of Baradat‘s Political Ideologies for more
discussion of the principles of classical liberalism. See also
the article on John Locke on pages 67 – 80 of David
Thompson‘s Political Ideas as well as the section on classical
liberalism on pages 63 and 64 of Rodee and others,
Activity Introduction to Political Science.
Allow 20 minutes As you study the materials, try to identify any additional
two or more principles that you think are related to
classical liberalism.

50
Study Session Summary

Classical liberalism developed in medieval England and

achieved a major success in 1688 when the Glorious
Revolution put an end to monarchical absolutism in England.
Summary The major principles associated with classical liberalism are:
faith in human reason, natural law, natural rights and liberties,
equality of individuals, importance of private property,
economic liberty, government as defender of private property,
parliamentary rule, supremacy of parliament over monarchy
and right of the people to remove an oppressive government

Assessment

TMA 5.1 Historically, to what extent did the ideology of

classical liberalism contribute to common good?
Send your response to your tutor at Study Session 5 Forum
Assignment Page on Course Website.

Bibliography

Textbooks For more information on the development of classical

liberalism and the ‗Glorious Revolution‘ read pages 57 and 58
of Leon Baradat‘s Political Ideologies.
C. Rodee, T. Anderson, C. Christol and T. Greene: (19760.
Introduction to Political Science Tokyo: McGraw-Hill.
L.P. Baradat: Political Ideologies: (1979). Their Origins and
Impact New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Maurice Cranston: ‗John Locke and Government by Consent‘
in David Thompson (ed) (1984). Political Ideas Penguin.
Held, D. Models of Democracy (2nd ed.) (Oxford: Polity Press;
Stanford University Press, 1996). A rigorous and stimulating
examination of rival models of democracy and the present
state of democratic theory
Dahl, R. Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press,1989) A wide-ranging and through
discussion of the democratic ideal and democratic practices.
Study Session 6

Modern Liberalism

Introduction
In this study session, we are going to discuss the
circumstances that led to the development of modern
liberalism as a tradition of ideas separate from classical
liberalism as well as the major principles or ideas associated
with modern liberalism. Accordingly, the study session is
divided into two sections. Section one deals with the reasons
for the development of modern liberalism and section two
with the principles associated with modern liberalism.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 identify the reason or circumstances that influenced the
development of modern liberalism.
Learning  highlight the major principles and ideas associated with
Outcomes modern liberalism

Modern liberalism
Modern liberalism is characterised by a more sympathetic attitude
towards state intervention. Indeed, in the USA, the term 'liberal' is
invariably taken to imply support for big government rather than
'minimal' government. This shift was born out of the recognition
that industrial capitalism had merely generated new forms of
justice and left the mass of the population subject to the vagaries of
the market. From this perspective, freedom does not just mean
being left alone, which might imply nothing more than the freedom
to starve. Rather, it is linked to personal development and the
flourishing of the individual, that is, the ability of the individual to
gain fulfilment and achieve self-realisation.
In the same way, modern liberals abandoned their belief in laissez-
faire capitalism, largely as a result of J. M. Keynes' insight that
growth and prosperity could only be maintained through a system
of managed or regulated capitalism, with key economic
responsibilities being placed in the hands of the state. Nevertheless,
modern liberals support for collective provision and government
intervention has always been conditional Their concern has been
with the plight of the weak and vulnerable, those who are literally
not able to help themselves. Their goal is to raise individuals to the

52
 point where they are able, once again, to take responsibility for
their own circumstances and make their own moral choices.

6.1 Reasons for the Development of Modern Liberalism

Liberalism particular In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, classical
set of ideas which focus liberalism and the ideas and policies closely associated with it
on the attainment of
greater freedom (i.e.
were progressively modified. While classical liberalism was
liberty) for all men and essentially an English phenomenon, modern or neo-classical
women. liberalism has been prominent not only in Great Britain, but
also in Europe, the United States and to some extent, almost
everywhere in the modern world. What factors were
responsible for the development of modern liberalism?

6.1.1 Need to Extend the Gains of Classical Liberalism to

Lower Classes
The success of classical liberalism had brought a number of
privileges to the middle-class or property owners. But the
same privileges did not adequately cater for the interests of
the poor and weak, particularly peasants, workers, women and
children. The need to provide effective liberty for these
underprivileged groups seemed to require a modification of
classical liberal theory.
6.1.2 The Need for Liberalism to Accommodate New
Theories of Man and Society
The 19th century witnessed the development of new theories
of man and his relationship to society such as socialism and
democracy. Socialists and democrats, for example, argued
that if government was based on the consent of the people
then it was only reasonable that government should use its
powers to improve the conditions of the majority of people
who remained poor and exploited. Liberalism could not
ignore these ideas and had to embrace them in order to retain
its former revolutionary character.
6.1.3 The Need to Abandon Individualism
Classical liberal theory had tended to emphasize the
individual as an isolated human being and to ignore the extent
of interaction and interdependence among people. The
growth of cities, the expansion of industry and the
development of world-wide commerce made the emphasis of
classical liberalism on individualism outdated. To cope with
these developments, liberalism had to be less individualistic
and more socially-oriented.
 6.1.4 Realization that Government Action was Necessary
to Promote liberty among the Under-Privileged
Classical liberalism sought to limit the powers of government
in order to promote the liberty of the individual. But in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it became increasingly
obvious that the absence of government regulation had led to
the oppression of the majority by the few privileged property
owners. The system of private ownership of property without
government regulation seemed to concentrate wealth in the
hands of fewer and fewer people and to impoverish the
majority. Wages were kept low, hours of work were long and
women and children were exploited. It became obvious that
government had to intervene to introduce social reforms that
would help the poor and weak to achieve their liberty.
Given these factors, it was not surprising that as from
the early twentieth century, modern liberalism became a
most powerful influence on governments. Indeed, in
virtually all countries of the world today, government
intervention in social life has become a major means
Tip through which citizens are given greater opportunity for
self-development.
○ ITQ Identify at least two factors that could lead to
advocacy of modern liberalism?
Feedback on ITQs answer
We don‘t know what you exactly identified, but
your list may include of at least two of the
following:
 the need to extend the gains of liberalism to
the poor and exploited
 the need to accommodate new theories of
man and society
 the need to make liberalism less
individualistic and more socially oriented
 realization that government action was
necessary to promote liberty among the poor.

6. 2 Principles of Modern Liberalism

In the previous section, we discussed the reasons for the
development of modern liberalism. In this section, we shall
identify the major ideas or principles associated with modern
liberalism.

54
6.2.1 Government as a supporter and promoter of Liberty
Modern liberals believe that government should take positive
steps to maximize happiness in society by improving social
conditions in the society and helping disadvantaged
individuals and groups to overcome their problems. Modern
liberals therefore argue that government should undertake
policies designed to make facilities in education, housing and
health available to a greater number of people than before. In
short, modern liberals argue that government should assume
responsibility for the material well being of citizens, majority
of whom are weak and exploited.
6.2.2 Rejection of Natural Law
Most modern liberals do not believe in the concept of natural
law. They believe that there were no eternal or unchanging
rules in nature by which people should govern their conduct.
The value of any policy or law in society, they argue, should
only be measured by the amount of happiness it brings to the
majority of people or the society as a whole. Therefore, a
good policy or law is one that brings the greatest happiness to
the greatest number of people.

6.2.3 Rejection of Free Enterprise Economy without

Government Regulation
Modern liberals believe that the philosophy of government
non-intervention in the economy had benefited only a few
privileged property-owners and led to the oppression of the
weak. Modern liberals therefore favour active government
regulation of the economy or government ownership and
control of economic activities that affect the lives of the
majority of the people.
6.2.4 Rejection of government activities that do not
promote human liberty
While modern liberals argue for greater government
intervention and action to promote liberty in the society, they
do not want government to become so powerful that it will
become oppressive. Government should only act when its
action will definitely increase the freedom of the people and
promote their happiness.
6.2.5 Belief in Social Engineering
Modern liberals argue that existing institutions could be
adjusted or modified and new institutions created to increase
 happiness in society. They argue that people should not only
be able to modify or replace institutions that oppress them but
that they should also be able to go further by creating new
institutions that will increase their happiness. This process of
adjusting and creating institutions to increase happiness in
society is what modern liberals meant by ‗social engineering‘.
Read the short excerpt below & answer the question that
follows.
Most people have argued that given its emphasis on
Activity 6.1 government intervention in social life to promote the welfare
of the majority of citizens, modern liberalism is no longer
Allow 10 minutes
liberal and has instead become a version of socialism which is
an ideology that supports government ownership and control
of the economy. But there are, at least, three reasons why
modern liberalism should be seen as an extension of classical
liberalism rather than a complete departure from it or a
version of socialism. First, modern liberalism is committed to
the same goal of a free individual that guided the thinking of
classical liberals. The means to that goal have been changed
by modern liberals who unlike classical liberals emphasize
positive government action, but the end remains the same.
Second, the changes in method and policy usually associated
with modern liberalism – such as provision of educational and
laws protecting women and children – have enhanced
individual freedom and liberty. Third, the constitutional rights
that were highly valued by classical liberals – such a
government by popular consent and the legislature‘s right to
make policies – have also been supported and protected by
modern liberal governments. In short, modern liberalism has
remained liberal and it has helped to enrich the quality of
liberalism as it was known by the classical liberals.
Do you agree with this writer? Can you highlight some of the
important differences between classical liberalism and modern
liberalism? Can you also note areas of agreement between the
two?
Submit your response to your tutor at the course website.

56
Study Session Summary

Modern liberalism emerged because of new developments in

political theory and practice which made a revision of
classical liberalism necessary. While there are significant
Summary differences between the two, it is important to note that they
share the same commitment to the goal of a free individual.
Indeed, rather than interpret modern liberalism as a departure
from classical liberalism, it is better
to see it as an extension of the ideas of classical liberalism to
hitherto neglected groups in society.
Bibliography
Textbooks For a fuller discussion of the impact of these and other factors
on the development of modern liberalism read pages 64 – 66
of Rodee and others Introduction to Political Science.
For more information on the ideas and principles of modern
liberalism, read Baradat‘s discussion of the ideas of the early
modern liberals – John Stuart Mill (1807 – 1873); Thomas
Hill Green (1836 – 1882); and John Dewey (1859 – 1952) –
on pages 96 – 101 of his book, Political Ideologies. See also,
the discussion of the ideas of John Stuart Mill on pages 154 –
167 of David Thompson‘s edited book, Political Ideas. Also,
read pages 64 – 66 of Rodee and others Introduction to
Political Science
Study Session 7

Fascism

Introduction
In this study session, you will be exposed to a fairly recent
political ideology, namely, fascism. The study session is
divided into two sections. Section one discusses the historical
conditions that gave birth to fascism while section two deals
with the major ideas and principles of fascism.

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 identify the circumstances or historical conditions that led
to the development of fascism.
Learning
Outcomes  highlight principles or ideas for which fascism is famous.

7.1 The Development of Fascism

Fascism philosophy of Fascism arose from the disappointments and frustrations that
government that stresses followed the First World War (1914 – 1918) and the economic
the primacy and glory of
the state, unquestioning
depression in Europe during the twenties and thirties. It was
obedience to its leader, in Italy that fascism first developed among the countries of
subordination of the Europe. Italy‘s participation in World War I on the side of the
individual will to the Victorious Allies (Russia, France, Britain, Romania and
state's authority, and United States) did not bring the anticipated benefits. Apart
harsh suppression of from the fact that Italy was denied its principal territorial
opposition.
claims, unemployment and inflation also weakened its
economy. Betrayed internationally by its Allies in the war
and troubled domestically by a depressed economy, Italy‘s
political stability was seriously threatened. In October 1922,
Benito Mussolini, backed by his fascist party, threatened to
march on Rome, Italy‘s capital, and was then invited to
assume leadership of the country by the Italian monarch, King
Victor Emmanuel, who was desperate to save his throne. On
assuming leadership of Italy in October 1922, Mussolini
proceeded to transform the Italian Republic into a personal

58
dictatorship in which he monopolized power.
Germany, which suffered a worse treatment than Italy in
World War I, faced problems similar to those of Italy. After
the war ended in the defeat of Germany, her territories were
handed over to France, Poland, Denmark and Belgium and
Germany was ordered to pay compensation to the Victorious
Allies for the destruction they suffered in the War. The
German economy was also in bad shape as inflation and
unemployment reached very high levels. As in Italy,
Germany‘s external and domestic problems led to the
formation of radical or extremist groups; one of which was the
National Socialist German Workers Party, or the Nazi Party,
under the leadership of Hitler. In 1923, Hitler, encouraged by
Mussolini‘s success in Italy, attempted a coup d‘etat. The
coup failed, Hitler was imprisoned and the German economy
recovered remarkably well enough to render the Nazi party
politically irrelevant. But Germany‘s economic recovery
suffered a set-back in 1929 when a world-wide economic
depression took place. The Nazi party resumed its political
activity and enjoyed increased support under Hitler who had
been released from prison. Eventually, Hitler was appointed
chancellor or Prime-Minister of Germany in January 1933 and
like Mussolini in Italy, he proceeded to become a political
dictator.
With fascist dictatorships in Italy and Germany, European
countries with weak democratic institutions or depressed
economies became vulnerable to fascist and semi-fascist
coups. Fascist-type dictatorships emerged in Austria in 1933,
in Bulgaria in 1934, and in Spain in 1936. But fascism ceased
to be a major political force in Europe with the defeat of the
two leading fascist countries – Italy and Germany – in the
Second World War (1937 – 1945).
To summarize our discussion in this section, fascism
developed from the crisis of World War I and the economic
hardships created by the depression of the twenties and
thirties. Under such conditions, the appeal of radical and
extremist mass movements increased. Fascism had the
advantage over other movements in that it was supported by
the ruling classes who were anxious not to lose their positions.
Fascism first succeeded in Italy in 1922 when Mussolini
assumed leadership of the country. This was followed by
Germany and then Austria, Bulgaria and Spain in the thirties.
Fascism ceased to be a major political force in Europe with
 the defeat of the two leading fascist countries – Italy and
Germany – in the Second World War.

For a very good account of the historical circumstances that

led to the development of fascism read pages 92 – 98 of Jack
Watson‘s Success in Twentieth Century World Affairs. Read
also pages 109 – 110 of Carton Rodee and others, Introduction
Activity 7.1 to Political Science and pages 242 – 248 of Baradat‘s Political
Ideologies.

7.2 Principles and Features of Fascism

As a system of ideas and principles, fascism lacked the
coherence and consistency associated with other systems of
ideas like liberalism conservatism or socialism. Nonetheless,
it is possible to highlight some of the most important
principles and ideas associated with fascism.
7.2.1 Nationalism and Militarism
Nationalism is perhaps the most important feature of fascism.
Nationalism refers to a powerful, emotional commitment to a
country; Fascists were very active and devoted nationalists.
This nationalism found expression in the desire to bring other
countries under the control of the fascist country. Mussolini
and Hitler saw the conquest and control of other countries as a
national mission through which they could increase the status
and prestige of their respective countries. The tool by which
they sought to achieve their ambitions was, of course, war or
militarism. All the efforts of their respective countries were
directed at building a powerful military industry. All sections
of the society were mobilized in preparation for war. As
Mussolini put it, ―I adore War, War is to men what child birth
is to Women‖.
7.2.2 Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism refers to the belief that the government should
exercise total control over virtually all aspects of social life.
The powers of fascist governments covered all aspects of the
lives of their citizens. The church, trade unions, educational
institutions, business organizations, the arts, the media and
other social institutions were all within the control or
regulation of government.

60
7.2.3 Centralized Economy Planning
Fascists regarded centralized economic control as necessary to
check the effects of depression and to build a viable military
industry. In Mussolini‘s Italy, all major financial institutions
and nearly all heavy industrial establishments were owned by
the government. All other forms of private economic activity
were under one form of government regulation or the other.
In Germany, so extensive were the economic controls
imposed by the fascist government that it called itself, and
was regarded by many, as socialist.
7.2.4 Party Rule
Fascist states were usually dominated by a single mass party.
Non-fascist parties or organizations were usually declared
illegal or suppressed through the use of force. Major
questions of policy were decided by the topmost members of
the fascist party. The fascist party usually had many
subsidiary organs or units through which the party reached out
to the people and mobilized them in support of the goals of
the fascist government.
7.2.5 Personal Dictatorship
Fascism relied heavily on the dominance of a single person,
the leader, who demanded and was given total obedience.
The leader was regarded as an unfailing and infallible
personality. All forms of propaganda and falsehood were
used to increase the popularity of the leader. In Italy, the
Slogan was ‗Mussolini is always right‘. In Germany it was
‗Hail Hitler‘.
7.2.6 Terrorism and Repression
The fascist party, aided by the secret police, operated as a
chief instrument of terror. In Italy, the fascist party undertook
the task of punishing rebellious or anti-fascist elements in
Italian society. Many people were killed or driven into exile.
One of the many victims of fascism in Italy was Matteoti, a
socialist parliamentarian who was murdered in 1923 by
fascists because he wrote a book titled, The Fascists Exposed.
Terrorism and repression were much more widespread in
Germany than in Italy. In Germany, the fascists organized
their own paramilitary units and used these units to kill
uncooperative individuals and groups including many former
supporters of Hitler who did not like his ruthlessness,
 socialists, communists, trade unions and Jewish merchants
and shop-keepers.

Study Session Summary

We noted in this session that fascism developed from the

crisis of World War 1 and the economic hardships created by
the depression of the twenties and thirties. It was most
Summary successful in Italy and Germany, and ceased to be a major
political force with the defeat of these two countries in the
Second World War. The principles and policies associated
with fascism include: nationalism and militarism,
totalitarianism, centralized economic planning, party rule,
personal dictatorship and terrorism and repression.

Assessment

TMA 7.1 Compare the development of fascism in any two

States.
Forward your response to your tutor at Study Session 7
Assignment Assignment Page on Course Website.

Bibliography

Textbooks For a discussion of the principles, policies and ideas of

fascism read pages 248 – 249 of Baradat‘s Political Ideologies
and pages 110 – 112 of Rodee and others, Introduction to
Political Science.

62
Study Session 8

Anarchism: Its Meaning and

Development

Introduction
This study session will introduce you to yet another body of
ideas identified in political science as anarchism. The study
session will explain the meaning of anarchism and highlight
the perspectives that have developed within it. It will go
further to outline developments within anarchism from the
beginning to recent times.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key word printed in bold.
 distinguish between anarchism and other political
ideas.
 identify two groups into which writers of anarchism, as
Learning a body of political ideas, could be divided.
Outcomes
 identify the various developments in the literature on
anarchism.

Anarchism a political We know that when you see anarchism the first thing that
philosophy which holds comes to your mind is: anarchy. It is indeed often the case
the state to be
undesirable, unnecessary,
that anarchism, which described a political doctrine that
or harmful. exposes anarchy, is associated with chaos and lack of order.
In other words, the two terms are associated with disorderly
societies or entities on the verge of breaking down.
Leftist socialist or It is not surprising, therefore, that writers in Western Europe
communist elements that and North America tend to suggest that anarchism as a
seek to overthrow liberal political idea arose in the West from the writings of
regimes of the West. disgruntled and frustrated leftist. The implication of this kind
of argument is that anarchism is seen to portend something
that is negative and destructive.
 There is a lot that is true in this particular view of anarchism.
At our level, however, you will agree with us that we need a
more balanced perspective on anarchism. On this, we are sure
that some of you may wonder whether it is possible to have a
balanced view of anarchism which has to do with ―chaos‖ and
―disorder.‖ Our reply would be that that kind of opinion is in
fact one of reflex. In other words, such an attitude results
from the fact that most of us are already biased to that popular
definition of anarchism as the religion of violence and chaos.
As students of political science therefore, we need to be able
to see beyond that kind of definition. The question, therefore,
arises: What is anarchism?

8.1 The Meaning of Anarchism

As we have indicated to you earlier, anarchism could be
viewed as that body of political ideas which suggest that the
best form of society is one in which there is an absence of
government and other regulatory institutions. It is important
to point out, however, that anarchism has its own positive
dimensions. Also, it is necessary to indicate that proponents
of anarchism have not always been those on the fringes of
society. In other words, adherents have not always been those
described as having little or nothing to lose were society to be
destroyed.
Let us make the two clarifications by beginning with the last.
One point that is clear is that anarchism does not necessarily
preach that society be destroyed. Rather, it suggests that
society would be better run when government and other
regulatory institutions are abolished or, at best, have most of
their regulatory powers eliminated. In this regard, it is clear to
you that it is wrong to see anarchism as the doctrine of only
one particular segment of society. Take, for instance, our
earlier example of Western societies, it is clear that anarchism
cannot be identified only with socialists or other leftist
writers.
Within Western societies, anarchism has been identified with
both leftist writers like Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Michael
Bakunin and conservative writers like S.E. Parker and Henry
David Thoreau. The leftist anarchists believe that since the
state has become an instrument of exploitation and
oppression, it has to be eliminated before mankind can record
meaningful progress. On their own part, the conservative
anarchists hinge their argument for the scrapping of the state

64
 on the need to create an environment in which each individual
would be free to develop at his own pace according to his own
ability. According to the conservatives, society can best be
served when each individual is left to achieve whatever he can
achieve and not when the state continually strives to narrow
the gaps between individuals.
I am sure that, by now, you have been able to identify what I
earlier called the positive dimension of anarchism. For leftist
anarchists, this positive dimension emerges from their belief
that government does not allow the individual to maximize the
level of his contributions to society. By removing
government, therefore, the stumbling blocks on the path of the
individual wishing to maximize his contributions to society
would have been removed. In the same vein, for conservative
anarchists, the positive dimension emerges from the belief that
government hinders the optimal development of the
individual. Positively, therefore, the less you have of
government the more the opportunity for optimal development
of the individual.

○ ITQ Anarchism could have both positive and

negative dimension. True / False
Feedback on ITQs answers
 True is correct. If you choose false, you are
wrong. While it is true that anarchism could
appear to propose a state of violence and
disorderliness, it could also emphasise focus on
the freedom and welfare of the individual,
development of egalitarianism and provision of
human rights which it views could be achieved
by the elimination of regulatory authorities.

For all who uphold anarchism, the uniting theme is the need
to fashion a social system that would enhance individual
well-being. Whether or not their prescription is the right
Tip medicine is another question.
8.2 The Development of Anarchism
In the last session, we tried to define anarchism. Now, let us
examine how the literature on anarchism has developed across
time.
Like most of the other political ideas examined in this course,
anarchism emerged as a reaction to certain developments in
society. In this instance, the major developments were the
gradual strengthening of the state after the Thirty Years War
and the Industrial Revolution.
The Thirty Years War, which was terminated after the peace
treaty of Vestphalia in 1648, led to the emergence of the
principle of the nation-state. It marked the beginning of the
modern state as we know it today – a territorially defined
entity within whose boundaries a government exercised
sovereignty over its inhabitants. The Industrial Revolution,
from around 1750 onward, ensured that the state would
emerge ever more powerful. It also ensured that certain
peculiar problems would henceforth come up for resolution in
society. Such problems included how the new wealth being
created by the Industrial Revolution should be distributed.
Another major problem was how the evils attendant on
industrialization – pollution, exploitation of labour, urban
squalor, increasing gap between the rich and the poor – could
be removed or ameliorated.
Utopianism political It was in the context of the increasing power of the state and
principle that is premised the various problems attendant on industrialization that
on idealistic schemes of
social perfection
anarchism emerged as a political idea. It was not surprising,
therefore, that given the harsh realities of the earlier stages of
the Industrial Revolution, the earlier proponents of anarchism
tended to be socialistic in their writings. Subsequent writers
became more and more nihilistic. General to both groups,
however, is a streak of what we can call utopianism. We now
examine each of these in turn. Note, however, that we are not
suggesting that the tendencies are mutually exclusive.

8.2.1 Socialism Tendencies in Early Anarchism

It is not surprising that William Goldwin one of those to first
write in the tradition that we now identify as anarchism, wrote
within 40 years after the take-off of the Industrial Revolution.
His major argument was that the industrial age had created
tyrannical government built upon the exploitation of man by
man and unequal distribution of property. He, therefore, saw

66
 the need to replace the state with what he called several
voluntary arrangements arrived at by individuals.
Another anarchist whose writings resulted from a sense of
revulsion against the emergent capitalist system of the
industrial age was Proudhon. Writing in 1840, he condemned
the economic system and made the famous statement that
―property is theft.‖ He then called for the abolition of the
state which he saw as presiding over an unjust economic
system. In place of the state, he also suggested the setting up
of several independent associations that would work to
decentralize authority in society.
Yet another writer in this tradition was Kropotkin, who wrote
in the last decade of the 19th century. He argued that it was
wrong for society to be run in favour of those considered to be
the fittest. Rather, for him, the basis of any society was co-
operation. For him, therefore, the best society was one run
along communistic lines. In such a society, there would be no
division of labour or any economy based on monetary
considerations. He, therefore, suggested the overthrow of the
state in order for that kind of society to materialize.
What is common to these three early writers is a
concern for the inequalities brought about by the
Industrial Revolution and an expressed desire for a
new, egalitarian society. In this sense, they were
Tip socialistic in their writings. -
William Goldwin, Proudhon & Kropotkin

8.2.2 Nihilistic Tendencies in Anarchism

Let us now examine some of the anarchists who laid much
more emphasis on violence in their works. This trend had
emerged by the 1860s, at the height of the alienation and
disruptions in social life that followed the maturing of the
Industrial Revolution and political repression in Europe.
One of the early proponents was Dmitri Pisarev who wrote the
popular nihilist statement, that
What can be smashed must be smashed;
Whatever will stand the blow is sound;
What flies into smithereens is rubbish;
At any rate, hit out right and left
No Harm can or will come of it.
 Thus, violence became something to be worshipped in itself.
By the first decade of this century, another writer in this
tradition, Georges Sorel, wrote a book, Reflections of
Violence, outlining in detail how the working class could
overthrow the capitalist state.
8.2.3 Utopian Elements in Anarchism
So far, you have seen the socialistic and nihilistic dimensions
of anarchism. What unites these two elements, however, is a
view about the possibility of a better society emerging out of
the ruins of existing society.
In other worlds, anarchism has attempted to offer an
alternative goal for human society better than what that
society is at present. It not only does this, it also suggests
means of achieving such a goal. In this manner, it offers a
criticism of existing society and paints the picture of what is
believed to be a better alternative in a future society free from
the problems of today.
For this reason, anarchism suffers the same faults identified
with all utopian propositions. Since its proposed goal is
apparently not yet in sight, it is now judged by the means that
it suggests. In a 20th century in which violence has become
so endemic, and in which anarchism has become more and
more identified with violence, it is not surprising that people
tend to frown upon and avoid violence and anarchism.

68
Study Session Summary

This study session informs you that anarchism is often

identified as a body of ideas emanating from malcontents who
preach disorder and chaos. However, we saw that anarchism
Summary is much more than this. It preaches that government and
regulatory institutions be abolished (or have their powers
drastically curtailed) because it believes that such institutions
prevent the full development of the individual. The study
session also discuss how anarchism emerged, as a reaction to
an apparent increase in the size and power of the state, has
developed along three lines that are not necessarily mutually
exclusive. First, we have those writers who have been
concerned about the inequalities of the industrial age. Such
writers were more concerned with abuse of state power. Such
writers have, therefore, emphasized the need for a violent
overthrow of the state. Anarchism is now judged by its
methods that two wrongs don‘t make a right; and for that, it
has attracted opprobrium.

Assessment

TMA 8.1 Give a brief account of the development of

anarchism.
TMA 8.2 Discuss: ―Anarchism is anarchy‖
Assignment Forward your response to your tutor at Study Session 8
Assignment Page on Course Website. You may also check
course website for submission date.

Bibliography

Textbooks A. Carter, (1971). The Political Theory of Anarchism, New

York: Harper & Row
G. D. H. Cole, (1954) A History of Socialist Thought: Vol.: 2:
Marxism and Anarchism, 1850, 1890, New York: St. Martins.
G. Sore, 1876. Reflections on Violence, Princeton: Free Press.
L.P. Baradat, (1979). Political Ideologies, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1979, p. 29.
 M. S. Shatz (ed.), (1917). The Essential Works of Anarchism,
New York: New York: Bantam Books,
P. J. Proudhon, (1955). Mutual aid: A factor of Evolution,
Extending Horizons, Boston.
P. Kropotkin, (1955) Mutual aid: A factor of Evolution,
Extending Horizons, Boston.
W. Goldwin, (1946) Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and
it Influence on words and happiness, 3 Vols., Toronto:
University of Toronto, Press.

70
Study Session 9

Socialism: Its Meaning & Development

Introduction
In this study session, we will introduce you to socialism. In
the course of the study session, attention will be focused on
the meaning of the concept and how it developed.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key word printed in bold.
 describe the elements of socialism.
Learning  describe the intellectual history of socialism.
Outcomes  identify the various brand of socialism down the
centuries.

9.1 Elements in the Definition of Socialism

Socialism a set of Since the 19th century, socialism has come to be identified as
political theories that that political doctrine which insists that ownership and control
advocates collective or
State ownership and
of the means of production and distribution should be vested
administration of the in the community and utilized for all members of the
means of production and community. For this reason, it is now widely agreed that an
distribution of goods. accurate definition of socialism or a socialist state must
include at least three elements. Let us take you through each
of these elements.

9.1.1 Public Ownership and Control of the Means of

Production
This is one of the required elements in the definition of
socialism. Socialism preaches that the means of production –
capital, land and property – should be owned and controlled
jointly by the public and not by private individuals. Public
ownership, as opposed to private ownership, is brought about
in several ways, namely:
 a. through nationalization, in which government takes
over existing business concerns; or
b. through co-operatives, when groups of individuals are
formed and then left to control such business.
While, as stated before, public ownership is central to the
definition of socialism, what is still debatable is whether such
ownership must be total. Experience in this century has
shown that, even for countries that have publicly identified
themselves with socialism, such public ownership of the
means of production is not total. For instance, while, in the
period between 1958 and 1965, the share of the socialist
sector in the gross industrial production in China,
Czechoslovakia, North Korea and Yugoslavia was 100%, it
was 85.7% in the German Democratic Republic, 95.5% in
Hungary, and 99.5% in Bulgaria, among others. Similarly,
while the share of the socialist sector in the gross agricultural
production was 100% in North Korea, 99.9% in the USSR,
99.6% in Bulgaria, it was only 15% in Yugoslavia and 12.2%
in Poland.
Given all this, what you need to note at this stage is that,
generally, private ownership and control of the means of
production is frowned upon in socialism. The emphasis is on
public ownership, even if not full public ownership.
9.1.2 Public Ownership and/or control of the means of
distribution
Socialism goes one step further to argue for state intervention
in the distribution of the produce of society. In this regard,
socialism upholds the need to narrow the gap between those
who have and those who do not have. The basic assumption
is that there is a bottom-line to poverty and that every
individual should have a share of the produce of the society
big enough to ensure a comfortable existence. In other words
distribution of goods and services is not left to ―market
forces‖ alone. Rather, it is regulated by the state in order to
ensure that it does not lead to gross inequalities of
consumption.
9.1.3 A Goal of bringing about an Egalitarian Society
Socialism pledges itself to the creation of a society of equals
in which there will be freedom from want. Thus, it hopes to
create a new society based on co-operation and equality.

72
 These are the three elements in the definition of socialism.
Any definition of socialism or a socialist experiment must,
therefore, contain the three elements. This is because
socialism does not merely talk about the production process of
the distribution of what is so produced. Rather, socialism also
talks of bringing about a new society.
In essence, a socialist state must not only pledge
itself to upholding and encouraging public
ownership of the means of production and
distribution; it must equally pledge itself to the task
Tip of bringing about an egalitarian society in which
individuals would be free from material want.

African Socialism
Some first generation Africans post independence leaders
embraced the ideology of African socialism. Its major
advocates include Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), Leopold Sedar
Senghor (Senegal), Ahmed Sekou Toure (Guinea) Tom
Mboya (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Modibo Keita
(Mali) etc. They viewed this ideology as a device for
articulating and solving the problems of the new states,
chiefly for political stability and legitimacy and of economic
development. The ideology was also seen as a means of
asserting non-alignment (neutrality) in the struggle between
two world ideological blocs – Western capitalism versus
Marxist – Socialism.
African Socialism derives from the pre-colonial cultural
practices of Africa: ideas such as the practice of
communalism, egalitarianism, the values of brotherhood and
kinship and respect for the humanism of the individual. The
group takes precedence over any of its parts. But it should be
noted that the practice of African socialism was a flop. It
neither improved production relations nor did it enthrone
equity. Furthermore, most countries that proclaimed
themselves socialist in Africa have since abandoned this
ideology under the combined pressure of civil society,
Western countries and international financial institutions and
donor agencies. They have even been compelled to adopt the
principles of liberal democracy and the accompanying
capitalist ideology.
 ○ ITQ Which of the following is the most appropriate
definition of socialism?
A. The government of the people by the people and
for the people.
B. The promotion of private ownership of means of
production
C. That stresses the need for social welfare.
D. The need for public ownership and control of
the means of production and distribution and for
a state pledged to the eradication of material
want.
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was D.
 It was not A, because socialism is not
democracy.
 It was not B because socialism does not promote
private ownership of means of production.
 It was not C because socialism does not only
seek for social welfare of the people.

9.2 The Development of Socialism

The origin of socialism can be traced back to France in the
pre-revolutionary period (before 1789) and to the writing of
Jean Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher. Several of the
ideas that later developed into socialism are traceable to this
philosopher.
Some of these ideas can be briefly highlighted. They include:
a. fears over unequal accumulation of property; and
b. the idea of an organic society.
In his writings, Rousseau expressed his belief that it was
wrong for a few individuals to amass large amounts of
property as was increasingly becoming the case in the dawn of
the industrial age. According to him, great inequalities of
wealth were bound to create equally great inequalities in the
sharing of political power. All this, subsequently, would put
democratic government in jeopardy. For him, therefore,
economic equality was a sine qua non for political equality.
In the second sense, Rousseau expressed the belief that man
was a social animal. In other words, man acquired his human
elements only by being a member of society. For that reason,
human welfare was tied irrevocably to that of society to the

74
extent that the individual could not be distinguished from the
whole society. For that reason, the interests of the individual
were identical with those of the group.
The first stirrings of violent socialism (or anarchist-socialism)
were recorded in the period preceding the 1789 French
revolution and up to about 1797. In that period, another
French writer, Noel Babeuf along with Louis Blangui wrote in
favour of abolishing private property and the setting up of a
communist state. They argued that the people would have to
be led in this fight against private property by an elite corps of
conspirators. Even after the French Revolution, they
continued to espouse the need for their own kind of
revolution. For this, Babeuf was arrested and was beheaded
in 1796. For the next few decades, ―anarchist socialism‖ was
eclipsed by ―utopian socialism‖.
○ ITQ Socialism can be traced to France in the pre-
revolutionary period (before 1789) and to the
writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, a French
philosopher. In his writing Rousseau expressed the
fear of
A. unequal accumulation of property by few
individuals.
B. that the society was getting richer than required.
C. that man is a social animal.
D. it was good for a few individuals to amass large
amount of property.
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was A.
 It was not B, because Rousseau‘s concern was not
the richness of the society but the distribution of the
wealth of the society.
 It was not C because his argument was on the
welfare of man and in the society and not
sociability
 It was D because Rousseau condemned the
accumulation of large property by few individuals.
A few decades into the 19th century, however, anarchic
socialism was holding sway again, courtesy of writing of
people like Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Michael Bakunin.
Proudhon, who died in 1865, called for the abolition of
property and the state. The two, according to him, were
instruments with which rulers perpetuated their rule and
 hindered individual development. On his part, Bakunin, who
died in 1876, exhorted those who were out casts in society
(vagabonds, the unemployed, the poor) to rise against such a
society which allowed a situation in which they could go to
waste. For him, in such a circumstance, there was ―joy‖ in
destruction. Anarchic socialism unleashed a vivid chain of
terror while it lasted. The reactions that follow its methods,
however, ensured that its impact would be short-lived since
acts like assassinations; riots and mass murder could not but
attract swift and equally violent reprisals from the state.
As we indicated earlier, the period immediately after Babeuf‘s
death and after the French Revolution witnessed the
emergence of Utopian Socialism. Among the leading
proponents of this school were Claude Henri Saint-Simon, a
Frenchman, Robert Owen, a Briton, and Charles Fourier, an
American.
The Utopians believed that it was possible to create an ideal
social system in which egalitarianism would be the order of
the day. They, therefore, set about creating concrete examples
of such systems in real life. These experiments subsequently
failed, paving the way to the emergence, first of the second
generation of anarchist-socialists like Proudhon and, later, to
the emergence of Marx‘s brand of signified socialism.
Let us make one point clear at this moment. Karl Marx was
not the founder of socialism. Before him, socialism had been
underscored by humanitarianism, with socialists being driven
to act by the hope that people could treat each other in a more
humane way. Moreover, it was held that socialism was an
option that people ought to adopt in order to develop
themselves and create a better life. However, Marx‘s
influence was so great that he could be said to have
subsequently altered the fate of socialism – for good. He
founded Marxism, the doctrine that will be introduced to you
in the next study session.
After Marx, however, socialism assumed new dimensions.
First, the driving force of socialism was no longer
humanitarianism or concern for the poor per se. Rather, Marx
propounded a scientific socialism in which certain laws
determined the thoughts and deeds of human beings with
scientific precision. According to him, it was the material
conditions of individuals that determined their consciousness
and actions. The working class, therefore, had to be led to
develop revolutionary consciousness before they could be

76
expected to attempt to change such material conditions and
create socialist society.
○ ITQ After the death of socialists like Joseph Proudhon
and Michael Bakunin, utopian socialist insisted that it is
possible to:
A. unleashed a vivid chain of terror on the state
while it lasted.
B. create an ideal social system in which
egalitarianism would be the order of the day.
C. called for the abolition of property and the state.
D. Exhorted those who were out casts in society
(vagabonds, the unemployed, the poor) to rise
against such a society.
Feedback on ITQ answers
The correct answer was B
 It was not A, because was method of the anarchic
socialism but not their goal.
 It was not C because the abolition of the state was
Proudhon‘s idea and not that of the utopian
socialists.
 It was D because that was a method used by
Bakunin to drive home his ideas of socialism.
In this regard, he helped to organize the first Socialist
International organization in 1864. This was an international
organization of socialists. It cut across national boundaries
and sought to unit socialists under the socialist banner,
subduing feelings of nationalism and sectionalism. The first
Socialist International collapsed about 12 years later, due to
quarrels within it, harassment by governments, and the death
of Marx.
The second International organized by Marx‘s friends, Engels,
died with the First World War while the Third International
was dominated by Communist Russia under Stalin. The death
of Stalin and the emergence of strong socialist parties in
Western Europe after the Second World War led in the 1950s
to a thawing in the international socialist movement.
Since then, Socialist parties in Western Europe, especially
Italy and France, have had to develop strategies peculiar to
their circumstances. They have, for instance, had to seek
political power through active participation in elections, rather
 than by revolution or violence. By the 1980s, the French
Socialist Party had succeeded in getting Francois Mitterrand
elected President of France.
○ ITQ Scientific socialism propounded Marx beliefs that:
A. it was the material conditions of individuals that
determined their consciousness and actions
B. African socialism sought to portray socialism as
being native to Africa.
C. that the driving force of socialism was no longer
humanitarianism or concern for the poor per se.
D. in achieving political power through active
participation in elections instead of than
revolution or violence.
Feedback on ITQs answers
 The correct answer was A
 It was not B, because Marx was not involved in
African socialism.
 It was not C because socialism underscored by
humanitarianism was before Marx.
 It was not D because Marx did not believe in
participatory political elections.
Another development that was witnessed from the 1950s was
the emergence of a socialist movement known as African
Socialism. Beginning from Senegal‘s Leopold Sedar Senghor
and spreading to Tanzania‘s Julius Nyerere. Proponents of
African socialism tended to be heads of state or government in
the newly independent states of Africa.
African socialism sought to portray socialism as being
native to Africa. In this regard, it pointed to the age-
long communalism of African society, in which the
individual was adequately taken care of by the
community. African socialism therefore proposed the
Tip reinforcement of these traditional practices in modern
times.
It is not surprising that proponents of African socialism have
come under attack not only from non socialists but also from
socialists alike. They are accused of trying to resuscitate
practices that are better left dead. They are also accused of
trying to paint idyllic picture of such a past in order to
encourage crisis-free political cultures in their own domain.
All this has not dampened the convictions of those who

78
 believe in African socialism. Socialism has, thus, developed
from the doctrine upheld by a few in 17th and 18th century in
Europe to an idea upheld in various forms all over the world
in the 20th century.
○ ITQ African socialism was adopted to achieve
A. independence for African nations
B. political stability and legitimacy and of
economic development for African states and as
a means of asserting non-alignment (neutrality)
in the struggle between two world ideological
blocs – Western capitalism versus Marxist –
Socialist fast.
C. established brotherhood for the people of Africa
D. strengthen economic growth for African nations
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was B.
 It was not A, because socialism was not adopted in
Africa to achieve independence for Africa.
 It was not C because socialism was not meant to
establish brotherhood for African states.
 It was not D because socialism was not embraced in
Africa to strengthen economic growth in the new
independence states.

Study Session Summary

This study session observed that socialism is a political

doctrine that insists that ownership and control of the means
of production and distribution should be vested in the
Summary community and utilized for all members of the community. Its
three major propositions, therefore, are that:
1 there be public ownership and control of the means of
production;
2 the distribution of what is so produced be subject to
state control; and
3 the state pledge itself to the eradication of poverty and
want.
The study session also noted that as a body of ideas, socialism
emerged from the writing of Rousseau. It has since developed
along several lines. For instance, in the period during the
French Revolution, there emerged a brand of socialism that
 was anarchic and which re-emerged later in the works of
Proudhon and Bakunin. Another brand, which sought to
found idyllic egalitarian communities in real life, was
followed by the scientific socialism of Marx which spawned
not only scientific laws but also the First to the Third
internationals. Developments after the Second World War
have created socialist movements in Western Europe and
Africa with their own peculiarities.

Assessment

TMA 9.1 Compare the development of fascism in any two

States.
TMA 9.2 Explain the origin of anarchic socialism.
Assignment Forward your response to your tutor at Study Session 9
Assignment Page on Course Website.

Bibliography

References C. A. R. Crosland, (1957). The Future of Socialism New

York: Macmillan.
F. Engels, (1935). Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, New
York: International Publishers.
G.D.H. Cole, (1953) ‗A History of Socialist Thought‘ Vol. 1:
Socialist Thought: The Forerunners, New York:St. Martins.
L.E. Shaw, (ed.), (1973). Modern Competing Ideologies, D.C.
Health, Lexington: Mass.
L.P. Baradat, (1979). Political Ideologies, N.J: Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs.
L.S. Senghor, (1964). On African Socialism, New York:
Praeger.
Ludwig von Mises, (1959). Socialism, An Economic and
Sociological Analysis, New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
M. Harrington, (1972) Socialism, New York: Bantam Books.
M. J. Harmon, Political Thought: From Plato to the Present,
New York:McGraw-Hill.

80
Otite, O. (1978) ed. ―Issues in African Socialism‖ in Otite, O.
Theories in African Socialism and Political Thought. (Enugu
Fourth Dimension Publishers) p. 143.
P. Gary, (1952). The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism, New
York: Columbia Univ. Press.
W. Ebenstein, (1973). Today‘s Isms, N.J:Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs.
 Study Session 10

Marxism: Origins, Sources and

General Legacy of Marx

Introduction
This study session will examine the origin and sources of
Marxism, that body of knowledge that Karl Marx bestowed on
the world in the 19th century. The study session will discuss
the general aspect of Marx‘s legacy with regard to specific
areas of academic interest.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 define and use correctly the key words printed in bold.
 describe the context in which Marx began to write
what later became known as Marxism.
 describe the context in which Marx began to write
Learning what later became known as Marxism.
Outcomes  outline the various sources from which Marx drew his
material.
 identify the general legacy that Marx left behind as a
philosopher.
 outline Marx‘s contribution to the study of economics,
sociology, philosophy and politics.

Marxism You might wonder why we have to give this special study
the economic and political session on Marxism, especially in the wake of the last study
theory and practice origina session which focused on socialism. The reason is quite
tedby Karl Marx and Friedr simple. While it is true that there is a brand of socialism,
ich Engels that holds that a namely scientific socialism, often associated with Karl Marx,
ctions and human institutio
ns areeconomically determi most of Karl Marx‘s works cannot be subsumed under that
ned, that the class struggle i brand of socialism. He developed another body of ideas
s the basic agency of histori which, though not contradictory to his contributions to
cal change,and that capitali socialism, was far beyond. It is this other body of ideas that
sm will ultimately be super we now call Marxism after Marx, the originator.
seded by communism

82
10.1 Marxism: Origin and Sources
Industrialization the Like several other political ideas that emerged in the 19th
process by which century, Marxism emerged out of Karl Marx‘s attempt to
traditionally
nonindustrial society
make sense of the capitalist society that had emerged out of
(such as agrarian nation) the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution had
transforms into a created a situation in which production could go on at a pace
manufacturing one. hitherto unmatched, thus creating the possibility of banishing
poverty once and for all. Ironically, however, this same
revolution had created a society in which economic and social
hardships and political repression not only persisted but
worsened. It was all this that prompted Marx to want to study
Capitalism system in the logic of industrialization and capitalism.
which a country's trade
and industry are We are sure that you have noted, therefore, that the newly
controlled by private emerging industrial society of the 1840s to the 1980s formed
owners for profit. the historical and social context in which Marx, a German,
wrote until his death in 1883. This new industrial (capitalist)
society had emerged, following the industrial revolution (from
the 1750s), from the ashes of feudal society.
Industrialization had created new classes in the form of the
bourgeosis (owners of capital used in industrial production as
against the nobility of the feudal era whose wealth was in
land) and the proletariat (the working class who worked in
the factory as wage earners as against the serfs who under
feudalism lived off land rented to them by the nobility). The
new material forces (i.e. industrialization and the attendant
urbanization, the creation of bourgeois and working classes)
undermined feudalism and in the process transformed feudal
society into capitalist society. The transformation throughout
Europe took either of two forms. In those areas in which the
monarchs and feudal lords were not ready to make
concessions to the new forces, the change was violent. It took
the form of the 1789 French Revolution and the Napoleonic
Wars up to about 1812. In countries where the monarchs and
the feudal lords were ready to make gradual concessions, the
change was largely peaceful. An example was Britain, where
there was a gradual extension of the franchise to the lower
classes.
In trying to understand this transition from feudal to capitalist
society and then study the emergent capitalist society, Marx
drew material inspiration from at least three sources, namely:
a. French political thinkers, especially Rousseau;
 b. Several political economists, especially Adam Smith
and David Ricardo; and
c. Hegel‘s political philosophy.
From Rousseau, Marx borrowed the idea that the purpose of
government was to articulate and realize the general will of
the people. Much of the data detailing the economic and
social aspects of the rise and essence of capitalism had earlier
been unearthed in detailed studies by political economists like
Smith and Ricardo. From Hegel, Marx had borrowed the
methodology of the dialectic. This was a method in which
change was seen as occurring as a result of the resolution of
the conflict between two opposing forces. Thus, at the initial
stage, you have a thesis, which then leads to its opposite, an
anti-thesis. The conflict between thesis and anti-thesis is then
resolved at a higher stage of development when a synthesis
(which brings elements from both thesis and anti-thesis)
emerges. Shortly after, at this higher stage, a new thesis
emerges, followed by another antithesis, and then another
resolution in another synthesis, and so on. In his analysis of
the origin of capitalism, for instance, he saw capitalism as
having emerged from a conflict between the landed
aristocracy n feudal society and the new bourgeois class.
These are the three basic sources from which Marx derived
his initial data and inspiration.
The picture of man that emerges from his work is threefold:
a. man is a product of his environment;
b. man is also a creator of his environment; and
c. man is conscious: he not only acts, but is aware that he
is acting.
Within the contexts of his view about the future of man, we
can separate two levels in the works of Marx, namely:
i. Historical inevitability: this relates to the argument that
man will inevitably seek to bring about a classless
communist society which will be better than any pre-
existing society. Such communist society, to Marx,
represents the height of the evolution of human history.
ii. Social desirability: According to him, communist
society is desirable because it will enable all men to
develop freely their individual and social capacities.
Against this background, we will outline to you the general
aspect of the legacy that Marx left behind in the next section.

84
 ○ ITQ The industrialization revolution, according to Marx,
created two classes of people called:
A. the feudal and the proletariats
B. the bourgeois and the proletariat
C. the bourgeois and the philosophers
D. the philosopher and the proletariats
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was B
 It was not A, because the feudal lord where the
primitive land owners before industrialization era.
 It was not C because the philosophers were political
and social thinkers that he took inspiration from,
people like Rousseau and David Ricado.
 It was not D because while the proletariats are the
working class in the industries the philosophers are
social thinkers

10.2 General Legacy of Karl Marx

The Marxism that Marx left behind can be divided into two,
namely:
a. Marxism as an ideology, the religion of the oppressed,
and as a call to revolutionary action to overthrow an
unjust system; and
b. Marxism as a scientific and profound academic tool for
the study of political, economic and social issues.
In this section and the next, we will concentrate on the second
sense of Marxism as a scientific body of ideas.
In a general sense, what Marx does is to outline the
relationship among several aspects of society. In doing this,
he emphasizes the importance of material factors and forces.
He outlines what he calls relations of production. According
to him, this refers to the way men organize their production.
The relations of production, along with the forces of
production (i.e. the instruments used in production) constitute
the real basis of society.
Marx believes that it is on material basis – instruments
of production –that elements which he calls legal and
political superstructures are built. In other words,
according to Marx, political, legal and intellectual life
Tip is influenced by how men earn their living.
 Having established this relationship, Marx then shows how
society changes as a result of conflict between relations of
production and forces of production. At one stage of human
development in any particular epoch, according to him, the
relations of production become a shackle to the further
development of the forces of production. In other words, the
productivity and development of the instruments of
production is hindered by the manner in which production is
organized. At this stage, a revolutionary situation is created.
What Marx then does is to trace the development of human
society against the background of this dialectic. In this, he
outlines the stages of development of various historical eras
from the first era of primitive communism to slave society
through feudalism to the contemporary era of bourgeois
society. He then identifies bourgeois society as the final stage
of divided society. According to him, the society will end in a
revolution which will usher in a classless communist society
after an initial period of dictatorship of the proletariat (the
working class).
○ ITQ In Marx‘s scientific body of ideas he identified
relations of production to the way men organize
their production while the forces of production
referred to as:
A. the instruments used in production.
B. the political superstructures.
C. production and forces of production.
D. productivity and development.
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was A.
 It was not B, because the combination of the
relations of production and, the forces of production
constitute the real basis of society upon which
superstructures are built.
 It was not C, because production refers to the
finished goods while forces refers to the
instruments use in production.
 It was not D because this refers to goods and the
effect of the industrial revolution on the society.

86
10.3 The Other Legacies of Marx
In this section, we will examine the legacy that Marx left
behind in four specific areas of analysis, namely:
i. Economic thought
ii. Sociology
iii. Philosophy
iv. Politics
10.3.1 Legacy in Economic Thought
Here, Marx made two specific contributions:
i. he propounded a labour theory of value; and
ii. he gave a concise analysis of the origin and dynamics
of capitalism.
In the labour theory of value, Marx sought to identify the
value of a product with the value of labour expended on its
production. With regard to his analysis of capitalism, it is
wrong to say that Marx was anti-capitalist in the sense that he
saw capitalism was to a large extent a positive thing. For him,
capitalism had made possible the emergence of greater
productive forces than man had ever before experienced. For
this reason, Marx saw capitalism as a revolutionary force
which had made it possible to create abundance and abolish
poverty and wretchedness once and for all.
However, Marx saw the need to transcend capitalism and
move on to a higher state of political organization which he
called communism. For him, therefore, economic systems
were neither natural nor eternal. Rather, they gave way to
others according to some laws. Thus, he was very clear on the
point that the collapse of the capitalist system was inevitable.
However, he was not clear on several other questions, such as:
how would all societies first have to become capitalist before
they become communist?
There is no doubt that Marx paid very little attention to non-
capitalist societies in his writings. This is not surprising, since
the major focus of his study was the capitalist mode of
production. What he did contribute to economic analysis was
a method that insisted that bourgeois economics and its laws
were neither eternal, infallible, nor the highest level of human
development that man could attain.
 10.3.2 Legacy in Sociology
A very important legacy of Marx in the area of sociological
analysis is his class analysis. It is true, of course, that Marx
failed to present a coherent definition of class in his analysis.
However, he did identify certain criteria that could be used in
determining an individual‘s location in the class structure of
society. These criteria include:
i. the individual‘s location within the mode of
production, i.e. whether he belongs to the class of
owners of capital or the means of production (i.e. the
bourgeoisie) or to class of non-owners of capital who
live by selling their wage labour (i.e. the proletariat).
ii. the consciousness of an individual that he belongs to
one particular class. In other words, the individual
must not just belong to a class by definition but he
must be aware that he belongs to that class.
Marx thus distinguished between two types of classes: a class-
in-itself and a class-for-itself. For him, it is not the
demographic fact of being a member of a class-in-itself that
creates real classes in society. Rather, it is the process of an
individual being aware of his class situation that creates a
class-for-itself and thus, a revolutionary situation. As he put it
in a lengthy statement in his Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte:
In so far as millions of families live under
economic conditions of existence that separate
their mode of life, their interests and their
culture from those of the other classes and put
them in hostile opposition to the latter, they
form a class. In so far as there is merely a local
interconnection among those small-holding
peasants and the identification of their interests
begets no community, no national bond, and no
political organization among them, they do not
form a class. They are consequently incapable
of enforcing their class interest in their own
name.
Now, you might want to ask: in what specific areas did Marx
make specific contributions to class analysis? Definitely, it
was not Marx that discovered either the existence of classes or
class struggle in modern society. Several historians and
economists before him had done this.

88
Marx‘s specific contributions include the following:
i. in defining classes, he used the individual‘s location
within the mode of production and introduced the
element of consciousness. In this, he discarded with
existing practice of using indices such as income, style
of living, status, education, occupation, etc.
ii. he showed that particular classes were linked to
particular historical periods in the development of
production. While there were no classes or division of
labour under primitive communism, for instance, the
nobility and serfs were two classes specific to feudal
society while the bourgeoisie and the proletariat were
specific to capitalist (bourgeois society.
iii. He saw in the class struggle the agent of change from
one particular epoch to a higher one. While it was a
conflict between relations and forces of production that
created the opportunity for change, such an opportunity
had to be seized by human beings acting within the
framework of the class struggle, according to Marx.
The class struggle would continue until a classless
communist society, the highest form of human
development, had been reached.
In at least two important areas, Marx‘s class analysis has
drawn some criticism. First, he is said to have underestimated
the ability of capitalist society to ensure that the class struggle
did not degenerate into a level that would threaten the society
and lead to communist society. Second, he is, again, accused
of having dealt essentially with classes in contemporary
capitalist systems to the utter neglect of non-capitalist
societies.
10.3.3 Legacy in Philosophy
We can talk of two areas in which Marx contributed to
philosophy; firstly in a negative sense and secondly in a
positive sense. Marx argued against philosophy, accusing it
of raising questions and issues of an ideal nature. Instead, he
substituted a philosophy which he felt was more scientific and
positivist. This was the philosophy of the dialectic which was
mentioned earlier.
 ○ ITQ Marx referred to political power as
A. a classless society
B. a society without classes,
C. the organized power of one class for oppressing
another
D. a communist society
Feedback on ITQ answers
 The correct answer was C.
 It was not A, because classless society was the
proposed society of Marx called communism.
 It was not B, because classless society is not
political power but communist society
 It was not D because communist society was yet to
be attained at the time of writing, at the time of
writing it was capitalism that was in place.
10.3.4 Legacy in Politics
Marx wrote every illuminating analysis of contemporaneous
events in the Europe of his time. Beyond this, however, he
failed to develop a systematic theory of politics comparable to
his legacy in the area of economics. Nevertheless, his notion
of politics is clear enough. For him, political power is the
organized power of one class for oppressing another. In fact,
Marx believed that the state emerged following the emergency
of classes in society‘. In other words, without classes, there
would be no need for a state. As he put it, a society without
classes, is a society with no need for a state. In such classless
society as the proposed communist society therefore,
“there will no longer be any political poser
because political poser is precisely the official
expression of antagonism in civil society”
In comparing this new perspective with others, Ralph
Miliband in his Marxism and Politics argues that ―at the core
of Marxist politics, there is the notion of conflict. But this is
not what makes it specific and distinct. All concepts of
politics are about conflict… (for most others, however)
conflict is ‗functional‘, a stabilizing rather than a disruptive
force.‖ According to him therefore, the Marxism conflict ―is
not a matter of ‗problems‘ to be ‗solved but of a state of
domination and subjection to be ended by a total
transformation of the conditions which give rise to it … The
antagonists are irreconcilable...‖

90
10.4 Elements of Marxism
10.4.1 Historical materialism: The cornerstone of
Marxist philosophy is what Engels called "the materialist
conception of history'. This highlighted the importance of
economic life and the conditions under which people
produce and reproduce their means of subsistence. Marx
held that the economic "base", consisting essentially of
the 'mode of production, or economic system, conditions
or determines the ideological and political
'superstructure'. This suggests that social and historical
development can be explained in terms of economic and
class factors. Later Marxists portrayed this as a
mechanical relationship, implying that immutable
economic laws' drive history forwards regardless of the
human agent.
10.4.2 Dialectical change: Following Hegel (see p. 84),
Marx believed that the driving force of historical change
was the dialectic, a process of interaction between
competing forces that results in a higher stage of
development. In its materialist version, this model implies
that historical change is a consequence of internal
contradictions within a mode of production reflected in
class antagonisum, Orthodox Marxism dialectical
materialism) portrayed the dialectic as an impersonal
force shaping both natural and human processes.
10.4.3 Alienation: Alienation was a central principle of
Marx's early writings. It is the process whereby, under
capitalism, labour is reduced to being a mere commodity.
and work becomes a depersonalised activity. In this view,
workers are alienated from the product of their labour.
from the process of labour, from fellow workers, and,
ultimately, from themselves as creative and social beings.
Unalienated labour is thus an essential source of human
fulfilment and self-realisation.
10.4.4 Class struggle: The central contradiction within a
capitalist society arises from the existence of private
property. This creates a division between the bourgeoisie
or capitalist class, the owners of the means of production,
and the proletariat, who do not own property and thus
subsist through selling their labour (literally wage
 slaves'). The bourgeoisie is a 'ruling class. It not only has
economic power through the owner- ship of wealth, but it
also exercises political power through the agency of the
state and possesses ideological power because its ideas
are the 'ruling ideas of the age.
10.4.5 Surplus value: The relationship between the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat is one of irreconcilable
conflict, reflecting the fact that the proletariat is
necessarily and systematically exploited under capitalism.
Marx believed that all value derives from the labour
expended in the production of goods. This means that the
quest for profit Forces capitalist enterprises to extract
surplus value' from their workers by paying them less
than the value of their labour, Capitalism is therefore
inherently unstable, because the proletariat cannot be
permanently reconciled to exploitation and oppression.
10.4.6 Proletarian revolution: Marx believed that
capitalism was doomed, and that the proletariat was its
'grave digger'. According to his analysis, capitalism
would pass through a series of increasingly serious crises
of overproduction. This would bring the proletariat to
revolutionary class consciousness. Marx proclaimed that
proletarian revolution was inevitable, and predicted that it
would occur through a spontaneous uprising aimed at
seizing control of the means of production. In his later
years, how- ever, he speculated about the possibility of a
peaceful transition to socialism.
10.4.7 Communism: Marx predicted that proletarian
revolution would usher in a transitionary 'socialist' period
during which a 'dictatorship of the proletariat' would be
required to contain a counter-revolution mounted by the
dispossessed bourgeoisie. However, as class antagonism
faded and a fully communist society came into existence,
this proletarian state would simply 'wither away. A
communist (see p. 33) society would be classless in the
sense that wealth would be owned in common by all, and
the system of 'commodity production' would be replaced
by one of 'production for use geared to the satisfaction of
genuine human needs. With this, the 'prehistory of man'
would come to an end, allowing human beings for the

92
 first time to shape their own destinies and realise their full
potential ('the free development of each is the
precondition for the free development of all' (Marx)).
ITQ
Identify the odd one out of these statements:
a. Marx propounded a labour theory of value.
b. Marx distinguished between a class-in-itself and a
class-for-itself.
c. For Marx, philosophy needed to be scientific and
positivist.
d. Marx believed that violence was an end in itself.
e. For Marx, class antagonism could not be resolved in
capitalist society.

Study Session Summary

This study session examined the origin and development of

Marxism. It also discusses the legacies in the areas of
scientific analyses of economic; social, philosophical and
Summary political issues.

Assessment

TMA 10.1 For Marx, social change occurs as a result of

Clashes between relations of production and forces
of production. Explain.

Assignment TMA 10.2 Describe Marxism as a scientific and profound

academic tool for the study of political,
economic and social issues.
Forward your response to your tutor at Study Session 10
Assignment Page on Course Website. You may see course
website for submission date.
Bibliography B. Onimode, (1985). Introduction to Marxist Political
Economy, London: Zed Press.
D. McLellan, (1960). The Thought of Karl Marx, London:
Macmillan.
D. McLellan, (1973). Karl Marx: His life and Thought,
London: Macmillan.
D. McLellam, (1980). The Thought of Karl Marx, London:
Macmillan.
G. Lichtheim, (1961). Marxism: An Historical and Critical
Study, New York: Praeger,
K. Marx, (1964). Selected Writings in Sociology and Social
Philosophy, ed. By T. Bottomore and M. Rubel, New York:
McGraw-Hill
K. Marx, (1971). Early Tests, ed. By Oxford: D. McLellan,
K. Marx, (1977). Selected Writings, ed. By Oxford: D.
McLellan,
K. Marx, (1977). Selected Writings, ed. By Oxford: D.
McLellan.
K. Marx and F. Engels (1950) Selected Works, Vol. 1.
Moscow: Progress Publishers.
N. Onimode, (1985). Introduction to Marxist Political
Economy; London: Zed Press
R. Miliband, (1977). Marxism and Politics, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

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Study Session 11

Other Ideological Traditions

Introduction
In this study we will learn about other ideological traditions.

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
 Discuss other emergent ideological traditions
 Understand why ideology have taken a number of
forms.
 Understand the link between political theory and
Learning political practices.
Outcomes

○ ITQ Radical Feminists believe that gender divisions

are…………
 A. the most fundamental cleavage in the society
 B. personal differences
 C. structural
Feedback on ITQs answers
 The correct answer is A
Apart from other ideologies studies in our previous sessions.
There are some emerging ideologies which be discussed as
follows:
Feminism
Although feminist aspirations have been expressed in
societies dating back to Ancient China, they were not
underpinned by a developed political theory until the
publication of Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the
Rights of Women ([1792] 1985). Indeed, it was not until the
emergence of the women's suffrage movement in the 1840s
and 1850s that feminist ideas reached a wider audience, in
the form of so- called 'first-wave feminism'. The
achievement of female suffrage in most western countries in
 the early twentieth century deprived the women's movement
of its central goal and organising principle. 'Second-wave
feminism', however, emerged in the 1960s. This expressed
the more radical, and sometimes revolutionary, demands of
the growing Women's Liberation Movement (WIM).
Feminist theories and doc- trines are diverse, but their
unifying feature is a common desire to enhance, through
whatever means, the social role of women. The underlying
themes of feminism are therefore, first, that society is
characterised by sexual or gender inequality and, second,
that this structure of male power can and should be
overturned.
At least three contrasting feminist traditions can be
identified. Liberal feminists, such as Wollstonecraft and
Betty Friedan, have tended to understand female
subordination in terms of the unequal distribution of rights
and opportunities in society. This 'equal-rights feminism' is
essentially reformist. It is more concerned with the reform of
the 'public' sphere, that is, with enhancing the legal and
political status of women and improving their educational
and career prospects, than with reordering private' or
domestic life. In contrast, socialist feminists typically
highlight the links between female subordination and the
capitalist mode of production, drawing attention to the
economic significance of women being confined to a family
or domestic life where they, for example, relieve male
workers of the burden of domestic labour, rear and help to
educate the next generation of capitalist workers, and act as
a reserve army of labour.
However, the distinctive flavour of second-wave feminism
mainly results from the emergence of a feminist critique that
is not rooted in conventional political doctrines, namely
radical feminism. Radical feminists believe that gender
divisions are the most fundamental and politically significant
cleavages in society. In their view, all societies, historical
and contemporary, are characterised by patriarchy (see p.
92), the institution whereby, as Kate Millett (1969) put it,
'that half of the population which is female is controlled by
that half which is male'. Radical feminists there- fore
proclaim the need for a sexual revolution, a revolution that
will, in particular, restructure personal, domestic and family
life. The characteristic slogan of radical feminism, is thus
'the personal is the political'. Only in its extreme form,
however, does radical feminism portray men as 'the enemy',

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and proclaim the need for women to withdraw from male
society, a stance sometimes expressed in the form of
political lesbianism.

Environmentalism
Although environmentalism is usually seen as a new
ideology that is linked to the emergence of the ecological, or
Green, movement in the late twentieth century, its roots can
be traced back to the nineteenth-century revolt against
industrialisation. Environmentalism therefore reflects
concern about the damage done to the natural world by the
increasing pace of economic development (exacerbated in
the second half of the twentieth century by the advent of
nuclear technology, acid rain, ozone depletion, global
warming and so on), and anxiety about the declining quality
of human existence and, ultimately, the survival of the
human species. Such concerns are sometimes expressed
through the vehicle of conventional ideologies. For instance,
ecosocialism explains environmental destruction in terms of
capitalism's rapacious desire for profit. Eco conservatism
links the cause of conservation to the desire to preserve
traditional values and established institutions. And
ecofeminism locates the origins of the ecological crisis in the
system of male power, reflecting the fact that men are less
sensitive than women to natural processes and the natural
world.
However, what gives environmentalism its radical edge is
the fact that it offers an alternative to the anthropocentric or
human-centred stance adopted by all other ideologies; it does
not see the natural world simply as a convenient resource
available to satisfy human needs. By highlighting the
importance of ecology, environmental ism, or, as some of its
proponents would prefer to call it, ecologism, develops an
ecocentric world view that portrays the human species as
merely part of nature.
Deep Ecologists, or 'dark Greens', on the other hand, insist
that nothing short of a fundamental reordering of political
priorities, and a willingness to place the interests of the
ecosystem before those of any individual species, will
ultimately secure planetary 873) and human survival.
Members of both groups can be found in the antiparty Green
parties that have sprung up in Germany, Austria and
elsewhere in Europe since the 1970s.
Fundamentalism Religious fundamentalism
Fundamentalism (from the Latin Religion and politics overlap at a number of points, not least
fundamentum, meaning ‗base‘) is a in the development of the major ideological traditions.
style of thought in which certain Ethical socialism, for instance, has been grounded in a
principles are recognised as essential
variety of religious creeds, giving rise to forms of Christian
truths that have unchallengeable and
overriding authority, regardless of socialism, Islamic socialism and so on. Protestantism helped
their content. to shape the ideas of self-striving and individual
responsibility that gained political expression in classical
liberalism. Religious fundamentalism, however, is different,
Substantive fundamentalisms
in that it views politics (and indeed all aspects of personal
therefore have little or nothing in and social existence) as being secondary to the 'revealed
common, except that their supporters truth of religious doctrine. From this perspective, political
tend to evince an earnestness or and social life should be organised on the basis of what are
fervour born out of doctrinal seen as essential or original religious principles commonly
certainty. Although it is usually supported by a belief in the literal truth of sacred texts. As it
associated with religion and the
literal truth of sacred texts, is possible to develop such principles into a comprehensive
fundamentalism can also be found in world view, religious fundamentalism can be treated as an
political creeds. ideology in its own right.

Where does religious fundamentalism come from, and what

Even liberal scepticism can be said explains its resurgence at the end of the twentieth century?
to incorporate the fundamental belief Two contrasting explanations have been advanced. One
that all theories should be doubted views fundamentalism as essentially an aberration, a
(except for itself), Although the term
symptom of the adjustment that societies make as they
is often used pejoratively to imply
inflexibility, dogmatism and become accustomed to a modern and secularised culture.
authoritarianism, fundamentalism The second suggests that fundamentalism is of enduring
may also give expression to significance, and believes that it is a consequence of the
selflessness and a devotion to failure of secularism to satisfy the abiding human desire for
principle. 'higher' or spiritual truth.

Forms of religious fundamentalism have arisen in various

parts of the world. The significance of Christian
fundamentalism, for example, has increased in the USA
since the 1970s as a result of the emergence of the 'New
Christian Right', which campaigns against abortion, and for
the introduction of prayers in US schools and a return to
traditional family values. In Israel, Jewish fundamentalism,
long represented by a collection of small religious parties,
has grown in importance as a result of attempts to prevent
parts of what are seen as the Jewish homeland being seceded
to an emerging Palestinian state. Hindu fundamentalism in

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 India has developed to resist the spread of western
secularism, and to combat the influence of rival creeds such
as Sikhism and Islam.
The most politically significant of modern fundamentalisms
is undoubtedly Islamic fundamentalism. This was brought to
prominence by the Iranian revolution of 1979, which led to
the founding of the world's first Islamic state, under
Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-89). It has subsequently spread
throughout the Middle East, across North Africa, and into
parts of Asia. Although the Shi'ite fundamentalism of Iran
has generated the fiercest commitment and devotion, Islam
in general has been a vehicle for expressing antiwesternism,
through both antipathy towards the neo-colonialism of
western powers, and attempts to resist the spread of
permissive- ness and materialism. Islamic fundamentalism
has, in particular, succeeded in articulating the aspirations of
the urban poor in developing states, who until the 1970s
were more likely to be attracted to socialism, in either its
Islamic or its Marxist-Leninist form.
Shari'a: Islamic law,
believed Islamic
Consultative Assembly, Islamic regimes
all legislation is ratified The rise of Islam as a political force has had a profound
by the Council for the to affect on politics in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts
be based on divine of Asia. In some cases, militant Islamic groups have
revelation, and derived challenged existing regimes, often articulating the interests
from the Koran, the of an urban poor since the 1970s disillusionment with
Hadith (the teachings of Marxism-Leninism. In other cases, however, regimes have
Muhammad), and other been constructed or reconstructed on Islamic lines. Since its
sources. inception in 1932, Saudi Arabia has been an Islamic state.
The Iranian revolution of 1979 led to the establishment of an
Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-89), an
example later followed in the Sudan and Pakistan. In
countries such as Gaddafi's Libya, more idiosyncratic and
disputed interpretations of Islam have been translated into
political practice.

Islam is not, however, and never has been, simply a religion.

Rather, it is a complete way of life, defining correct moral,
political and economic behaviour for individuals and nations
alike. The 'way of Islam' is based on the teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad (570-632) as revealed in the Koran,
regarded by all Moslems as the revealed word of God, and
 the Sunna, or 'beaten path', the traditional customs observed
by a devout Moslem that are said to be based on the
Prophet's own life Political Islam thus aims at the
construction of a theocracy in which political and other
affairs are structured according to 'higher' religious
principles. Nevertheless. political Islam has assumed clearly
contrasting forms, ranging from fundamentalist to pluralist
extremes.
The fundamentalist version of Islam is most commonly
associated with Iran. Until his death in 1989, Khomeini
presided over a system of institutionalised clerical rule,
operating through the Islamic Revolutionary Council, a body
of 15 senior clerics. Protection of the Constitution, which
ensures conformity to Islamic principles, Although, a more
pragmatic and less ideological approach has been adopted in
the 1990s under Hashemi Rafsanjani, Shari's law continues
to be strictly enforced throughout Iran as both a legal and a
moral code. Fundamentalist (see p. 61) is no less significant
in Saudi Arabia, where it has similarly absolutist
implications although the temper of the essentially
conservative Sunni regime in Saudi Arabia differs markedly
from the revolutionary populism (see p. 335) of Shi'ite Iran.
Moslems themselves, however, have often objected to the
classification of any Islamic regime as 'fundamentalist', on
the grounds that this perpetuates long- established western
prejudices against an 'exotic' or 'repressive' East. Evidence
that Islam is compatible with a form of political pluralism
can be found in Malaysia. Although Islam is the official state
religion of Malaysia, with the Paramount Ruler serving as
both religious leader and head of state, a form of 'guided'
democracy operates through the dominance of the United
Malays National Organisation (UMNO), headed by Prime
Minister Dr Mahathir, within a multiparty framework.
Mahathir's government has since 1981, pursued a narrowly
Islamic and pro-Malay strategy fused with an explicitly
Japanese model of economic development. Authoritarian
tendencies have nevertheless re-emerged since 1988, when
the independence of the judiciary effectively collapsed
following a wave of political arrests and the ally imposition
of press censorship.
Theocracy
Theocracy literally ‗rule by God‘ is the principle that
religious authority should prevail over political authority. A

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theocracy is therefore a regime in which government posts
are filled on the basis of the person's position in the religious
hierarchy. This contrasts with a secular state, in which
political and religious positions are kept strictly separate
Theocratic rule is illiberal in two senses. First, it violates the
distinction between private and public realms, in that it takes
religious rules and precepts to be the guiding principles of
both personal life and political conduct Secondly, it invests
political authority with potentially unlimited power, because,
as temporal power is derived from spiritual wisdom in this
type of regime, it cannot be based on popular consent or be
properly constrained within a constitutional framework.

Postmodernism, postmodernity.
Postmodemism is a controversial and confusing term that
amongst major parties that led to the suspension of was first
used to describe experimental movements in ideological
debate. The ideology that prevailed in the western arts,
architecture and cultural development in general. As a tool
of social and political analysis, postmodernism highlights the
shift away from societies structured by Industrialisation and
class solidarity to Increasingly fragmented and pluralistic
information societies transformed from producers to
consumers, and individualism replaces class, religious and
ethnic loyalties. From this perspective, conventional political
ideologies such as Mandism and liberalism tend to be
rejected as irrelevant meta narratives that developed out of
the process of modernisation. Post-modernists argue that
there is no such thing as certainty, the idea of absolute and
universal truth must be discarded as an arrogant pretence:
Emphasis is thus placed on the importance of discourse,
debate and democracy.
Study Session Summary

In this Study session you learned about other political

ideologies. The significance of particular ideologies rises and
falls in relation to the ideology's relevance to political, social
Summary and economic circumstances, and its capacity for theoretical
innovation. Ideological conflict in the twentieth century has
forced major ideologies such as liberalism, conservatism and
socialism to re-examine their traditional principles, and it has
fostered the growth of new ideologies, such as feminism,
ecologism and religious fundamentalism.

Assessment

SAQ 11 (tests Learning Outcome 11.1, 11.2 & 11.3)

C. Why have feminism, ecologism and fundamentalism
Self Assessment grown in significance. Do they have the potential to
displace conventional creeds?

Bibliography

Textbooks Dunleavy, P. and B. O‘Leary Theories of the State (London:

Macmillan, 1987). A carefully structured and accessible
introduction to five major approaches to the state and the
politics of liberal democracy.
Poggi, G. The State (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990). An
analysis of the nature, development and prospects of the state
that is particularly useful in relation to the ‗crisis of the state‘
Schwarzmantel, J. The State in Contemporary Society: An
Introduction (London and New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf,
1994). A clear and useful introduction to the study of politics
that focuses on rival views of the liberal-democratic state.

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Revision Session

Introduction
In this course, we have tried to introduce you to major
political ideas. In this concluding session, we bring together
the major highlights of the preceding sessions.
At the end of this study session, you should be able to
 recall the major highlights of our discussions in all the
10 study sessions that we discussed.
Write a 400-word essay on what you have gained in the
course of going through the previous study sessions on
political ideas. After doing that, you can then continue with
Reflection this revision note.

Summary
As we said at the beginning of this course, political ideas
arose out of attempts to make sense of political and social life,
especially with regard to the origin of the state and the nature
of authority and legitimacy. We also pointed out that, while
political ideas have differed with regard to the kind of answers
that they offer to common political problems and powers, they
all share one thing in common: namely, they are all concerned
with the nature of power, authority and legitimacy.
Against this general background, we went ahead to introduce
you to various political ideas ranging from democracy,
classical and modern liberalism to monarchical absolutism,
conservatism, fascism, anarchism, socialism and Marxism.
We noted that although democracy is not a controversial term,
it first developed in ancient Greece where it took the form of
direct ―town meeting‘ democracy in which all citizens met to
discuss issues in order to arrive at joint decisions. In this
ancient form, democracy involved the direct (not indirect or
mediated) participation of all in the conduct of the affairs of
the polity.
 In its modern form, however, especially as it is practiced in
America, France, Britain among others, it is only the indirect
or representative type of democracy that is practiced. Here,
people do not participate directly in government. Rather, they
are empowered to periodically elect representatives to run the
government for them.
The controversy that surrounds the term ‗democracy‘ in recent
times emanates from discussions as to which of the several
brands of democracy as practiced in modern times is better
than the others: namely, direct democracy, representative
democracy, liberal democracy, and social democracy. While
proponents of direct democracy consider it the purest form of
democracy, proponents of representative (or indirect)
democracy argue that given the size of the average modern
state, the direct democracy of ancient Greece is now
impracticable and that, rather, the most reasonable type of
democracy in the modern day is representative democracy. At
another level, there are often series of arguments between
liberal democrats, who emphasize constitutional guarantees of
the rights and duties of citizens, and social democrats, who
emphasize the need to meet the economic needs of majority of
the citizens.
While democracy sees the people as the source of political
power, monarchical absolutism, another political idea, argues
that the monarch should be the absolute and unrestricted ruler
over his subjects. Similarly, conservatism stresses the
importance of tradition and traditional institutions, believes
that men are naturally unequal, and recommends that only the
enlightened, who tend to be in the minority, should govern.
You will further recall that we also talked about classical
liberalism and modern liberalism. As we indicated then,
classical liberalism as a political idea focused on such things
as equality and liberty, sanctity of private property, supremacy
of parliament over monarchy, and the right of people to
remove a government deemed to be oppressive. On its own
part, modern liberalism emerged in the wake of attempts to
make liberalism more relevant to recent developments. In a
nutshell, modern liberalism has a attempted to extend the
ideas of classical liberalism with regard to freedom to
hitherto.
At the other extreme of the political spectrum is fascism
which extols totalitarianism, personal dictatorship, repression,
centralized economic planning, nationalism and militarism.

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Fascism is the religion of state terrorism which holds that the
interest of the nation and the ruling party supersedes all other
interests. In the course of the study sessions, we also defined
anarchism and traced its development as a political idea.
Anarchism preaches that government and other regulatory
institutions should either be abolished or have their powers
drastically curtailed because such institutions prevent the full
development of the individual. What it does, then, is to
condemn the present and offer the outlines of an alternative in
an idyllic future without government and regulatory
institutions.
We also introduced you to socialism and the Marxism of Karl
Marx. Socialism, you will recall, is a political doctrine that
proposes public ownership and control of the means of
production and distribution and which urges the state to
pledge itself to the eradication of poverty and want.
Marxism refers to the body of ideas left behind by Karl Marx,
a German philosopher and writer of the 19th century. Marx‘s
analyses led him to argue that the emergence of a classless
communist society from the present capitalist class society
was not only inevitable but also desirable. He then examined
the march of history towards this goal, indicating how
changes at the material level led to changes in the society.
It is hoped that we have got across to you.
In this revision session, we have attempted to summarise the
10 study sessions.
Appendix A
The Nature of the State and the Relation between the State
and the Individual I
This article considers 6 important theories which try to
explain the nature of the state and the relation between the
state and the individual citizen:
1. Monistic Theory
This argues that individuals who compose the state have no
independent existence, ―but are now automatic units in the
whole mass each dependent, on the other and upon the whole
for its continued existence.

2. Monadnistic Theory
This theory conceives society as a mere aggregation of
individuals ―each in large measure living in isolation and
independent of his associates, capable of surviving and even
flourishing without the help of the state beyond a mere
minimum of collective restraint the protection of the weak
against the aggression of the strong.‖ There is virtually no
interdependence of one on the other. The need for and the
necessity of the state is only found in giving protection to the
weak against the strong. The state is like a police, and it
exists to protect and restrain, not to foster and promote.
3. The Dualistic Theory
According to this theory, every individual leads a life of his
own, but each is, in a way, dependent upon others for his
welfare. He is neither existing and merged in the whole nor
entirely isolated from and independent of his social
surroundings.
4. Organic Theory
This theory considers the state as a ‗unity‘ similar to that
which characterizes a biological organism.
5. The Juristic Theory
This theory represents the views of jurists who seek to explain
the state in terms of legal concepts. They view the state as an
organ or legal personality for the creation, interpretation and
the enforcement of law, and for the protection of all legal
rights.

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 6. The Marxian Theory
The state according to this theory is a superstructure. ―Its
form is determined by the exigencies of class struggle and the
demands of the underlying material situation. Denied as an
instrument of exploitation and coercion, the state is regarded
as the product and manifestation of the irreconcilable class
antagonism. At every stage of the development of the state, a
single class is dominant and this dominant class controls the
state and uses its machinery to further its exploitation of the
exploited class. This theory finds full expression in the
philosophy of Karl Marx.
Appendix B
The Nature of the State and the Relation between the State
and the Individual II
Word on Niccolo Machiavelli
Let us consider briefly a word on Machiavelli‘s postulations
on the state. Machiavelli‘s thesis is that any means that will
assure the preservation of the state are legitimate. However, it
is necessary to reiterate that Machiavelli approves the
immoral acts of the prince or ruler only as a means of saving
the state. But this philosophy has been used to justify all
forms of political villainy for self-centered reasons. Although
some of his observations are shocking, they help to underline
the level of deception and decadence into which men can sink
in order to acquire power and sustain themselves in authority.
A word on the State of Nature
Hobbes conceives of a State of Nature within which men lived
before the formation of civil society. You should note that
Hobbes does not establish that an actual state of nature ever
existed. He used the notion as a philosophical premise for his
formulations and to advance the contractual origin of the state.
The authority in the Hobbesian State is concentrated in the
political sphere not in all spheres of life. The Hobbesian State
is therefore, authoritarian and not totalitarian.
John Locke on the State of Nature and Limited
Government
Like Hobbes, Locke thought of a State of Nature before the
formation of civil society. However, while the Hobbesian
State of Nature is that of strife, the Lockean state of nature is
moral and social in character. In it, man has rights and
acknowledged duties. Although, life is not satisfactory in the
 state of nature because peace is constantly upset by corrupt
men. It lacks ―established, settled known law‖ of a ―known
and indifferent judge‖ and the lack of an executive power to
enforce just decisions.
In order to get out of the state of nature, men enter into a
social contract – this is a contract of all with all. It is not a
contract with government. It is a contract to which all must
submit and through which all agree to submit to the
determination of the majority. ―Under the contract everyone
surrenders only a part of his natural rights. The community is
both the creator and beneficiary of the trust. The end of
government is the good of the community. It is also the
people who retain the supreme power. Government must be
constitutional. It must remain limited and not absolute.
In conceiving government as a trust and locating ultimate
sovereignty in the people, Locke helped to refute the case for
absolute government and like Hobbes, the divine right of
kings to rule. According to Locke, if a government is not for
the people‘s good, or if it does not depend on their consent or
if it exceeds its authority, such a government can legitimately
be overthrown. Locke is widely recognized as one of the
political philosophers whose theories have had identifiable
impact on the organization of actual modern states. As noted
by Ebenstein the text of the (American) Declaration of
Independence is pure Locke, and the main elements of the
American Political system, particularly the principles of
inviolability of property, limited government, and the
inalienable rights of individuals-are all directly traceable to
Locke.

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