COURSE MANUAL

Principles of Public Relations

CLA 211

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2017 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

General Editor: Prof. A. Oyesoji Aremu

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (80775935727)
E-mail: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of
service in the provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance Learning
Education in Nigeria and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are
committed is providing access to many deserving Nigerians in having access to higher
education especially those who by the nature of their engagement do not have the
luxury of full time education. Recently, it is contributing in no small measure to
providing places for teeming Nigerian youths who for one reason or the other could
not get admission into the conventional universities.
These course materials have been written by writers specially trained in ODL course
delivery. The writers have made great efforts to provide up to date information,
knowledge and skills in the different disciplines and ensure that the materials are user-
friendly.
In addition to provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of Information
Technology input has also gone into the deployment of course materials. Most of them
can be downloaded from the DLC website and are available in audio format which you
can also download into your mobile phones, IPod, MP3 among other devices to allow
you listen to the audio study sessions. Some of the study session materials have been
scripted and are being broadcast on the university’s Diamond Radio FM 101.1, while
others have been delivered and captured in audio-visual format in a classroom
environment for use by our students. Detailed information on availability and access is
available on the website. We will continue in our efforts to provide and review course
materials for our courses.
However, for you to take advantage of these formats, you will need to improve on
your I.T. skills and develop requisite distance learning Culture. It is well known that,
for efficient and effective provision of Distance learning education, availability of
appropriate and relevant course materials is a sine qua non. So also, is the availability
of multiple plat form for the convenience of our students. It is in fulfilment of this, that
series of course materials are being written to enable our students study at their own
pace and convenience.
It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.

Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for
Nigerians and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance
Learning Centre has recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which
aimed at embracing a holistic and all encompassing approach to the delivery of its
Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes. Thus we are committed to global best
practices in distance learning provision. Apart from providing an efficient
administrative and academic support for our students, we are committed to providing
educational resource materials for the use of our students. We are convinced that,
without an up-to-date, learner-friendly and distance learning compliant course
materials, there cannot be any basis to lay claim to being a provider of distance
learning education. Indeed, availability of appropriate course materials in multiple
formats is the hub of any distance learning provision worldwide.

In view of the above, we are vigorously pursuing as a matter of priority, the provision
of credible, learner-friendly and interactive course materials for all our courses. We
commissioned the authoring of, and review of course materials to teams of experts and
their outputs were subjected to rigorous peer review to ensure standard. The approach
not only emphasizes cognitive knowledge, but also skills and humane values which are
at the core of education, even in an ICT age.

The development of the materials which is on-going also had input from experienced
editors and illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate, current and learner-
friendly. They are specially written with distance learners in mind. This is very
important because, distance learning involves non-residential students who can often
feel isolated from the community of learners.

It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to source
and read relevant materials apart from this course material. Therefore, adequate
supplementary reading materials as well as other information sources are suggested in
the course materials.

Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are
also advised to seek assistance from your course facilitators especially academic
advisors during your study even before the interactive session which is by design for
revision. Your academic advisors will assist you using convenient technology
including Google Hang Out, You Tube, Talk Fusion, etc. but you have to take
advantage of these. It is also going to be of immense advantage if you complete
assignments as at when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as a guide.
The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop
requisite distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study,
seeking available administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic
information technology skills. This is why you are encouraged to develop your
computer skills by availing yourself the opportunity of training that the Centre’s
provide and put these into use.

In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the
regular students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high
quality textbooks. We are therefore, delighted to present these titles to both our
distance learning students and the university’s regular students. We are confident that
the materials will be an invaluable resource to all.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high
quality of work.

Best wishes.

Professor A. Oyesoji Aremu

Director
Course Development Team
Content Authoring Adegoke, Lawrence Adeyomola

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Ogundele Olumuyiwa Caleb
Learning Design/Assessment Authoring Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. A. Oyesoji Aremu
 Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1

Getting around this course manual 4

Margin icons ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Study Session 1 5
The Nature of Public Relations................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Terminology .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Misconceptions about Public Relations ........................................................................................... 6
1.2 Definition of Public Relations (PR) ...................................................................................................... 7
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Study Session 2 13
The Scope of Public Relations .................................................................................................................................. 13
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Areas of Activities which Public Relations covers...................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Internal Communications .................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Corporate Public Relations.................................................................................................. 14
2.1.3 Media Relations ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.1.4 Business to Business .............................................................................................................. 15
2.1.5 Public affairs .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.1.6 Community Relations/Corporate Social Responsibility (CR/CSR) .................... 15
2.1.7 Investor Relations ................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.8 Strategic Communication ..................................................................................................... 15
2.1.9 Issues management ................................................................................................................ 15
2.1.10 Crisis Management ............................................................................................................... 15
2.1.11 Copywriting ............................................................................................................................. 16
2.1.12 Publications management ................................................................................................. 16
2.1.13 Events management ............................................................................................................ 16
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 17

Study Session 3 18
Some Public Relations-Related Concepts ........................................................................................................... 19
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Concepts Fundamental to Public Relations Practice ................................................................. 19
Operational Policy of Radio Nigeria............................................................................................ 21
Contents ii

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 25

Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Study Session 4 27
Public Relations (PR) Models and Process ........................................................................................................ 27
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
4.1 Models and Public Relations................................................................................................................ 27
4.2 Models of Public Relations ................................................................................................................... 28
4.2.1 The R.A.C.E. MODEL ................................................................................................................ 28
Research ...................................................................................................................................... 28
Actions ......................................................................................................................................... 28
Communication ........................................................................................................................ 29
Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 29
4.2.2 Six-Point Model ........................................................................................................................ 29
Appreciation of the situation ............................................................................................. 29
Definition of objectives ......................................................................................................... 30
Definition of publics ............................................................................................................... 30
Choice of media and techniques ....................................................................................... 30
Budget .......................................................................................................................................... 30
Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 30
4.2.3 James and Todd Model .......................................................................................................... 31
4.3 Public Relations Process ....................................................................................................................... 32
4.3.1 Appreciation of the situation .............................................................................................. 32
4.3.2 Definition of Objectives ......................................................................................................... 33
4.3.3 Defining the Publics ................................................................................................................ 33
4.3.4 Choice of Media and Techniques ...................................................................................... 34
4.3.5 Budget (Costing the Campaign)......................................................................................... 34
4.3.6 Evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 35
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 35
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Study Session 5 38
Public Relations Theories .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Theories and Public Relations ............................................................................................................ 38
5.2 Harrison’s Adaptation of Shannon and Weaver’s Model ......................................................... 39
5.3 Westley-McLean’s Model ...................................................................................................................... 40
5.4 Grunig’s Model ..................................................................................................................................... 43
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Study Session 6 45
The Functions of a Public Relations Officer ....................................................................................................... 45
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
 6.1 Principles and Tools of Public Relations ........................................................................................ 45
6.2 Functions of a Public Relations Officer ........................................................................................... 48
6.3 Public Relations as a Management Function ................................................................................ 50
6.4 Skills For Public Relations Practice .................................................................................................. 51
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 54

Study Session 7 56
Identifying the Publics of Public Relations ........................................................................................................ 56
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 56
7.1 Who are the Publics of Public Relations? ....................................................................................... 56
7.2 Sub-categorisations of Publics of Public Relations .................................................................... 57
7.3 Reasons for Proper Categorisation or Identifiction of Publics ............................................. 60
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 60
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 61

Study Session 8 62
Strategies for Communicating with the PR Publics: The Media of Public Relations I ..................... 62
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
8.1 The PR Media ............................................................................................................................................. 62
8.2 Mediums of PR ........................................................................................................................................... 63
8.2.1 The Basic Media ....................................................................................................................... 63
8.2.2 The Composite Media ............................................................................................................ 64
8.3 Interpersonal Communication and Public Relations Practice .............................................. 64
8.3.1 Impact of Interpersonal Communication on Public Relations ............................. 65
8.4 Images available to Corporate Organizations .............................................................................. 67
8.4.1 House Style ................................................................................................................................. 67
8.4.2 Corporate Brochure................................................................................................................ 68
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 68
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 69

Study Session 9 71
The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual ................................................................................................ 71
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 71
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 71
9.1 Audio-visual Media .................................................................................................................................. 71
9.1.1 Films .............................................................................................................................................. 72
9.1.1.1 Use of Films ................................................................................................................. 73
9.1.1.2 Documentary Film ................................................................................................... 73
9.1.2 Television.................................................................................................................................... 75
9.1.3 Photography .............................................................................................................................. 77
9.1.4 Radio ............................................................................................................................................. 77
9.1.5 The Folk and the Oral Media............................................................................................... 79
9.1.5.1 The Folk Media .......................................................................................................... 79
9.1.5.2 The Oral Media .......................................................................................................... 80
Contents iv

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 80

Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 81

Study Session 10 82
The Media of Public Relations III: News Release ............................................................................................ 82
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 82
10.1 Overview of News Release................................................................................................................. 82
10.2 Origins of Press Release ...................................................................................................................... 84
10.3 Elements of Press Release ................................................................................................................. 84
10.4 Video News Releases (VNS) .............................................................................................................. 85
10.5 How to Write and Distribute a Press Release............................................................................ 86
10.5.1 Questions to Consider Before You Start ...................................................................... 86
Content ........................................................................................................................................ 87
Format ......................................................................................................................................... 88
10.6 The Newsletter as a Medium of PR ................................................................................................ 91
10.7 Embargoed News Release .................................................................................................................. 91
10.8 Criticism against News Release ....................................................................................................... 92
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 92
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 92

Study Session 11 94
The Methods of Public Relations ............................................................................................................................ 94
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 94
11.1 Defining Public Relations Methods ................................................................................................ 94
11.2 Community Relations........................................................................................................................... 95
11.3 Customer Relations............................................................................................................................... 97
11.4 Employee Relations .............................................................................................................................. 98
11.5 Shareholder Relations ...................................................................................................................... 100
11.6 Media Relations ................................................................................................................................... 100
PUBLIC RELATIONS, SPECIAL EVENTS MANAGEMENT AND PROMOTIONS .................... 101
11.7 Facility Visits......................................................................................................................................... 105
11.8 Sponsorships ........................................................................................................................................ 105
11.9 Visit to Media Organisations .......................................................................................................... 106
11.10 Visits to Opinion Leaders.............................................................................................................. 106
11.11 Direct Mail ........................................................................................................................................... 106
Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 109
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................. 110

Study Session 12 111

Public Relations Case Studies ............................................................................................................................... 112
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 112
Case Study I: The Problem or Issue: Competition for an Upper Edge in the Production of
a new Vaccine ................................................................................................................................................. 112
 Case Study II: The Problem or Issue: Projected fears of Intrusion, Pollution and the
Nuisance Value of a Proposed Cement Factory on an Island that absolutely depended on
the Tourist Industry..................................................................................................................................... 114
Case Study III: The Problem or Issue: Crisis of Confidence ........................................................ 116
Case Study IV: Department of Communication and Language Arts (CLA), University of
Ibadan, 2000 ................................................................................................................................................... 119
Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 124
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................. 124

Notes on Self Assessment Questions 125

References 128
 About this course manualThe Nature of Public Relations

About this course manual

Principles of Public Relations CLA 211 has been produced by University
of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All course manuals produced by
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centreare structured in the same
way, as outlined below.

How this course manual is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Margin icons.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Study Session outcomes.
 Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
 A Study Session summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Bibliography

1
 CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Your comments
After completing Principles of Public Relations we would appreciate it if
you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of
this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.

2
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Getting around this course manual

Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

4
 Study Session 1The Nature of Public Relations

Study Session 1

The Nature of Public Relations

Introduction

In this Study Session, we will discuss some misconceptions about Public Relations (PR),
that is, things that PR is not and offer some definitions of PR.This will dispel the
confusion about what PR is. An understanding of these basics will enable you to
understand what PR is, what you can, and cannot do with it. It will also enable you to
connect easily with other Study Sessions in this book. The scope of public relations shall
be discussed in Study Session Two.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 explain what PR is not
1.2 define what PR is
Outcomes

5
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Terminology
Public relations he art of managing the spread of information about an
individual or company is disseminated to the public, and
attempting to frame that information in a positive light.

1.1 Misconceptions about Public Relations

Misconceptions about Public Relations(PR) stem from little or lack of
knowledge about what the discipline of public relations is all about. Thus,
some people think that public relations is:
a. a tool of seeking free publicity for business executives, political
aspirants, community and religious leaders,
b. a means of being economical with the truth,
c. a tool for covering up mistakes of omission or commission by
corporate organizations, groups, or individuals,
d. a series of hosting journalists to free lunch, dinner and giving
them gifts including brown or white envelopes,
e. advertising or marketing or both in disguise.
Indeed, in some cases, people erroneously equate public relations with:
f. procurement of visas for management and other corporate
personnel
g. human relations, or industrial relations
h. personal and public entertainment
i. sales and services promotions
j. protocol functions,
k. personal selling
l. showmanship
m. propaganda and
n. publicity, among other things.
Incredibly, however, public relations is none of these misconceptions.
ITQ

Question
Which of the following is not a misconception of PR?
A. It is the same as propaganda.
B. It is the projection of the personality of an organization.
C. It is a sales promotion.
D. It is publicity.

6
 Study Session 1The Nature of Public Relations

Feedback
If you gloss over the list of misconceptions that we have highlighted in
the course of this session, you will see that options A, C, and D are part
of the misconceptions of what PR is. The odd item here is option D.

1.2 Definition of Public Relations (PR)

According to the Institute of Public Relations (IPR) UK, Public Relations
(PR) practice is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish
and maintain mutual understanding between an organisation and its
publics.
To Roger Haywood (1984), Public Relations is the projection of the
personality of the organisation. It is the organised two-way
communications between the organisation and the audiences critical to its
success. PR is the management activity aimed at creating favourable
attitudes amongst key audiences (1984:3, 4).
For Cutlip and Center (1971), PR is the communication and interpretation
and the communication and ideas from an institution to its publics and the
communication of information, ideas and opinions from those publics to
the institution, in a sincere effort to establish a mutuality of interest and
this achieves the harmonious adjustment of an institution to its
community.
The Communication Advertising and Marketing (CAM) Foundation
describes PR as a management function which exists to establish and
maintain better mutual understanding between an establishment and its
publics (1982:1).
Dunn (1991:3) says Public Relations is the organised two-way
communications between an organisation and the audiences critical to its
success, the aim being to create understanding and support for its
objectives, policies and actions. He adds that it is the management
activity responsible for the creation of favourable attitudes among key
audiences; the projection of the personality of a corporate organisation.
Besides, he sees PR as an exercise in diplomacy: putting facts, figures
and viewpoints of the client to whom it may concern – the consuming
public, shareholders, truth commission, members of National and State
Assemblies among its other publics.
Engage in the activity that follows:
In 2011‒12, Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) led an
international effort to modernize the definition of public relations.
PRSA initiated a crowdsourcing campaign and public vote that
produced the following definition:
Activity 1.1 “Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds
mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their
publics.”
What are key points in this definition?

7
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Disucssion
 Simple and straightforward, this definition focuses on the basic
concept of public relations — as a communication process, one
that is strategic in nature and emphasizing “mutually beneficial
relationships.”
 “Process” is preferable to “management function,” which can
evoke ideas of control and top-down, one-way communications.
 “Relationships” relates to public relations’ role in helping to
bring together organizations and individuals with their key
stakeholders.
 “Publics” is preferable to “stakeholders,” as the former relates
to the very “public” nature of public relations, whereas
“stakeholders” has connotations of publicly-traded companies.

Sam Black (1978) in his book Practical Public Relations, asserts that
Public Relations involves:
i. Anything that is focused at improving and enhancing the flow of
communication between corporate institutions or people.
ii. Any action designed to widen the sphere of influence of a corporate
body through appropriate documentary films, exhibitions,
advertising, and publicity.
iii. Any action embarked upon to identify, discover and eliminate
sources of misconceptions of a corporate body.
iv. Those things that are specifically designed to improve or enhance
mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics, i.e.,
every person and organisation with whom an establishment has
dealings, either within or outside an organisation.
As a management function, Public Relations is defined as the
management activity responsible for the creation of favourable attitudes
among the key publics of an organisation (Haywood, 1984:4).
Also, Lloyd (1980:19) cites John Hill as having defined PR as the
management function that gives the same organised and careful attention
to the asset of goodwill in the manner that it is given to any other major
asset of business.
Public Relations as a management function involves:
 anticipating, analysing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes,
future trends, and issues which might have impact on any section
of corporate operations.
 counselling management in all departments within the
organisation.
 establishing and maintaining two-way communication between
the organisation and its various publics in order to prevent
misunderstanding and conflicts. (Ajala, 1993:12).
The essence of two-way communication in PR is to enable a corporate
body to develop positive and effective relationship through mutual
understanding between an organisation and its overall public. The overall
public comprises the individual departments that make up the company.

8
 Study Session 1The Nature of Public Relations

From the preceding propositions, one can safely deduce that the
following key words and phrases are common to these select definitions:
deliberate, planned, sustained, maintaining mutual understanding, two-
way communication, creation of favourable attitude, mutuality of interest,
sincere effort, projection of organisational personality, eliminating
sources of misunderstanding, public image, corporate image.
Consequently, in my opinion, one definition that explains what Public
Relations in the simplest form is that which describes it as ‘the deliberate,
planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual
understanding between an organisation and its publics’. The implications
of this definition for PR practice could be explained from the perspective
of each of the key concepts in the definition as discussed below:
Deliberate: An organisation’s PR programme emanates from the
objective which the PR man has projected as a result of the research.
Such research is a follow up of the feedbacks received from the publics of
the organisation in reaction to issues of mutual interest. This emphasizes
the fact that there is nothing accidental about a PR programme. Rather, it
is done quite willingly, because the management agreed with the
proposition of the PR man to tackle the problem on hand decisively,
deliberately.
The objective may be to let the publics of the organisation know that
management is taking urgent steps to correct anomalies identified and
reported by customers about goods or services. The objective might be to
let the publics of an organisation know about the availability of
additional goods or services which customers yearn for. In each case,
someone within the organisation thinks of the need to communicate
mutually beneficial information to the public. Thus, such action is
regarded as absolutely deliberate.
Planned: If a PR objective is to achieve the projected purposes and have
the desired impact, it must be properly planned. For example, the PR
man must convene a meeting where heads of the different departments
will brainstorm over the propositions of the PR man who must be ready
with answers to clarify certain things regarding a particular issue.
Besides, the forum at which the organisation’s message will be made
available to media men must be well decided. The mode of
communication, whether to send invitation cards or to send letters of
invitation on the organisation’s letter head, must be decided. The mode
of entertainment for the media men in terms of light refreshment or
moderate lunch or dinner must also be decided. It must also be decided
whether to buy a space in the print media or air-time on the electronic
media. Any of these must be done in a way that will enhance goodwill of
and arouse positive feelings about the organisation. All these are plans
made deliberately.
Sustained Effort: As psychologists have noted through experiments, the
human memory is short. Consequently, with different signals competing
for the people’s attention from the print and electronic media, an
organisation is obliged to design messages which it must get across to its
publics at regular intervals. This is to keep the publics abreast of
developments in that organisation and thus infuse, in the publics, a sense

9
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

of belonging which in turn will reinforce loyalty to the organisation, and

engender interest in the goods or services which an organisation
produces, or offers.
Indeed, as communication experts rightly agree, planned and sustained
efforts suggest that relationships have to be established and maintained
because they are neither automatic nor effortless. Thus, there is the need
to pull together, in a continuum of sustained campaign effort, all the
modes and means of communication: written, speech, radio and
television, press conference, films, leaflet, house journal, etc., through
which an organisation gets across to its publics. Without this, the
probability is high that an organisation might lose a portion of its
clientele to more dynamic competitors.
Mutual Understanding: The concept of mutual understanding in public
relations is made manifest by the principle of two-way communication.
The PR man is the channel for this two-way communication. He gathers
public opinions about his organisations’ products or services, and
provides these as feedbacks to management. On the other hand, he
arranges to make management’s reaction available to the public through
the mass media. Such organisational reaction is usually to tell the public
about what steps the organisation has taken or is taking to make urgent
amends or to fulfil earlier promises. In such cases, feedback helps the
organisation to adjust its operation and image, while the public is also rest
assured that the organisation is responsive to its yearnings. Thus, the
climate for mutual understanding is created between an organisation and
its publics by public relations activities.
By and large, Kitchen (1997) compressed available definitions of public
relations, and observes that it:
 is a management function.
 covers a broad range of activities and purposes In practice …
 is regarded as symmetric, two-way or interactive
communication.
 suggests that publics facing companies are not singular (i.e.
consumers) but plural …
 suggests that relationships are long -term and not short- term.
ITQ

Question
In this sub-session, which of the following scholars did not give
definition of PR?
A. John Hill
B. Sam Black
C. Roger Haywood
D. Adam Smith.

10
 Study Session 1The Nature of Public Relations

Feedback
If you look at the different scholars we examined their definitions of PR
in the course of this session, you will see that options A, B, and C all
gave definitions of what PR is. The odd item here is option D.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have applied the principle of little chunks of
information to avoid information over-load for the students. In doing
this, we introduced the beginner public relations (PR) students to the
misconceptions people have about PR as a discipline by stating some of
Summary what it is not. We then discussed what people can, and cannot do with it.
Besides, we discussed the main frame of TPR definitions by explaining
the concepts of Deliberate, Planned, Sustained effort and Mutual
Understanding to enable learners understand them from the on-set.

Assessment
SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1 and 1.2)
What do you understand by PR?

Assessment
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences:
1. Public Relations is the deliberate . …, and sustained …. to ….
and maintain …. Understandingbetween an … and its ….
2. Public Relations is the …. two-way …. between an …. and the
Assignment …. critical to its …., the … being to create …. and …. for its
…, policies and ….
3. Public Relations is not a …. of publicity-seeking ….
4. Public Relations is not … given to … aspirants, business …,
military… among others.
5. Public Relations is not the given of …. envelopes in order to
gain media ….
6. Public Relations is the …. activity responsible for the …. of ….
attitudes of key ….
7. Public Relations is the … activity aimed at creating …..
attitudes among … audiences.
8. Public Relations is a …. function which exists to … and …
better mutual … between an … and its ….

11
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading Black, Sam. (1978). Practical Public Relations. London: Pitman
Publishing Limited.
CAM Foundations (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM
Foundations.
Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere
Plc.
Fawkes, Johanna (2001) “What is public Relations” in Theaker, A. The
Public Relations Handbook. New York: Routledge.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations. London: Hodder Stoughton
Limited.

12
 Study Session 2The Scope of Public Relations

Study Session 2

The Scope of Public Relations

Introduction
As we indicated in the first Study Session, we will now redeem our
promise by discussing the Scope of Public Relations. Thus, in this Study
Session, we shall identify and discuss thirteen areas which public
relations activities cover. Indeed, this is the reason we deliberately broke
The Nature and Scope aspects of the series into two so that you can learn
small units at a time to avoid information overload and facilitate
comprehension of the subject. I am sure you will enjoy your Study
Sessions that way.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
2.1 identify some of the activities which public relations covers.

Outcomes

2.1 Areas of Activities which Public Relations covers

The scope of public relations derives from its definition offered by the
Institute of Public Relations (IPR) “the deliberate, planned and sustained
effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an
organisation and its publics” which have been fully explained in Study
Session One. Carefully read the information provided in the box below
for further understanding.
Publicity and Promotion as Elements of PR
Among the elements of PR, publicity and promotions stand out. Publicity
as an element of PR seeks to educate and thus inform readers through the
print: newspapers, magazines, hand bills, posters, among others;

13
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

listeners and viewers through the radio and television. For a publicity
material to deliver the message effectively, it must have news value: the
content must be presented from a news angle which must be of interest to
the audience; otherwise it will not interest the reporter or editor regardless
of existing relationship. The second element, promotion, like publicity,
also seeks to inform. However, its main purpose is to project the benefits
of a programme, product or service. Promotion is similar to advertising
and this is why its articles are more difficult to place in news media
because they usually lack a strong news angle.

Another angle to the scope of PR is to look at it from its main activities

which, for effective PR practice, require the four skills of receptive and
expressive communication: listening and reading; speaking and writing.
Besides, the practitioner must be computer-literate. The activities are
identified and explained as follows.

2.1.1 Internal Communications

Internal communications involve communicating with an organisation’s
employees. Examples of internal communications materials are: in-house
newsletters, magazines, suggestion boxes, notice boards, faxes, e-mails,
the internet, intranet, and teleconferencing.

2.1.2 Corporate Public Relations

Corporate public relations involves communicating with the publics of an
organisation, on its behalf, not goods and services. The tools of corporate
public relations, for example, are conferences, workshops, seminars,
annual reports, ethical statements, visual identity such as corporate
colours and logos and images.

2.1.3 Media Relations

Media relations involves communicating with journalists, specialists,
editors from local, national, international and trade mediums including
print: newspapers, magazines; electronic mediums –radio and television
and the internet. The tools of media relations are news releases a.k.a.
press releases, video news releases, (VNR), press events, and off-the-
record briefings through corporate spokespersons.
ITQ

Question
Press releases are a type of news releases. TRUE or FALSE.
Feedback
News releases comprises press releases, video news releases, and press
events. So, it is true that press releases are a type of news releases.

14
 Study Session 2The Scope of Public Relations

2.1.4 Business to Business

Business to business involves communicating with other establishments
such as suppliers, distributors and retailers. The tools of business to
business communications are newsletters, trade events, exhibitions, hand
bills, brochures, and catalogues.

2.1.5 Public affairs

Public affairs involves communicating with opinion leaders such as
politicians, community and religious heads at the local, state and national
levels; monitoring the socio-political environments. The media of public
affairs include letters, public speeches, town hall meetings, private
meetings, briefing and presentations.

2.1.6 Community Relations/Corporate Social

Responsibility (CR/CSR)
This public relations activity involves communicating with an
organisation’s host communities, elected representatives, school
proprietors, heads of nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary institutions.
The media of CR/CSR include presentations, meetings involving
speeches, interpersonal, face-to-face, communication, letters, exhibitions,
sports activities and events sponsorships.

2.1.7 Investor Relations

Investor relations function involves communicating with financial
organisations and individuals. The mediums for this activity are
newsletters, events researching, planning and PR campaign execution to
improve corporate ethical reputation.

2.1.8 Strategic Communication

Strategic communication involves the identification and analysis of
situations, problems and providing solutions to achieve organisational
objectives. The tools for effective strategic communication are
researching, planning and executing PR campaigns to improve an
organisation’s ethical reputation.

2.1.9 Issues management

Issues management function demands effective monitoring ofthe
political, social, economic and technological environment. An example
could be a discussion of the effect of Nigeria’s political and economic
circumstances and its presidential election on organisations in the West
African countries.

2.1.10 Crisis Management

Crisis management function demands communicating clear, denotative
messages in-fast changing circumstances or emergency situations. An
example of crisis management manifested in the way the Oyo State
Governor, Senator Isiaq Ajimobi, handled the rain-storm incident which

15
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

affected many houses and washed away link-bridges in Ibadan, the Oyo
state capital in February, 2013.

2.1.11 Copywriting
This activity demands professional writing for different publics of an
organisation and the tools for doing this effectively are news, annual
reports, releases, newsletters, and web pages.

ITQ

Question
The tools of effective copywriting are …
a. news, annual reports, releases, and web pages.
b. Releases, news, news reportage, and web pages.
c. annual reports, newsletters, and sales promotions.
d. news, releases, and publicity.
Feedback
If you observe each of the options, you will notice that three of them
have extraneous items in them and thus disqualifies them from being the
right option. The right option is not B because news reportage is not a
tool of copywriting; it is not C because sales promotions is not a tool of
copywriting; and it is not D because publicity is not a tool of
copywriting. The right option is A.

2.1.12 Publications management

Publications management involves overseeing print/media content and
processes, usually by using the new technology. The media for this
activity are leaflets, in-house magazines, and websites.

2.1.13 Events management

Events management function involves organising complex events,
sponsorships and exhibitions. The mediums for this activity are press
launch, annual conferences and trade shows and exhibitions.
One remarkable thing about the preceding PR activities is that each of
them requires the four communication skills of listening and reading
(receptive), and speaking and writing (expressive). It is obligatory for PR
practitioners to ensure that the preceding activities are handled in a
planned, organised way, otherwise they will be unprofessional:
haphazard, indeed inconsistent and thus be ineffective, inefficient and
counterproductive.

16
 Study Session 2The Scope of Public Relations

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we identified and discussed fourteen areas of
activity in which public relations are involved. We discussed each of the
scope areas and gave examples of what it involves. Besides, we detailed
the tools which make each activity different from the other. We
Summary emphasised that for effective public relations practice, the practitioners
are obliged to possess the four basic communication skills of listening
and reading otherwise called the receptive skills and speaking and
writing otherwise called expressive skills. We also stressed the need for
the practitioner to be computer literate.

Assessment
SAQ 2.1 (tests Learning Outcome 2.1)
Identify and discuss some of the activities which public relations covers.

Assessment

1. Discuss the skills that a practitioner must possess to enable him

to effectively do his job.
2. Explain the difference between publicity and promotion.
3. What are the tools of business to business communication?
Assignment

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading CAM Foundations (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM
Foundations.
Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere
Plc.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Theaker, Alison (2001) Public Relations Handbook. London:
Routledge.

17
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

18
 Study Session 3Some Public Relations-Related Concepts

Study Session 3

Some Public Relations-Related Concepts

Introduction
In this Study Session, you will learn some of the concepts that are related
to Public Relations. They are to equip you to better understand
subsequent Study Sessions in this book.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 discuss concepts related to PR

Outcomes

3.1 Concepts Fundamental to Public Relations

Practice
Some of the related concepts that are fundamental to public relations
practice are the under- listed. Public relations concepts are part of what
you should be familiar with as a student of public relations. There is no
doubt that you shall come across them. Hence they are presented for you
to learn and understand. They are as discussed below.
Vision and Mission Statements
An organisation’s Mission Statements derive from its Vision,which is
the farthest an organisation imagines it would be within the industry of
its operation in the nearest future. Indeed, a corporate vision is the image
that a company must have of its goals before it sets out towards attaining
them. For example, if an organisation is developing a four year strategic
plan, it is obligatory for it to develop a mission statement which it
believes will work for the next four years.

19
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Vision and Mission Statements of the University of Ibadan, Ibadan

Vision Statement
“To be a world-class institution for academic excellence geared towards
meeting societal needs”.

Mission Statement
 “To expand the frontiers of knowledge through provision of
excellent conditions for learning and research.
 To produce graduates who are worthy in character and sound
judgment.
 To contribute to the transformation of society through creativity
and innovation.
 To serve as a dynamic custodian of society’s salutary values and
thus sustain its integrity”.

Source: 2007 Order of Proceedings, University of Ibadan.

Vision and Mission Statements of the Federal Radio Corporation of

Nigeria, (FRCN)

Vision Statement
“To create and maintain a broadcast outfit that will serve as a model in
Nigeria and Africa in terms of standards, professionalism and character.”

Mission Statement
“To be an impartial, credible and creative medium in the forefront of
Nigeria’s national development, unity and progress”.

Policy
Policy is a corporate plan of action. It is a statement of ideals, that is,
good things proposed or adopted by an organisation. It is a statement of
principles that will guide the operations of an organisation. This is why
the policy of a company emanates from its corporate objectives which are
often derived from its corporate vision/ mission statements.
Thus, to evolve a dynamic Public Relations programme, a chief executive
and his team must abide by the discipline of adopting a set of written

20
 Study Session 3Some Public Relations-Related Concepts

two-way communication agenda which will indicate the direction of

corporate and marketing communications. The agenda must also be in
consonance with the organisation’s mission statements and its corporate
objectives. Thus, PR must make inputs toward the communication agenda
for desired positive results. In this regard, the institutional head must be
in constant touch with some interest groups and opinion leaders to
stabilise his position and that of his company in his host community.

Operational Policy of Radio Nigeria

“The Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), as a public service
non-profit making organization, seeks to provide impartial radio
broadcasting services within Nigeria. The policy demands in (sic) the
pursuit of its duties of excellence in informing educating and entertaining
the public through programmes and news. Efficiency in radio
broadcasting involves a number of key objectives, among which are:
(a) Prompt delivery of accurate information on social, economic,
cultural and political issues;
(b) Research into various aspects of the communication media and
their effects on the Nigerian polity, and the upholding of the
social values and norms of the various ethnic and cultural
groups”.
“The public service element of the Corporation’s policy is directed at the
propagation of government policies and programmes with a view to
promoting national unity and development, political awareness,
opportunities for free, responsible and enlightened discussions of
important national issues and mobilization of the public towards the
achievement of national goals (e.g. increased productivity, self-reliance,
probity, accountability, etc.).”
Source: Radio Nigeria, Ibadan.

Each of the interest groups contributes to the company’s corporate

performance and thus, corporate image. If the chief executive does not
communicate with the interest groups, he risks the essence of the
company as a corporate and responsible citizen in the estimation of the
following corporate publics of his organisation:
i. employees and their unions
ii. the chain of distribution (wholesalers, retailers, etc.)
iii. the media
iv. the ‘stakeholders’ - owners of equity, stocks, debentures, etc.
v. the financial community
vi. the customers
vii. opinion leaders
With the right PR advice, an institutional head will find it easy and
rewarding to assign the responsibility of conceptualising, planning and
implementing comprehensive PR programmes. He will also be in a

21
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

position to plan communication policies to enable the organisation to

achieve an effective two-way communication with its publics.
Plan
A plan is something we do to consider in detail and arrange in advance
what is to be done. It usually involves a list of steps with timing and
resources that should be used to achieve corporate objectives.
Strategy
Strategy is a unified, comprehensive and integrated plan that relates the
strategic advantages of the firm to the challenges of the environment in
order to ensure that the basic objectives of the organisation are achieved.
It demands tactics required to achieve goals defined in a strategic plan.
Strategic Plan
A strategic plan is a broadly-defined plan aimed at creating a desired
future.
Strategic Planning
In simple language, strategic planning involves classifying corporate
objectives, determining corporate strategies, and communicating these to
integral parts of the organisation. It is an organisation’s process of
defining its strategy, or making decisions on allocating its human and
capital resources to achieve corporate objectives. Indeed, it is a
systematic process of determining a company’s long-term goals and
thereafter determining the best approach for achieving the set goals.
However, there must be facts to use in planning because without
research, planning will be haphazard and it will be impossible to achieve
corporate objectives.
Public Relations
The actions and communications which public relations practitioners
carry out; the department, division or unit of a business or corporate
organisation responsible for establishing and maintaining mutually
beneficial relationships between a business or organisation and its
publics; a management function that helps define an organisation’s
philosophy through interactions within the organisation and with publics
outside the organisation.
Publics
A group of people who share a common interest or characteristic and are
targeted to receive a particular information related to their common
aspiration or characteristic. An organisation has both the internal and
external publics. The staff of an organisation constitutes its internal
public while an organisation’s external public comprises its other
stakeholders, such as shareholders, distributors, suppliers and ultimately
its customers. Both the internal and external publics are critical to the
attainment of an organisation’s objectives and its overall success.
Media blitz

22
 Study Session 3Some Public Relations-Related Concepts

A public relations strategy in which a company uses many types of media

to get a message to as many people (heterogeneous audience) as possible
at the same time (simultaneously).
Teleconference
A conference held via satellite hookup which links individuals or groups
at two or more locations or sites; used to share information
simultaneously with multiple locations and enables persons in remote
locations to interact with other persons at the point from which the
communication originates.
Video News Conference
A news conference held at a venue with teleconferencing capabilities to
enable media in remote locations to interact with conference speakers
and participants by proxy; a news conference delivered simultaneously to
various locations.
Photo Opportunity
An event arranged in a way that photographers can take the best possible
shots; photo opportunities may feature people and or events.
News Release
Information prepared in news item format and distributed to media
houses to share information and thus generate publicity.
Fact Sheets
A fact sheet contains a list of facts about an organisation’s activity. It is
similar to a news release because it is a way of communicating
information, quickly and easily, to the media.
Video News Release (VNR)
A video news release is a news story on video usually delivered by
satellite or cassette directly to television networks and local stations for
use on news broadcast.
B-Roll
A B-roll is an extra video footage; it is sent separately, or along with a
VNR, for use by television stations in the preparation of their own stories.
Media Alert
A media alert is a news release which announces an impending (up-
coming) event. It provides information about the time and place of the
event and the purpose of the event. When it is about a guest speaker, it
must contain the speaker’s biographical background and the speech topic.
It may also contain quotations from someone who knows the speaker or
what he is reputed for.
Public Service Announcement
A public service announcement (PSA) is an announcement designed to
promote a public or non-profit activity. It is usually run by media houses
at no cost to the sponsor. It may be on health, such as for immunization

23
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

programmes for children, or education, such as information about

scholarships or international, national or religious public holidays.

Corporate Image
Corporate image is the mental picture that springs up at the mention of an
organisation’s name. Indeed, it is a composite psychological impression
that continually changes with the organisation’s prevailing circumstances.
Consequently, it is fluid and can change overnight from positive to
negative and from negative to neutral and vice-versa.
Corporate Identity
Corporate identity is the overall image of a corporate organisation; it
comprises the combination of colour schemes, designs, words, and logo,
among others things that a firm employs to make a visual statement
towards repositioning itself.
Corporate Reputation
Corporate reputation refers to the collective assessments of a
corporation’s past actions and its ability to deliver improving business
results to multiple stakeholders over time.
Corporate Culture
Corporate culture refers to the shared philosophy, values, attitudes,
standards, beliefs and dress codes, among other things, that characterise
members of an organisation and thus define its nature; its environment
and operational structures inclusive.
Corporate Advertising
Corporate advertising is a potent tool of public relations; it is also known
as institutional or prestige advertising. Its purpose is to tell the story of
an organisation with a view to establishing its reputation and thereby
carve a remarkable image for it. It is targeted at an organisation’s
internal and external publics. Public relations uses this to avoid editorial
gate-keeping processes of tight editing when information is meant to be
disseminated to an organisation’s publics as packaged.
Public Relations (PR) Campaign
A PR campaign is a series of operations with a specific objective which
may be: to create a strong sense of credibility or to establish a positive
image of an organisation. It may also be: to create an awareness about a
new product or service among an organisation’s publics through media
placements and special events. Besides, it may be to provide customers
with information through articles, newsletters and websites to enable
them to gain understanding about an organisation, its products or
services; to reinforce a brand by maintaining positive relationships with
an organisation’s key audiences and thus enhance the building of a strong
brand image.

24
 Study Session 3Some Public Relations-Related Concepts

ITQ

Question
VNR means
a. Viral Network Release
b. Viral News Release
c. Video Network Release
d. Video News Release
Feedback
If you can recall, You came across VNR in the previous session and also
this session. VNR means Video News Release. So, the right option is D.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we discussed some concepts that you, as beginner
public relations students, will encounter and have to use during and after
this level. Among those discussed are an organisation’s vision and
mission statements. We indicated that the mission statements are derived
Summary from the vision statement which clearly states where an organisation
expects to see itself at a specific time in the future. Other concepts
discussed include, strategic planning, media blitz, video news release
(VNR) photo opportunity; corporate reputation, corporate culture, PR
campaign, etc. A good grasp of these concepts will enable you to
appropriately apply them when you must.

Assessment
SAQ 3.1 (tests Learning Outcome 3.1)
i. Explain the difference between corporate culture and corporate
reputation.
ii. Explain the distinction between an organisation’s vision and
Assessment
mission statements.
iii. What is the importance of institutional advertising?
iv. What is the difference between an organisation’s internal and
external publics?
v. What is teleconference?
vi. What is a Fact sheet?
vii. What is media blitz?

25
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

viii. Explain the concept of photo opportunity.

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading CAM Foundations (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM
Foundations.
Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere
Plc.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Salu, O.S. (1994). Understanding Public Relations. Lagos: Talkback
Publishers Limited
Business Dictionary. http://www.businessdictionary.com accessed
26th March, 2013..

26
 Study Session 4Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

Study Session 4

Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

Introduction
In this Study Session, we shall discuss three of the models that guide
Public Relations practitioners to properly carry out campaign
programmes that will enable their organisations to attain their goals.
These are the R.A.C.E., Jefkin’s and Grunig and Hunts’ models. We shall
explain what the components of the models are and their communication
relationship with the publics of PR programmes.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
4.1 explain the components of a model
4.2 discuss the R.A.C.E. model, the Jefkin model, and the James and
Todd model
Outcomes
4.3 apply the models to situations

Terminology
Model A representation of a system or procedure.

4.1 Models and Public Relations

A model is a representation which describes a system in relation to its
direction. It emphasises the interrelationship among constituent’s parts
and shows how one part is dependent on another part and how a fault in
any of the parts will affect the success of the whole. Indeed, a model
comprises a series of assumptions, accepted principles and rules of
procedure designed for analysing, predicting or explaining the nature of a
specified set of phenomena (Barchers 1998). Phenomena is the plural
form of phenomenon which means an event. Folarin (2006) enunciates
that “a model is a miniature, a highly selective representation of reality –
a symbolic representation, designed to help us visualize the relationships
among various elements of a structure, system or process; an object,
event or act”.
Public Relations experts look at PR models from different angles. This
results in the formulation of many models. However, the meeting point
of available models in literature is that they all indicate the steps to follow

27
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

to efficiently carry out any PR campaign programme. Consequently, in

this Study Session, we shall discuss models which are very simple to
understand. Besides, they enjoy much popularity among practitioners,
teachers, and students of Public Relations. These are the Marstein’s
R.A.C.E., Jefkins’ and Grunig and Hunts’ models. Let us now start with
the simplest: the R.A.C.E. model.
ITQ

Question
------ is not a characteristics of a model.
a. It emphasises the interrelationship among constituent’s parts
b. A model is a real-life situation.
c. It describes a system in relation to its direction
d. It comprises a series of assumptions that is used in analyzing a
set of phenomenon.
Feedback
From what you have studied in this segment, a model is not any inch a
reality but an assumption. Thus, the right option is not A, C, or D. The
right option is B.

4.2 Models of Public Relations

4.2.1 The R.A.C.E. MODEL
The R.A.C.E. model was formulated by John Marstein and designed as a
problem-solving and campaign- oriented theory. R.A.C.E. is an acronym
which indicates the following:
R = Research
A = Actions
C = Communication
E = Evaluation
We now discuss what each letter in the model represents as follows:

Research
Research involves what you need to know and how to find out about the
situation at hand. In some other models it is called situation analysis as
you will see in subsequent discussions.

Actions
Actions refer tothose things that should be done to effect changes in
behaviour, and how such things can be brought about through problem-
solving devices.

28
 Study Session 4Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

Communication
Communication deals with the message to be communicated to each of
the publics, when, how, and to whom?

Evaluation
Evaluation is how to measure or assess success and suggestions for
programme modification or intensification.

4.2.2 Six-Point Model

The Six-Point Public Relations model by Frank Jefkins (1983) is the
most popular and of course, more detailed. It separates and
accommodates activities involved in Public Relations campaign, planning
and execution. We now briefly discuss the components of the model
regarded as systematic approach to PR problem solving as follows:
1) Appreciation of the situation (i.e. situation analysis or
identification of problems)
2) Definition of objectives
3) Definition of publics
4) Choice of media and techniques (i.e. media election, methods
and messages)
5) Budget
6) Evaluation (i.e. assessment and modification)
The Six-Point Public Relations model by Frank Jefkins (1983) is the most
popular and of course, more detailed. It separates and accommodates
activities involved in Public Relations campaign, planning and execution.
We now briefly discuss the components of the model regarded as
systematic approach to PR problem solving as follows:
7) Appreciation of the situation (i.e. situation analysis or
identification of problems)
8) Definition of objectives
9) Definition of publics
10) Choice of media and techniques (i.e. media election, methods and
messages)
11) Budget
12) Evaluation (i.e. assessment and modification)
With reference to these models, PR experts have unanimously agreed that
Public Relations process or activities must start with research if the
situation is to be properly understood. The PR process also ends with
evaluation or assessment which is another form of research too. The first
is the initial evaluation and the last is the periodic or terminal evaluation
of every PR programme.

Appreciation of the situation

This process enables the PR practitioner to identify the prevailing PR
problems instead of guessing what they might be and what the scope
looks like. This calls for research in form of a pilot study through which
the views of small representative sections of organisation’s public are

29
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

canvassed. The idea is to enable the PR practitioner to gather sufficient

information on which to base simple and effective PR programmes. In
fact, as PR experts rightly observe, no good public relations programme
can be done without sound research.

Definition of objectives
This process requires that the aims of the intended PR programme are
clearly stated. Some relevant questions that will help in this regard
include, among others: is the programme meant to create awareness
among mothers of the need to take their children to the nearest health care
centre for polio vaccination? That is, if the programme is on health
campaign. Or, is the programme meant to provide information on the
steps the government is taking to prevent a reoccurrence of a flood
incident. Or, to improve the sanitation practice in a community? When
the objective of a PR programme is properly stated, the practitioner will
be able to determine the extent to which the programme has achieved the
organisational objectives.

Definition of publics
The publics of an organisation are classified into two: the internal and
external.This process helps the practitioner direct his programme at the
appropriate segment of his organisation’s publics. Such segment is
referred to as the target audience of a PR programme. The segment may
be the junior or the senior management cadre of the internal public. The
segment may also be distributors, suppliers of raw materials or
consumers . In that case, it is referred to as the external public. The
reason for defining the publics is to enable the PR practitioner to channel
his message to the appropriate target audience.

Choice of media and techniques

The media of PR programmes are the channels through which
organisational messages are communicated to the publics, the target
audiences. Media selection and techniques entail choosing an appropriate
medium or a combination of mediums that will deliver the messages to
the identified publics of an organisation.

Budget
The process of budgeting is to enable the PR practitioner to clearly
indicate what it will cost to effectively and efficiently achieve the
organisational aim of the PR programme. It requires the practitioner to
properly articulate the cost implications of the programme from the initial
evaluation to the terminal evaluation of a PR campaign.

Evaluation
This process exemplifies the principle of closing by return. That is, a PR
programme cannot take off unless an evaluation is done, in form of the
analysis of the situation. It is usually accomplished through research to
obtain the actual situation about the identified PR problem. Also, after
the implementation of the programme, the practitioner is obliged to assess

30
 Study Session 4Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

the extent to which the programme has achieved the objective for which
it was designed.
Now let us discuss the third popular model.

4.2.3 James and Todd Model

James Grunig and Todd Hunt (1984) identify four models that provide a
fundamental framework for a proactive public relations practice. These
they categorise as:
1. the Press agentry/Publicity model,
2. the Public Information model,
3. the Two-way Asymmetric model, and
4.the Two-way Symmetric model.
1. The Press agentry/Publicity Model
As Grunig and Hunt rightly explained, most people are quick at
James Grunig associating public relations with just securing publicity for clients, be it
A profound scholar on how to organisation, a group or an individual. They observe that: “practitioners
manage Public Relations in these organisations concern themselves most with getting attention in
the media for their clients” (1984:25) without any regard for the truth.
Celebrities are the target of this type of public relations practice.
2. The Public Information Model
The aim of this model is for the practitioner to release essential, relevant
and accurate information to the publics of an organisation. The
practitioner of this model is not obliged to know much about the
audience. The model which involves a one-way communication from
sender to receiver encourages the dissemination of truth but does not
encourage feedback.
3. The Two-way Asymmetric Model
This model which involves persuasive communication is asymmetric or
imbalanced. Athough it introduces the idea of feedback; nonetheless it is
designed for practitioners whose intention is to persuade the target
audience to change its behaviours or attitudes without a reciprocal change
in the organisation’s practices.
4. The Two-way Symmetric Model
The proponents of this model and other communications experts acclaim
it as ideal for public relations practice. It encourages dialogue between
an organisation and its publics unlike the others which are involved in
monologue-type communication. Indeed, the objective of this model is
for the practitioner to achieve mutual understanding between his
organisation and its publics.
The application of one of the foregoing PR models will be fully discussed
in the next Study Session. In doing this, we shall use Jefkins’ (1983)
Six-Point model and indicate how each of the points is applied in the
planning and execution of any public relations campaign programme.

31
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

ITQ

Question
-------- is the most detailed of the PR models.
a. R.A.C.E. model
b. Six points model
c. James and Todd model
d. None of the above
Feedback
While it is undeniable that each of the models is clear and
understandable, it is stated in the course of this segment that the Six
points model is the most detailed of all them. The right option, therefore,
is B.

4.3 Public Relations Process

In this sub-session, we will discuss the application of the models we
talked about in the previous section. We will, as promised, use the
Jefkin’s Six-point formula in explaining, step-by-step, the process which
practitioners consistently use, and successfully, in the planning and
execution of public relations campaigns.
Public Relations Campaign Planning and Execution Process
Now, let us apply the principle of repetition for emphasis as we look at
components of Jefkin’s Six-Point model. Can you recall the six
components? Yes, here they are: 1. Appreciation of the situation; 2.
Definition of objectives; yes. 3. Definition of publics; 4. Choice of
media; 5. Budget and 6. Evaluation. That’s very good. We then start
the step-by-step explanation of the process as follows.

4.3.1 Appreciation of the situation

The first step to take in the Public Relations process is to know what the
real situation is rather than assume what it is and what the scope is. You
must take a look before a leap, otherwise you would compound the
problem. In other words, you should get to the underlying cause and not
to the symptoms of the problem. Guesses and assumptions would not
work in Public Relations practice. The exact situation and the extent will
help in defining and subsequently in proffering solutions. It may not be
as easy as one can imagine to find out what is really happening. This is
why research is usually necessary as we learnt earlier from the R.A.C.E.
model . This process is also referred to as the situation analysis or
identification of problems. Am I communicating?
Research could be conducted internally or, there might be the need to
commission an attitude survey or specific research. If a situation is not
32
 Study Session 4Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

clearly analysed, any step taken to solve the problem may compound
rather than ease the situation. In many instances, a considerable skill is
required to do the findings.
Case studies of previous situations cannot be applied to a new situation
similar to it because no two sets of circumstances are alike. A slight
difference in the setting may make it impossible to apply a standard
solution to two different problems. This points out the need for the
intelligence gathering aspect of Public Relations and why each case is
approached on its own peculiarity. Every situation and all view points
must be analysed and synthesised. The PR man must constantly remind
himself that rumours abound in many situations and that they should not
be waved aside.
Hence, research will clearly illuminate the situation and thus lead to the
identification and proper definition of the problems. A problem may be
peculiar to a specific public or general publics of an organisation.
Numerous problems can culminate in crises involving many publics of an
organisation; without research, the problems cannot be solved with
precision because the problems cannot be properly identified. Having
identified and defined the problems, we can now define the objectives
that could help in solving the problems.

4.3.2 Definition of Objectives

The full account of the goals toward solving the identified problems
must be considered in defining the objectives which must be realistic and
practical. Objectives are not formulated in isolation, and on no account
should the formulation of objectives be rushed in respect of situations that
require time for effective reflection. Some objectives rushed into could
lead to a very high cost which might not merit the investment either in the
short or the long run. An aspect that usually poses problems involves
situations demanding objectives that are not in consonance with a
company’s broad objectives. In reality, such objectives have to change
because a wider corporate objective may be useless and counter-
productive in particular situations.
To solve a problem or head-off crisis, many objectives may arise; they
may have to be listed so as to cover all the facets required to solve the
problem. However, the fewer and narrower the objectives, the more the
possibility of achieving success. Then, objectives are better carefully
defined. In setting the objectives, one should be cautious not to bite more
than one can chew. An organisation may not be capable of dealing with
all identified problems at a time, hence the need for a careful study that
can lead to effective prioritising of the problems, taking the company’s
objectives and its publics into consideration.

4.3.3 Defining the Publics

An organisation definitely has many publics depending on its operations
and location. The publics are usually polarised into two major categories:
the internal publics and the external publics.
The employees of an organisation constitute an internal public. A public
can be external in some cases and internal in others. For example, a

33
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

teacher in the university or the polytechnic could double as internal

public (staff) and as external public (parent) if he has a child who attends
his institution. It is therefore better to be comprehensive when listing the
publics of an organisation. A group that looks homogenous at a casual
glance and lumped together as a public often shows differences on further
analysis. Desk research and brainstorming can bring a proper idea of
publics, their interests and prejudices.
Priorities, based on situations, are given to the publics and this is why
ranking of the publics on the priority chart changes. A very important
public in a particular situation may have to be relegated and placed on a
lower rung of the list of publics in another situation. The research
conducted to know the problems and their extent could bring out publics
directly connected with the problems. Such publics have to be reached.
In some instances, some publics remotely connected may be very
relevant. An example is a crisis faced by an organisation based on
neighbours’ feelings about environmental pollution. The Health Ministry
and the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) are not readily
seen as constituting problems in the crisis but they could be listed as vital
publics that could help in solving the problems since their officials could
be used as resource persons in educating the neighbours in order to
resolve the crisis. Periodic review of an institution’s publics is necessary
as research findings show since objective dictates the publics in the
context of PR programmes.
Having properly set the objectives and the publics defined, activities
toward dealing with the publics could now be stated. Without clear
objectives, the publics of a corporate entity cannot be properly and
fruitfully defined; the messages appropriate for the publics will be
impossible to design. Besides, it will be impossible to determine the
appropriate medium or a combination of mediums to convey the message
to the target audiences.

4.3.4 Choice of Media and Techniques

It is common to use media and channels interchangeably in Public
Relations. The channels or media are mainly dictated by the publics for
whom the messages are meant. To effectively reach the defined publics
requires communicating with them through the appropriate media and in
the language they understand since the publics of a company have
different attitudes, behaviours, exposure, interests and cultures. They also
have their preferences and prejudices. Methods and channels of reaching
them effectively also vary. This demands an audience analysis - a mini
research to determine the particular medium or a combination of
mediums that will effectively get the message across to the target
audience.

4.3.5 Budget (Costing the Campaign)

The cost implications from the initial evaluation to the terminal
evaluation are put together to enable the practitioner to fully prepare for
the campaign. There are two approaches to campaigns when it comes to
appropriations. The first is the objectives or target achieving approach.
This requires the provision of the amount for the whole campaign to
34
 Study Session 4Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

achieve the set objectives. The second is the available fund limitation
approach. This demands that the scope of the campaign is restricted to
the fund approved for it.
The first approach is seldom used because corporate establishments are
always mindful of how the hard earned incomes are spent to maximise
profit. This then requires that Public Relations practitioner must be
prudent and resourceful, thinking of available alternatives to achieve the
same results. He is at the same time a PR man, an accountant cum
financial controller. He is compelled to work within available budget
many times and he is expected to achieve maximum results.

4.3.6 Evaluation
As in the beginning, evaluation is also done at the end to assess the
success degree or otherwise. Evaluation enables one to know the extent
to which the objectives have been achieved and also provides the means
of bringing actual performance closer to desired performance.
Evaluation is done through research to get actual situation report.
Evaluation offers the advantage of knowing whether to continue or
discontinue with the programmes of the campaign or modify them to get
better results.
It is necessary to determine periods for evaluation. It should not be only
at the initial and final stages. It is suggested as considered necessary to
be a continuous exercise carried out at set intervals of the campaign, with
effective monitoring, to assess achievements vis-à-vis set objectives.
When evaluating, one needs to be both objective and realistic and not
deceptive.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed three popular models of Public
Relations among which is R.A.C.E., an acronym which stands for:
Research, Action, Communication and Evaluation; each letter in the
acronym was clearly explained. We also gave brief explanations step-by-
Summary step, the process involved in public relations campaign planning and
execution. We adopted the Jefkin’s Six-point model in explaining the
process. We closed the Study Session with explanations on the need for
the practitioner to properly articulate how much the campaign will cost
through careful budgeting, and stressed the need for the final assessment
to determine if the campaign has achieved the objectives of the public
relations campaign.

35
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Assessment
SAQ 4.1 (tests Learning Outcome 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3)
You have just been consulted by a friend to come help with public
relations in his start-up, which of the PR models would you use? Give
reasons on why you wont use others.
Assessment

1. What does the PR model acronym R.A.C.E. stand for?

2. Identify and explain briefly the components of Jefkin’s model.
3. Explain the communication relationship of any of the models to
PR publics.
Assignment
4. Which of the four Grunig and Hunt’s models has been
acclaimed as the ideal for PR practice? Defend your answer.

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading Theaker, A. (2001). The Public Relations Handbook. New York:
Routledge.
Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere
Plc.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Jefkins, F. (1972). Planned Public Relations. London; Intertext Books.
http://www.businessdictionary.com accessed 26th March, 2013.
Ademolekun, W., Ekundayo, T. (2002). Interactive Public Relations.
Lagos: Taymos in Association with Joe-Tolalu & Associates
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Salu, O.S. (1994). Understanding Public Relations. Lagos: Talkback
Publishers Limited. Theaker, A. (2001). The Public Relations
Handbook. New York: Routledge

36
Public Relations (PR) Models and Process

37
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 5

Public Relations Theories

Introduction
Our discussion, in this Study Session, will be restricted to six of the
theories that are applicable to the practice of Public Relations. Hence, we
shall look at the Harrison’s version of Shannon and Weaver, the Westley-
McLean’s and Grunig’s theoretical models/explanations and their
relevance to PR practice. Before then, we shall talk about what a theory
is.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
5.1 explain what a theory is
5.2 describe the features of Harrison’s theoretical model.
Outcomes 5.3 discuss the unique characteristic of Westley-McLean theoretical
model.
5.4 Explain the difference between asymmetrical and symmetrical
communication.

5.1 Theories and Public Relations

Sutherland (1976:8) observes that theory is an ordered set of statements
regarding the general behaviour assumed to hold throughout a
significantly broad range of specific instances. Brugger (2003) looks at
theory from a broad perspective and states that it is a coherent set of ideas
about how the world, or part of it, can be explained or understood.
Public Relations is about communicating with the publics of an
organisation about the organisation’s inception: its arrival as a corporate
citizen at a host community; and its raison d’etre: the essence if its
being. PR also communicates the values of an organisation’s products or
services, its problems and prospects, its progress report to its shareholders
at regular intervals and the available returns to its shareholders among
other things. Besides, PR uses research to collect information about the
opinions, and reactions of an organisation’s publics to what an
organisation says, or does, The implication of this is that all of the series
of actions involved in the preceding sentences would be impossible
without communication. Hence, public relations theories cannot be
divested from communication theories.

38
 Study Session 5Public Relations Theories

ITQ

Question
Public relations theories can be separated from communication theories.
TRUE/FALSE?
Feedback
The last sentence in this segment has put a finality to this question.
Public relations itself is an aspect of communications and uses the
methods of communications. Hence, it is false to say that public relations
theories can be separated from communications theories.

5.2 Harrison’s Adaptation of Shannon and Weaver’s

Model
The simple communication model whose theoretical constructs are
applicable to PR is Harrison’s adaptation of Shannon and Weaver’s
model. The model includes a source or sender whose duty is to select
information (through encoding) ; to create a message (or information) ;
to be transmitted by a channel (or medium) to a receiver (audience
member). Thereafter, the receiver selects a meaning from the message
(through decoding) and responds with an action or no action (through
feedback).

Key

Re-adaptation of Harrison’s Adaptation of Shanon and Weaver’s

Communication model for Public. | Source: Alison Theaker (2001),
Handbook of Public Relations Practice.pdf
The communication element which points up the relevance of this
theoretical model to PR is feedback. Without feedback the public

39
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

relations officer (PRO) will have nothing to tell the organisation about
how the publics feel about its actions, inactions, products or services.
Feedback tells the practitioner that his or her sense of humour or wit is
beyond tolerance and has thus backfired. This indicates that the choice
of words the PRO used is not within the frame of reference of the target
audience and thus cannot be acted upon. Consequently, there will be no
feedback, an element that is very crucial to effective public relations
practice. Thus to be effective, PR messages must be written in denotative
simple language which the target audience will understand. Theaker, A.
(2001). The Public Relations Handbook. New York: Routledge.
ITQ

Question
The source of a message is the
a. Feedback
b. Sender
c. Receiver
d. Analysis.
Feedback
From what we have studied in this segment, the source of a message is
the sender. Therefore, B is the right option.

5.3 Westley-McLean’s Model

However, Westley-McLean’s model demonstrates an improvement over
Harrison’s model. According to Fawkes (2001), the Westley-McLean
model of communication is the first to clearly describe the role of the
public relations practitioner.
Westley-Mclean’s model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of
communication, which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous
orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of some concepts
from Lewin’s model. The model says that communication does not begin
when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to
something from his/her surroundings. The person must first receive message
Note from the environment and then, he/she responds according to his/her object
of orientation.

40
 Study Session 5Public Relations Theories

Figure 5.2 The Westley-Mclean model of Communication Adapted for

Public Relations Practice | Source: Alison Theaker (2001). Handbook of
Public Relations Practice.pdf
Let’s see how the constructs of this theoretical model apply to the
practice of Public Relations. (A) in the model represents the PRO who
gathers relevant I information from the internal and external publics of
his organisation to enable him to create an appropriate message (X 1)
after proper environmental scanning. The message must pass through the
chosen channel or gatekeeper (C). Note that as a channel/ gatekeeper, the
journalist is obliged to screen the message. Consequently, he may alter
the message (X2) before it can reach the publics of the organisation who
might be an individual or a group (the target audience) whose behaviour
or attitude (B) the organisation seeks to influence. The organisation does
this through the provision of adequate information, in form of knowledge,
that will motivate the audience to take an action either by patronising a
product, service, or taking children to a health care centre for
immunisation.
Thus, significantly, the model reminds the PR professional that the
journalist who gatekeeps has access to more information (X3*) than the
news release from the practitioner’s organisation. Besides, the model
also describes the complex nature of feedback in mass communication
with feedback loops running between the PR practitioner and the
journalist; the PRO and the public and the public and the journalist.
However, with the inception of the internet, the gatekeeper’s role has
been reduced. That is why organisations now post whatever materials
they choose on their organisation’s website. These create direct links
with their key audiences. Besides, the PR practitioner gets information to
his organisation’s publics through advertorial, spotlight, or institutional
advertising.

41
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

The major components in the communication process of Westly-Mclean’s

model
Source (A) - Source is the message creator and sender.
Environment (X) - Environment is the physical and psychological situation
Tip where the message is being created and sent.
Sensory experience (X1…) - Sensory experience is the first thing that the
source sees by which the source gets the idea for the formation of the
message.
Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) - Objects of orientation is the person's
social and cultural reality that has formed from his/her past experiences and
teachings.
Message Interpretation or Coding (X’) - Message is interpreted with the
objects of orientation of the receiver of the message.
Receiver (B) - The person who gets the message sent by the source and the
person who interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.
Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) - The views and ideas of the
receiver or his/her social reality is his/her object of orientation. That is how
the receiver interprets the message.
Feedback (f) - The receiver forms another message after interpreting the
message and sends it back to the sender. It is known as feedback.
Gatekeeper (C) - Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The
gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of the
audience and media institution.
Opinion Leader - Opinion leaders are well known and recognized people
who can influence public opinions.

ITQ

Question
The gatekeeper in the Westley-Mclean model of Communication is
a. Public
b. PR practitioner
c. The organization
d. The journalist.
Feedback
Following what we have studied in this segment, the gatekeeper in the
model is not the Public or PR practitioner or the organization. It is the
journalist. The right option is D.

42
 Study Session 5Public Relations Theories

5.4 Grunig’s Model

We now come to Grunig’s four theoretical terminologies which he
explains as follows.
One-way Communication
In Grunig’s explanation, one-way communication involves the
dissemination of information from a corporate organisation to its publics:
internal and external, without any feedback. He emphasises that public
relations activity here consists mainly of issuing press releases,
publications, writing news stories, or speeches.
Two-way Communication
Two-way communication, Grunig asserts, involves public relations which
prides itself in engaging in research on an organisation’s publics without
a view to gathering feedback from members of the public . It also
engages in other forms of dialogue.
Asymmetrical Communication
Grunig posits that Asymmetric communication involves public relations
practice whose objective comprises changing ideas, attitudes and
bahaviours of an organisation’s publics but not the organisation itself.
He clarifies that asymmetric communication usually attempts to persuade
and it can be one-way or two-way. Grunig further described two-way
asymmetric communication as “scientific persuasion”, in which research
is done to determine the messages most likely to affect corporate publics
but not to determine how an organisation can be change its ideas,
attitudes and behaviours in order to accommodate the interests of its
publics. Are we communicating? Okay, fine. Let’s now discuss the last
of Grunig’s theoretical explanations: Symmetric communication.
Symmetrical Communication
Symmetrical communication involves public relations practice that
attempts to reach a compromise between the interest of an organisation
and its internal and external publics. Consequently, Grunig observes,
change is likely in the ideas, attitudes and behaviours of both an
organisation canvassing and its publics. Simply and clearly put,
symmetrical communication is true dialogue and must be two-way. This
implies that symmetical communication encourages feedback without
which a communication encounter is not complete.
ITQ

Question
Both the one-way and the two-way communication do not place
premium on feedback. TRUE/FALSE.

Feedback
This is true given what we have studied about the two models.

43
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed six of the theories that are
applicable to the practice of Public Relations. Thus, we looked at the
Harrison’s version of Shannon and Weaver, the Westley-McLean’s and
Grunig’s four theoretical models and explained their relevance to PR
Summary practice, using both the Harrison’s and Wesley-McLean’s graphic
constructs. We emphasised that symmetrical communication facilitates
understandable communication through dialogue which in turn
accommodates feedback without which communication is never
complete.

Assessment
SAQ 5.1 (tests Learning Outcome 5.1)
What is the connection between theories and public relations?
SAQ 5.2 (tests Learning Outcome 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4)
Assessment Which of the PR theories discussed so far in this Session will you
consider most effective and why?

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ademolekun, W., Ekundayo, T. (2002). Interactive Public Relations.
Lagos: Taymos in Association with Joe-Tolalu &
Reading Associates.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
CAM Foundations (1982). GOf uided Studies. London: CAM
Foundations.
Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory
Text. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden.
Folarin, B. (2006). Advanced Theories in Mass Communication. Lagos:
National Open University of Nigeria.

44
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

Study Session 6

The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

Introduction
In this Study Session we will examine the activities which point up the
roles of the public relations practitioner in an organisation. Our
exploration will centre around the practitioner’s role as a Public Affairs
Manager and his management function. Besides, we will talk about the
skills which the practitioner must possess to enable him to function
effectively in his practice.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
6.1 discuss the principle and tools of PR
6.2 identify the functions of a PRO
Outcomes 6.3 explain public relations as a management function.
6.4 examine the requisite skills of PR

6.1 Principles and Tools of Public Relations

The pre-eminent principle or instrument of PR as outlined by one of the
foremost practitioners, Ivy Ledbetter Lee is truth. This is one of the two
things he stipulated as preconditions for taking the appointment which the
Anthracite Coal Industry in America offered him. The second instrument
which Lee demanded was free access to deal with top management.
Hence, it is obligatory for a PR practitioner to tell the publics of his
organisation nothing but the truth regarding all matters that involve an
organisation and to ensure free access to management. In this regard, it
is best for him to provide more than a mere insight by offering Lee’s
‘Declaration of Principles’ the way he put it as cited in Lloyd, (1980:3):
This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open. We
aim to supply news. This is not an advertising agency. If you think any
of our matters ought properly to go to your business office, (or
commercial department) do not use it. Our matter is accurate, further
details on any subject treated will be supplied promptly and any editor
will be assisted, most cheerfully, in verifying any statement....
In brief, our plan is frankly and openly on behalf of business concerns
and public institutions, to supply to the press and public... prompt and
accurate information concerning subjects which it is of interest and value
to the public to know about.

45
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

A public relations officer crafts positive public images for the organizations
that employ them by gaining favorable media coverage
Reflection

Ivy Lee also demonstrated that openness is a veritable instrument of PR

when, later in 1906, he tore off the veil of secrecy which hitherto made it
impossible for the public to know exactly what happened and how it
happened when a disaster or any serious incident occurred. A serious
accident had occurred on the main line of Pennsylvania Railroad
Company. So, when Lee was consulted for help, he immediately
arranged the first facility visit to enable journalists to visit the scene of
the accident. Besides, on the arrival of journalists at the scene, he
provided them with all necessary assistance, provided answers to their
questions without let or hindrance. In the end, the management of the rail
company was astonished about the degree of favourable press coverage:
the first ever since the inception of the company.
The import of the principle of openness as an instrument of PR is that an
adequately informed public will regard the source of their information as
one that has taken it into confidence. Such information offered willingly
will enable the public to form unbiased opinion based on their
understanding of the issues at stake from the facts at their disposal. It is
very much probable that an understanding public would likely be fair in
their perception of and reaction to an organisation about which they are
knowledgeable and vice versa.
NIPR’s code of professional conduct states, inter alia, that a practitioner
is obliged to possess an extra-knowledge of his organisation, in fact, more
than any other person in the establishment. This is because he is the
professional communication contact-reservoir from which the publics,
especially journalists will draw as occasions demand. In effect, he must
be able to provide information on any aspect of his organisation without
mincing words, i.e., authoritatively. He must therefore be abreast of the
latest position of his organisation’s product or service lines, capacity
utilisation, the annual turn-over, the problems, and proposed solutions,
achievements and future prospects.
From the preceding presentation, it would be safe to summarise the major
principles for effective PR practice as follows:
□ truth (for management and public consumption)
□ access to management’s thinking
□ openness
□ willingness to supply prompt and accurate information
□ possession of absolute, thorough or extra knowledge of an
organisation.

The following are tips about the principles of public relations:

(1) Public relations deals with reality not false fronts.
Conscientiously planned programmes with the public interest
46
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

Tip in the forefront are the basis of sound public relations policy.
(PR deals with facts: not fiction).
(2) Public relations is a service-oriented profession with public
interest, not personal reward, as the primary consideration
in its practice. (PR is a public, not personal, service).
(3) Because the public relations practitioner reaches many
publics through mass media, which are the public channels
for communication, the integrity of these channels must be
preserved, (PR practitioners should not ever lie to the news
media, either outright or by deception).
(4) Because PR practitioners are in the middle between an
organized voice and its publics, they must be effective
communicators in the true sense of the word, conveying
information back and forth until understanding is reached.
(The PR practitioner probably was the original ombudsman.)
To expedite the two-way communication necessary for practising
public relations and to be responsible communicators, public relations
practitioners depend heavily on scientific public opinion research. (PR
cannot afford to be a guessing game).
Public relations practitioners are obliged to explain problems to the
public before they become crises, (PR should alert and advise so
people won’t be surprised).

A public relations professional should be measured by only one criterion:

ethical performance. Indeed, a public relations professional is only as good
as the reputation that he has earned for his organisation. Besides, every new
member of staff should undergo an induction or orientation training with
specific reference to the company’s mission statement, its products or services
Note and its major and minor publics. Every employee should know and contribute
to the future prospects of the company.

ITQ

Question
What is is that a public relations professional should be measured with?
a. Truth
b. Access to information
c. Ethical performance
d. Openness

Feedback
This question appears trick because all the options pertain to the
principle of PR. However, the question does not bother on the principles

47
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

of PR which options A, B, and D, are about but on how a PR practitioner

is measured. A PR professional needs truth, openness, and access to
information but he is measured based on his ethical performance. The
right option is C.

6.2 Functions of a Public Relations Officer

Public Relations practitioners’ dual role
The public relations specialist has a dual role to play for his organisation.
He is both adviser and corporate communication strategist. He makes
public relations policy recommendations to management and creates
messages to suit specific corporate public. As a practitioner, he does all
the specialised work of public relations programmes for management and
carries them out when they are approved. Public relations is one of the
most versatile occupations. No two jobs are identical, no two days are
alike, and no two problems can be solved in the same way. PR people do
whatever is necessary to create favourable public opinion for their
organisations. Among the activities that might be considered “normal” in
PR practice are:
 advising top management on policy
 planning PR programmes
 selling programmes to top management
 getting the cooperation of middle management
 getting the cooperation of other employees
 listening to speeches
 making speeches
 writing speeches for others
 getting speakers for organization meetings
 providing speakers for outside organizations
 attending conventions
 planning and managing conventions
 preparing publicity items
 talking to editors and reports
 holding press conferences
 writing features articles
 doing research on public opinion
 planning and managing events
 conducting tours
 writing letters, writing and producing booklets, leaflets,
reports and bulletins

48
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

 editing house organs

 supervising bulletin boards
 designing posters
 planning and sometimes directing films
 planning and preparing slide presentations and film strips
 planning and producing exhibits and demonstrations
 taking pictures or supervising photographs
 planning and managing pr advertising
 making awards
 greeting visitors
 screening charity requests, and
 almost anything that involves contact with the public.
Public Affairs Officer
Public Affairs management as an aspect of public relations is essentially
concerned with social responsibility and building goodwill. Thus, the
Public Affair Officer (PAO) is expected to carry out an intelligent public
affairs campaign both when things are normal within an organisation and
during contingency situations. His functions include, among other things,
the following:
He is to interact with officials and leaders of the various power blocks
with whom his client must deal. These include leaders of political,
religious and pressure groups and community opinion leaders. Public
Affairs essentially involve corporate social responsibility and building or
banking goodwill through money donation for projects that will benefit
the larger society. It emphasizes government relations, and minority
relations.
Government relations function of a PAO focuses on government agencies
through lobbying. Lobbying as a central activity involves directly
interacting with government officials and opinion leaders to influence
elected officials or government regulators and agents, e.g. the Standard
Organisation of Nigeria (SON), National Agency for Food Drug and
Administration Control (NAFDAC) and Manufacturers Association of
Nigeria (MAN) among others.
The Public Affairs Officer is expected to develop relations at all levels,
that is, from the upper to the lower houses: the Senate and the House of
Representatives at the Federal level, and the StateHouse of Assembly and
the Local Government Legislature / Legisla-tive House.

ITQ

Question
A PR practitioner performs the role of

49
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

a. An adviser only.
b. A corporate communication strategist only.
c. Neither A nor B.
d. Both A and B.
Feedback
You will recall that we said that a PR practitioner performs a dual role.
He is an adviser no doubt but he is not just an adviser alone. He also
performs the function of a corporate communication strategist. Hence,
the right option is D.

6.3 Public Relations as a Management Function

As Lloyd and Lloyd (1980) assert, every public relations activity depends
on people, the heads of departments or units and above all the head of the
organisation, the chief executive officer (CEO) for its success. The public
relations officer is obliged to enlist the full support of the CEO. Without
such support, no PR programme can succeed. Another perspective from
which PR as a management function derives is that of systematic
application of the concept of Management By Objective (MBO) for
“...deliberate, planned and sustained” Public Relations. Thus, a
commercial organisation is obliged to use, as part of its total management
scheme of PR, specialized communication in achieving the organisation’s
objectives in specific areas. These include: host community, recruitment
(employees), job satisfaction, (staff welfare), Mass Media (Press),
consumers, shareholders, finance, sales and marketing. PR in brief,
should be applied to every aspect of the company’s administration.
Peter Biddlecombe (1968), Frank Jefkins (1972), Bowman & Ellis
(1979), Herbert Lloyd (1980), Jefkins (1983) Rogers Haywood (1984),
Sam Black (1989), Ogunsanya (1991), Ajala (1993), Joseph Dominick
Jnr. (1993), Salu (1994) - all these respectable and seasoned Public
Relations scholars subscribe to the concept of planned Public Relations.
They are of the opinion that Public Relations should not be practised on
fire fighting or ad hoc approach as at when incidents occur. They believe
in proactive Public Relations and not retroactive Public Relations which
is analogous to the fire fighting approach. Frank Jefkins (1983: 155) sums
up the way organisations should embark on deliberate, planned and
sustained PR in his ‘Six Point Planning Formula’: Appreciation of the
situation; Definition of objectives; Definition of publics; Choice of
media and techniques ; Budget; Evaluation of results.
Professor Edward Robinson of Boston University describes Public
Relations as:
i) deliberate, planned and sustained, and that PR as management
function “measures, evaluates, and interprets the attitudes of relevant
publics.
ii) assisting management in defining objectives for ascertaining public
understanding and acceptance of an organisation’s products, plans,
policies and personnel.
50
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

iii) equating these objectives with the interests and goals of the various
relevant publics.
iv) developing, executing and evaluating a programme to earn public
understanding and acceptance.
These are the philosophical bases for PR and practitioners’ duties in any
organisation. The implications of these for professional PR practice are
that the:
1) PR person should work directly with top management, preferably
the chief executive.He should also attend all management and
board meetings in advisory position.
2) PR man should be actively involved in management discussions
and decisions and should be commensurately empowered.
3) practitioner should have abundant information on current
activities and future plans of every division or unit of his
organisation.
4) establishment must have a strategic focus and its activities must
be in tune with the interests of its various publics.
These are the vital criteria which will enable a PR man to perform
effectively. Where the PR man is bereft of information about his
organisation, he cannot represent his company with the desired
confidence. Also, he will not be in a position to effectively counsel
corporate executive on how to reposition his company and positively
impact on its various publics.
ITQ

Question
Which of the following is analogous to the fire fighting approach of
doing public relations?
a. Retroactive PR
b. Proactive PR
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
Feedback
The right option is A. this is because the fire fighting approach is
retroactive and proactive.

6.4 Skills for Public Relations Practice

Fundamentally, the practitioner must possess the four basic skills of
communication: speaking and writing (expressive); listening and reading
(receptive). Besides, it is obligatory for him/her to be computer literate.
These will enable him to successfully:
 analyse a situation.
 define the PR needs of an organisation.

51
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

 set objectives and prepare adequate programmes that are

appropriate for the corporate body and specific situation.
 handle situations with mature approach.
 read and write effectively, and speak fluently.
 listen patiently.
 think clearly and put issues in perspective.
 act and work as part of a corps of professionals with the
management team
 stand by the truth either in dealing with management or the
publics.
In general terms, Public Relations Officers (PROs) will function alike
irrespective of the organisation for which they work - commercial or non-
commercial. A non-commercial organisation may be a government
institution, its agencies, charity organisation, non-governmental
organisation (NGO) etc.
i) The pre-eminent function of a PRO is the formulation and
execution of Public Relations programmes for his organisation’s
publics. This requires that the PRO must be versatile about issues.
He must be creative. This implies that he must ready with ideas that
can serve as candid advice on matters that bind his organisation and
its publics..
ii) An organisation’s PRO must be able to create publicity materials
and events that suit a particular circumstance of his organisation’s
publics. These include the production of press releases, newsletter,
house journal, leaflet, brochure, documentary film, feature articles,
arranging facility visits, launching of new product and re-launching
of existing products. Also included in this category is the
arrangement of interviews with the media for the chief executive,
departmental heads or the organisation’s spokesman.
iii) The PRO must arrange community or dealer relations meeting as a
forum for productive interaction between the organisation and its
publics.
iv) The PRO produces gift items such as diaries, calendars, greeting
cards, T-shirts and caps with the organisation’s imprint on them
and so on.
v) The PRO ensures that his organisation has an enviable logo and
that the company’s letter head in its full colours is made available
to all the units that must relate to the publics of the organisation in
written form.
vi) The PRO writes speeches for the chief executive and any person
designated as spokesman for the organisation from time to time.
vii) The PRO maintains an information bank from which he can readily
provide information as required by the publics of the organisation
and the media men.

52
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

viii) The PRO liaises, on behalf of his employers, with general services
organisations such as NEPA, the Water Corporation, NITEL,
printers and publishers, etc. He also liaises with newspapers,
magazines, radio and television for the placement of
advertisements, feature articles and supplements.
ix) The PRO receives visitors for his organisation; he doubles in some
organisations as protocol officer by arranging the procurement of
travelling documents and visas. He thus facilitates passages of his
chief executive(s) and any employee who might be travelling
overseas either for training schemes, official matters or for pleasure
while on leave.
x) The PRO ensures that his organisation participates effectively in
community activities as part of its social responsibility. He does
this by keeping abreast of social and economic development efforts
and by suggesting to management in what areas it can make impact
with his company’s host community.
xi) The PRO should consciously encourage every employee to see
himself or herself as a Public Relations Officer for his or her unit or
department and by extension for the employers. Consequently, the
PRO encourages and ensures that every new employee is properly
inducted about the history, the mission statement, short term and
long term objectives, the house style, the production lines and
about how to relate with the publics of the organisation either
within or outside the premises.
xii) The PRO should encourage the organisation for appropriate
training programmes in the area of interpersonal communication
for the sales and marketing personnel.
xiii) At regular intervals, the PRO should encourage the organisation of
conferences, workshops or seminars for dealers, wholesalers and
retailers of his organisation’s goods and services.
xiv) It is obligatory for the PRO to encourage management to carry
along opinion leaders in the host community, especially in relation
to proposed community relations efforts. In fact, it is best for the
PRO to find out, through the opinion leaders, what the development
priorities of the host community are with a view to advising
management on what assistance is plausible within PR budget.

ITQ

Question
There are ----- basic skills of communication.
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five

53
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Feedback
In this segment, we noted that there are four basic skills of
communication. The right option is C.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we briefly discussed the principles upon which
public relations practice is premised as outlined by one of the foremost
practitioners, Ivy Lee. In concrete terms, the discussion captured five
fundamental principles. These are truth, for management and public
Summary consumption; access to management’s thinking or thoughts; openness;
willingness to supply prompt and accurate information and possession of
absolute, thorough knowledge of the organisation for which one works.
Besides, we offered some tips on public relations principle. In the
second part of this Study Session, we discussed the activities that are
regarded as normal in public relations practice. Other discussions
centred around public affairs role of the practitioner and public relations
as a management function. We emphasised that it is obligatory for the
practitioner to possess the four basic skills of communication: speaking
and writing which are receptive skills, and listening and reading which
expressive skills are. We also underlined the need for the practitioner to
be computer literate.

Assessment
SAQ 6.1 (tests Learning Outcome 6.1 and 6.4)
Identify and explain the principles or instruments of public relations,
showing how these principles are different from the skills expected of a
PR practitioner.
Assessment

SAQ 6.2 (tests Learning Outcome 6.2)

What is the role of a PR officer in an organization?

Bibliography
Adamolekun, W., Ekundayo ,T .(2002). Interactive Public Relations.
Lagos:Taymos in Association with Joe-Tolalu & Associates.
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Reading Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
CAM Foundations (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM Foundations.
54
 Study Session 6The Functions of a Public Relations Officer

Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere

Plc.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Jefkins, F. (1983). Public Relations for Marketing Management.
London. The Macmillan Press Limited
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and
Stoughton Ltd.
Salu, O.S. (1994). Understanding Public Relations. Lagos: Talkback
Publishers Limited..
Theaker, Alison (2001) Public Relations Handbook. London:
Routledge.

55
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 7

Identifying the Publics of Public Relations

Introduction
In this Study Session, we will discuss twelve sub-categories of a
corporate organisation’s publics and how their activities contribute to the
attainment of an organisation’s goals. We will exemplify the basic
publics: the internal and external; and emphasise why proper
identification of publics is key to proper message design and choice of
appropriate mediums for successful public relations programmes.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
7.1 explain the publics of an organisation.
7.2 identify the subcategories of public relations publics.
Outcomes 7.3 describe why the publics of an organisation should be properly
identified

7.1 Who are the Publics of Public Relations?

The publics of a corporate organisation are divided broadly into two
major categories: the internal and the external. The internal public
comprises the entire employees of the organisation from the Chief
Executive Officer through senior and intermediate management personnel
to the junior members of staff including the gatemen. On the other hand,
the external public of a corporate establishment consists of those who
have a stake in its operations. These include the shareholders, suppliers,
distributors, retailers, factors, and consumers of an organization’s
products and services.
ITQ

Question
There are ----- major categories of the public of a corporate organisation.
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five

56
 Study Session 7Identifying the Publics of Public Relations

Feedback
In this segment, we noted that there are two major categories of the
public of a corporate organisation The right option is A.

7.2 Sub-categorisations of Publics of Public

Relations
Literatures on the PR publics of a corporate organisation identify eleven
sub-categories. They are as discussed below.
1. The Crucial Public
This core group comprises those who are indispensable to the survival of
a corporate organisation. They are the employees and the shareholders of
the organisation. Usually, the management team consists of a chairman,
a managing director chief executive officer. Other members of the
organisation’s personnel are equally as crucial as the management
because they inspire and thus determine the greater part of the output of
any corporate establishment. It is important to note that every liability
company is obliged to render its stewardship to its shareholders through
annual reports at its Annual General Meeting (AGM).
2. The Influential Public
Every customer who buys any organisation’s product or service is an
influential public to that company. Consequently, if a buyer is satisfied,
that satisfaction translates to the company’s raison d’être: the essence of
its establishment. Besides, the media stands out as one of the influential
publics of an organisation. At one end, the media publicise the
organisation, but at other end, they can decide to support the competitors
of the organisation they had earlier supported.
3. Tangential Public
This category comprises ancillary industries; they are tied to the apron
strings of the related organisation. Though they do not directly affect the
operations of the related company, nonetheless they cannot be wished
away. Many of such establishments depend to a large extent on the
corporate entity for their means of livelihood. Imagine a company
producing soft drinks and those who manufacture the bottles, corks,
crates and labels among others. Can you name more? I am sure you can.
4. Active Public
This category consists of the shareholders and workers’ unions in any
company because they can organise themselves to brainstorm on the
direction in which the affairs of the organisation is moving. They can
make or mar operations and thus cause negative ripples that can affect the
fortune of an organisation. On the other hand, they can motivate workers
towards productive ends that can result in corporate success.
5. Aware Public
The CEO in conjunction with the management team oversees the day-to-
day running of any organisation for its smooth running. Consequently,

57
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

they are in a vantage position to appreciate its strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities and threats (SWOT). Hence, they are called the aware
public. They can use their managerial skills to shore up support through
motivational talks after a proper analysis of an organisation’s strengths
and weaknesses in meeting its opportunities and threats through team
work.
6. Latent Public
This category comprises non-management personnel who share the same
aspirations as the management does. They are not best positioned to have
an intimate knowledge of the entire organisation. This makes them to be
latent with regards to the organisation’s SWOT. Nonetheless, their
support is critical to the attainment of corporate objectives.
7. Potential Public
Every individual below the age of 18 could be a potential public of an
organisation depending on the organisation’s products or services and
their uses. Besides, every person who has a motivation to work at or with
any of the organisation’s ancillary industries, in the future, is equally a
potential public.
8. Ingredient Public
The recipe or core materials that any organisation use for its products or
services are usually kept in shrewd secrecy, especially in a competitive
industry. Thus the suppliers of raw materials needed for an organisation
to be in continuous production constitute an ingredient public.
9. Cosmopolitan Public
An industry’s cosmopolitan public comprises the people in the outlets
outside its country of operation. If an organisation exports its products
to say Ghana, Togo, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Botswana among
other countries, these countries form its cosmopolitan publics.
10. Environmental Public
An organisation’s environmental publics comprise people living at
locations where it has its branches. Imagine an industry that produces
drinks that are very popular among Nigerians in all the states and the
Federal Capital Territory (FCT), people in such places are the industry’s
environmental publics.
11. Value Public
The value public of an organisation consists of those establishments or
agencies that add value to it by ensuring that it complies with regulations
that will enhance the worth of its products or services. Thus,
establishments such as NAFDAC, Standard Organisation of Nigeria
(SON), the Nigerian Custom Services, Advertising Practitioners’ Council
of Nigeria (APCON), the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR),
and the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC), among others, are value
public respectively.

One can state the typical publics for the PR unit of the University of
Ibadan as including the following:

58
 Study Session 7Identifying the Publics of Public Relations

Illustration Internal Publics

a) Academic and Non-Academic Staff, U.I. Students
b) Trade Unions:
ASSU, SSANU and NASU, U.I. Students Union, Social Clubs
c) Pro-Chancellors, Council Members of the University Senate,
members of the Congregation of the University, etc.
External Publics
a) Parents, Guardians, Sponsors
b) Children Visitors to the U.I. Zoo
c) Federal, State and Local Governments and their Agencies
d) Banks, Publishers, Newspapers and Magazine Vendors
e) Food Vendors
f) People Offering Secretarial Services
g) NNPC, NEPA, Water Corporation, NITEL
h) Affiliated Institutions of Learning
i) Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB)
j) West African Examinations Council (WAEC)
k) National Examinations Council (NECO)
l) Opinion Leaders
m) Suppliers of Stationery, Fuel and other Goods and Services
n) Road and Building Contractors
o) Landlords
p) Private Cab Operators
q) Nigerian Bottling Company (NBC)
r) Nigerian Breweries Ltd (NBL)
s) The Police, The FRSC and The Fire Brigade
t) Potential Staff
u) Potential Students
v) The National Universities Commission (NUC)
w) Professional Bodies: NUJ, NIPR, APCON, NBA, The Medical
Council of Nigeria, NSE, etc.
x) Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)
y) The Directorate of the NYSC, et cetera.

ITQ

59
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Question
The people living at locations where an organization has its branches can
be referred to as the ------ public.
a. Ingredient
b. Value
c. Cosmopolitan
d. Environmental
Feedback
If you go over the meanings of each of the sub-categories of publics we
discussed in this segment, the people living at locations where an
organization has its branches are not the ingredient public, value public,
or cosmopolitan public. Rather, it is an environmental public. The right
option is D.

7.3 Reasons for Proper Categorisation or

Identification of Publics
The publics of an organisation are diverse. Thus, it will be impossible to
focus all publics equally. Besides, there are specific target audiences for
messages designed for specific PR campaigns. However, when the
publics are not properly defined, efforts and funds will be misdirected in
an effort to reach too many publics. Even where objectives of the PR
campaign are defined, they would be impossible to achieve.
By and large, a proper identification of an organisation’s publics enables
the public relations practitioner to design appropriately planned
messages, borne out of research, and choose the right medium or a
combination of media to disseminate his organisation’s information to the
target or key audiences in a cost effective manner.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed the publics of public relations
by placing them in their primary categories of internal and external. We
then identified and explained eleven sub-categories of PR publics. We
used the University of Ibadan (U.I.) to exemplify internal and external
Summary publics. We concluded the Study Session by stating why PR publics
should be properly identified; we also discussed the consequences of not
identifying the publics for whom a PR programme is meant.

60
 Study Session 7Identifying the Publics of Public Relations

Assessment
SAQ 7.1 (tests Learning Outcome 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3)
Highlight and explain the types of PR publics you know. Why do the
typologies become necessary?
Assessment

61
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 8

Strategies for Communicating with the PR

Publics: The Media of Public Relations I
Introduction
The media available to the public relations practitioners are numerous
and cannot be covered in one Study Session. Consequently, we have
segmented the Study Sessions on media of public relations into four in
order to save the beginner public relations students from information
overload. The Study Sessions will cover both the basic and composite
mediums.
In this Study Session, we will discuss the four types of images available
to corporate organizations to choose from, how it wants to be seen by its
publics in particular and the entire public in general. We will also discuss
some of the media which are available for optimum practice of public
relations.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
8.1 describe the PR media.
8.2 identify and explain at least seven PR mediums.
Outcomes 8.3 dscuss interpersonal communications in relation to PR.
8.4 explain the four basic types of corporate images.

8.1 The PR Media

In PR concept, whatever you take yourself to be is what people will see
and say of you and, by extension, of your company. Your image is as
you portray it to the outside world. If the head of an organisation toes the
path of endearing his organisation to its key publics, then it will be
known and appreciated by its publics. The extent to which an
establishment is known to its publics and the credibility it earns are
products of the effectiveness of the PR media and methods/strategies
employed by an organisation’s PR practitioner. An organisation has four
fundamental alternatives when it comes to the type of corporate image it
wants for itself:

62
 Study Session 8Strategies for Communicating with the PR Publics: The Media of Public Relations I

- a defender, a prospector, an analyzer, or

- a reactor (Ogunsanya, 1991).
A defender waits until things are out of hand to defend himself by
engaging in retroactive, fire brigade public relations. A prospector
engages in finding ways and means of attracting more publics to his
organisation. An analyser has a foresight, and so he engages in proactive
public relations: he puts things in perspective, sketches a deliberate plan,
sets objectives for his programmes after proper research, sets time and
allocates funds for executing the plan, and evaluates the results of his
programmes. A reactor, like the defender, waits for comments and reacts
to public opinions by employing the fire brigade, retroactive approach.
PR experts say that there are myriad of public relations techniques of
reaching out to an organisation’s publics. What is important, however, is
that an organisation should first determine how it wants to be seen.
Thereafter, it is at liberty to adopt a suitable combination of the media
and methods that are appropriate to its set programmes and for reaching
its audiences at the lowest cost for the attainment of corporate objectives.
ITQ

Question
In PR media, the ------ is concerned with finding ways and attracting
more publics to his organization.
a. Defender
b. Reactor
c. Prospector
d. Analyzer
Feedback
A defender and reactor both employ the fire fighting approach and so
cannot be the right option. It is not an analyzer as only a prospector tries
to find ways in attracting more publics to his organization. The right
option is therefore C.

8.2 Mediums of PR
8.2.1 The Basic Media
The basic or individual media through which Public Relations effects its
programmes could be listed under five segments:
i) Individual Communication - Speech or public speaking, radio and
television broadcasts.
ii) Print - printed materials: leaflets and flyers, employee reports,
house journals, annual reports, editorials, direct mail and
corporate or institutional advertising and advertorials.

63
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

iii) Two Dimensional Visual Displays - films, slides, graphics,

charts, and photograph techniques.
iv) Three Dimensional Displays - graphic displays, signs, models,
bill-board techniques.
v) Audio Visual/Narrow Cast Media - Documentary films, VTR,
close-circuit television (CCTV) techniques.

8.2.2 The Composite Media

The composite media otherwise known as multi-faceted media through
which Public Relations effects its programmes could be listed as follows:
house style, media relations, visits to media organisations, facility visits,
visits to opinion leaders, press conferences, and exhibitions. Others are
folk and oral media, interpersonal communication, sponsorships -
involving sports, books, films, radio and television programmes;
educational activities through workshops, seminars, sales presentations or
sales promotions.
In using any of these media or a combination of them, a PR practitioner
should understand the requirements of the medium or media he proposes
to use. However, for any person to adequately and effectively function as
a Public Relations practitioner, he must possess the required skills. We
now take an excursion into some PR Media.
ITQ

Question
Another name for Composite media is
a. House style
b. Multi-faceted media
c. CCTV
d. Media relations
Feedback
The right option here is B.

8.3 Interpersonal Communication and Public

Relations Practice
Communication is the art of expressing and receiving messages so that
they are properly understood. (Frank Jefkins (1972: 190). Interpersonal
Communication occurs where one person (or group) is interacting with
another person (or group) without the aid of mechanical device (Joseph
R. Dominick, 1993: 12).
By its authentic and educational character, interpersonal communication
will always draw together the two sides to an issue. One side explaining
certain things, giving information and answering questions about a
service or product, while the other person or group then listens and takes
64
Study Session 8Strategies for Communicating with the PR Publics: The Media of Public Relations I

note of points raised by the speaker. The other side may ask questions to
clarify points that are not clear. Interpersonal communication enhances
an effective two-way symmetric communication and thereby facilitates
goodwill and mutual understanding between and among those engaged in
the encounter. .
Interpersonal communication is often referred to as “face-to-face
communication.” It is the exchange of ideas and information between
two people, or between a person and a group. In interpersonal
communication, you do not keep your ideas to yourself, rather you share
them with someone else, face-to-face, or by telephone. Interpersonal
communication dominates our activities at home, in the club, in the
market, at workshops, seminars and social meetings of all sorts.
In business, industry and similar organisations, interpersonal
communication helps break the barrier of formal relationship, generates
warmth and creates harmony essential for industrial peace and for
increased productivity, (James, Odeh & Soola, 1990: 16). Above all,
interpersonal communication creates an avenue that enhances goodwill
and mutual understanding and thereby generates mutual trust and mutual
benefits. This is because interpersonal communication has the singular
advantage of immediate response (feedback) which may sensitise the
source to modify his behavior, subsequent messages and thereby clarify
areas of misconception.
ITQ

Question
Another name for INTERPERSONAL Communication is
a. Face-to-face communication
b. Multi-faceted media
c. One-way Communication
d. Two-wa communication
Feedback
The right option here is not B, C, or D. The other name forinterpersonal
communication is face-to-face communication. The right option is A.

8.3.1 Impact of Interpersonal Communication on Public

Relations
The implication of interpersonal communication for the public relations
practice is that the PR man must be familiar with the power, the
limitations of interpersonal communication, and its advantages as well as
its risks for the organisation he represents.
Consequently, in every situation of interpersonal communication (speech)
that will involve anybody representing his outfit, the PR man must
constantly remind himself of three basic considerations. These are the
ability to effectively communicate in speech, the need for others to pass
that communication (message) onwards, and the likelihood of any
reporting or recording of the spoken words for further use.

65
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

The PR man must encourage whoever is representing his organisation to

be sure of his facts so that those who will help carry the message on to
other members of the society would not spread wrong or false
information and thereby injure the image and, by implication, the
reputation of the organisation.
The PR man must therefore, be familiar with the elements of source
credibility which are:
1) trustworthiness - which generates goodwill, honesty and
integrity,
2) expertise or competence through intelligence, judgment,
experience and firsthand knowledge of the speaker, and
3) dynamism or charisma through liveliness, energy and
attractiveness that the speaker brings into the speech occasion,
4) ability for clear expression, or fluency.
In addition, the PR man should also be familiar with sources from where
or from whom an audience gets the information it uses to determine the
credibility of any speaker. These are:
1) things known about the speaker before the speech is given,
2) personal information which the speaker reveals through the
content of the speech, and
3) information communicated through the manner in which the
speech is delivered (non-verbal communication ). All these go to
enhance the goodwill which an organisation radiates through
speakers representing it.
Above all, the PR man must emphasize the need to tell the story as it is
without hiding any fact. When there are issues at stake, the organisation
and the public must communicate with one another. The PR man
communicates with management to enable him to represent it effectively
by explaining management’s position or decisions to the public, and by
conveying public opinion to management. That is, the PR man also
communicates with the publics of his organisation in order to explain
public opinion to management and management decisions to the public.
In essence, the PR man is a two-way symmetrical channel through which
information flows from his organisation to the publics of his organisation
and vice-versa.

ITQ

Question
One of the following is not an element of source credibility.
a. Secrecy
b. Dynamism
66
 Study Session 8Strategies for Communicating with the PR Publics: The Media of Public Relations I

c. Expertise
d. Trustworthiness
Feedback
Based on what we have learnt so far in this segment, B, C, and D are all
elements of source credibility. The odd item here is A.

8.4 Images available to Corporate Organizations

8.4.1 House Style
There is the need for a uniform style of design and colours through which
an organisation could be identified for good corporate image. A distinct
house style enhances an easy visual recognition of the existence of an
establishment and the maintenance of its corporate reputation.
Thus, if the house style is to have a successful impact on a company’s
publics, it must permeate all aspects of the organisation’s activities in a
consistent manner. Hence, an organisation must be made to be seen
positively through its products, packaging, print, advertisements, vehicles
and other things by which an organisation could be identified. For the
visual recognition of corporate property to be of significance in the Public
Relations sense, it is essential to create an appropriate house style. The
implication of this is that the in-house PR man should insist that
management must have a clear and properly conceptualised and
controlled design policy. Thus, there must be a design-specifications-
brochure that must indicate the following constituents of house style with
examples and specifications:
a) stationery paper quality and sizes for letterheads, memo pads;
b) type faces, and appropriate point sizes for each work;
c) institutional corporate colours;
d) trade marks - a.k.a. logos; and
e) vehicle livery
The specifications are necessary to maintain visual consistency. For
example, such specifications will avert the situation of curious variations
by graphic artists and other road-side artisans who might be tempted to
add their peculiar individual strokes.
Furthermore, the design-manual will continuously serve as a reference
material for employees. It will equally save time for the public relations
personnel and the designer when it comes to professional advice,
especially on minor issues.
To achieve the objective of an organisation’s design policy, the head of
Public Relations department must seek and obtain the cooperation of his
counterparts from the following departments:
a) Publications
b) the Purchasing and Supplies
c) the Research and Organisation
d) the Company Secretariat or General Administration and
e) the Advertisement, Sales and Marketing.

67
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

A clear perspective to design will always enhance the quality of the jobs
in every department. It is also of immense assistance to each department
and by implication to the overall effective organisational performance,
and corporate identity.

8.4.2 Corporate Brochure

In few pages, a corporate brochure sets out a company’s profile, the
profile of senior management staff; its vision and mission statements
comprising aim and objectives. It also features short, medium and long
term plans spelt out in phases. It sometimes provides information about
products or services, and highlights achievements in terms of sales turn
over. It is useful for induction of new employees, visitors, the mass media
and other well wishers of the company. An effective brochure can endear
the people to a company. An investment in it should be encouraged by
the company’s management. A corporate brochure is inevitable to any
company’s media relations programmes.
ITQ

Question
To achieve the objective of an organisation’s design policy, the head of
Public Relations department must seek and obtain the cooperation of his
counterparts from the following departments. TRUE/FALSE.
Feedback
The answer to this is true because the goal cannot be achieved without
cooperation of other departments.

68
 Study Session 8Strategies for Communicating with the PR Publics: The Media of Public Relations I

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed the four basic types of images
from which an organisation can choose how it wants to be referred to in
the industry it belongs to. We also discussed some of the basic and
composite mediums which a practitioner can use to achieve his public
Summary relations campaign. We emphasised the need for the practitioner to
ensure that he initiates and implement a design-specification-policy for
consistency in the appearance of symbols and colours of the
organisation. Besides, we underlined the importance of corporate
brochure to an organisation’s media relations activities.

Assessment
SAQ 8.1 (tests Learning Outcome8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4)
What is a PR media and how is it related to interpersonal
communication?
Assessment

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading Biddlecombe, Peter (1970). Financial Advertising and PR London:
Business Books Ltd.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and
Stoughton Ltd.

69
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

70
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

Study Session 9

The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-

Visual
Introduction
In this Study Session, we shall discuss audio-visual media. In this
category are mediums whose objects are to inform, educate and entertain
simultaneously. These include, among others films, television, video,
photography, public/private cinemas and documentaries. We shall also
discuss how the media are used in public relations practices to sustain the
patronage of organisation’s publics.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
9.1 itemise and explain how to use different forms of audio-visual
media to achieve effective public relations practice.

Outcomes

Terminology
Audio-visual A design/package that aid in communication by making
use of both hearing and sight.

9.1 Audio-visual Media

The audio-visual media include the following:
 Films,
 Television,
 Photography,
 Radio,
 Folk and
 Oral media

71
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Figure 9.1 Audio-visuals

Photography: Obudu Cattle Ranch, Calabar Televisiom

Film Radio

9.1.1 Films
Films and related media have the facilities that effect simultaneous
exposure to hearing and seeing. In these categories are films, television
and video recordings meant to inform, educate and entertain
simultaneously. Film is one of the most powerful and emotionally
satisfying medium which the PR man can use to foster mutual
understanding of its outfit among its publics. This can be done through
seminars or workshops or receptions where the publics’ segment can
watch the sponsored film.

72
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

9.1.1.1 Use of Films

Films could be used to achieve results in the following situations.
Documentary Films could be used to advantage during technical
seminars, during private film shows, during press receptions,
works/facility visits, during conferences and exhibitions. However, it is
very crucial for the PR man to note the following before advising the
management to invest in a documentary film:
1) He must be sure of the objective of the film - what is it to achieve?
2) He must understand the nature of the identified or potential audience.
3) He must ensure that the film would be suitable for the achievement of
the set objective.
4) He must be sure of the appropriate means through which the film
would reach the audience effectively.
Through the organisation of seminars, facility visits, product
demonstrations, press receptions, Annual General Meetings (AGMs) of
Shareholders etc., documentary films can enhance the selling of an
organisation’s products or services.
ITQ

Question
Which of the following questions must be asked by a PR consultant in
the use of a film for PR purposes?
a. What is the nature of the target audience?
b. Is it going to minimize cost for the organization?
c. How would it reach the target audience effectively?
d. What is the objective that the film aims to achieve?
Feedback
We have discussed this earlier in this segment. We noted that there are
some questions which a PR man must ask in the se of a documentary
film. A look at the options viz-a-viz what you have studied so far will
reveal to ou that options A, C, and D are part of these questions that the
PR man should ask himself. The odd item here is B.

9.1.1.2 Documentary Film

The documentary film is one of the major PR media. It is the most potent
and emotionally satisfying medium of visual and aural communication.
Usually, it is a non-fiction, non-advertising film generally made for
private showing. Documentary Films are not to be shown at a public
cinema or in the advertisements on commercial television. To serve its
purpose, the documentary film must be entertaining, informative and
educative. They are used to convey information, feelings and
impressions about an establishment. It must not be deliberately
persuasive. It is advisable that too many company or product name
displays should be avoided in the documentary film.

73
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

The documentary film, like the house journal, is a PR medium; just as

the house journals are regarded as private magazines, the documentary
films are really private films. Documentary films may be in colour or
black and white with a running time of between 10 and 50 minutes to
avoid boredom. When made for a definite purpose, with specific
audiences in mind, the cost of production, prints, distribution and
showings will be a genuine PR investment. Documentary films can be an
essential factor in the strategy of planned PR programmes. It is
instructive to note that many PR programmes fail through some
misconceptions by management that a documentary film is a dispensable
luxury. Documentary Films are used with great skill by many successful
users of PR techniques, not because these organisations can afford films
but because films have proved to be economically worthwhile.
For example, here in Nigeria, Chevron Nigeria Limited (CNL) had
produced many documentaries on its activities both in vernacular and
English. The vernacular documentaries are produced in the mother
tongue of its host communities - Itsekiri, Kalabari, Ibo and Ijaw - for
effective community relations. CNL has benefited immensely from its
documentary projects because it has been able to establish instant
feedback from members of its host communities. The CNL
documentaries in English, which are targeted at the general members of
the public are transmitted by public television (Omole, 1998:6).
Distribution of Documentary Films
The following are the existing opportunities for film distribution.
1. Public Cinema
Where cinema-going is popular - there are opportunities of accepting a
documentary as a programme film if the PR man is ready to take the
trouble in this area.
2. Private Cinemas (in house)
Large concerns such as the Nigeria Airways, CNL and UNICEF etc.,
have remarkable private cinemas. Private cinemas have the advantage of
providing the means of entertaining audiences on the company premises.
For example, the airlines operating in and from Nigeria entertain its
passengers through its private cinema by showing both local and foreign
films during local and international flights. Private cinemas can also be
used for staff training programmes and sale conferences.
3. To Clients
A documentary film can provide the means of taking an establishment to
the client. In this case, the production line and the details that the
organisation intends to sell will be included. Apart from the standard
film which most companies frequently use for PR purposes, the compact
discs (CDs and DVDs) are also used in Nigeria.
4. To Organisations
Clubs and other organisations that meet regularly such as women’s
societies, the Lions Club, the Rotary Club, and the Zonta International,

74
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

etc., can be given film programmes at their meeting places. These can be
organised at regular intervals.
5. Private Showings
Private showing can be arranged on company premises or in hired
premises such as a hotel hall, or large lecture theatre where the invited
audience can be shown the film. This can be followed by a talk and the
hospitality of a light dinner. Similarly, a film can be a valuable part of a
technical seminar or a press reception.
ITQ

Question
One of the following is not a feature of documentary film.
a. It is for private showing.
b. It is a non-advertising film.
c. It is a non-fiction.
d. It is a fiction.

Feedback
From what ou have studied so far about documentary films, you will
agree with us that a documentary film is for private showing, non-
advertising, and a non-fiction. It will be wrong to say it is a fiction. The
right option is D.

9.1.2 Television
One way of using television programmes to project a company’s products
or services is through institutional advertising or programme sponsorship.
Apart from this, it is the editorial content of television with which the PR
man should be more often concerned. For example, if a company invents
something that provides unique services to humanity, a first-class story
may ensue. Although the visual quality and exposure may be limited
because the air time is limited and there are competing stories. However,
an exhibition might lure a television producer to a coverage, especially if
the company is such a big name and thus an occasion too important to be
ignored by any medium.
The following rules for offering ideas to the media should be adhered to
by the PR man who wants to use television as an audio- visual aid to
promote his company’s image. He should:
1) offer his ideas to television producers at the right time.
2) ensure that the ideas he offers have some possibilities.
3) give the television station advance notice of his company’s activity.
4) be ready to provide special facilities which the station may require to
do a good job, e.g. lighting points, space for placing camera and
space for the Outside Broadcast (O.B.) Van to sit and space for laying
the cables. The PR man may need to provide other facilities as
requested by TV crew.

75
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

5) The PR man should warn the television people in advance of any

idiosyncrasies of his employer or client especially if he has not
appeared on television before. Besides, a TV house cannot afford to
miss a coverage involving any of the following personalities: a
country’s President, Vice-President, Minister; Governor, Deputy-
Governor, Secretary to the government, the General Manager of a
media organization, the Vice-Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor of
a university, the Rector, the Registrar of a higher institution, or a
renown business tycoon. He is also expected to have educated the
client or employer of what he should do to portray himself and the
company he represents decently.
6) The person appearing on TV should keep fairly still. He should
avoid too much movement either of the head or body so as not to
distract the viewers, and to help the cameraman to record a steady
picture.
7) The PR man should alert his employer or client to master his facts
and figures. He should avoid constant reference to notes because it
diminishes a speaker’s authority.
8) The PR man should also alert his employer or client to the negative
signals which viewers might get from a nervous speaker on
television.
In this regard, advance planning will help the potential television speaker
to avoid the preceding obstacles. Thus, the speaker will be able to project
the company or institution he represents positively. One important use of
the television which a PR man should be aware of is the closed-circuit
facilities especially for large crowd at different branches of a company
during special events. Close circuit facilities could also be used at the
inauguration of a new factory which involves the publics of an
organization sitting at different locations outside the point of the main
actions.
ITQ

Question
------- is not a way of using television programmes to project an
organization’s products.
a. News reportage
b. Institutional advertising.
c. Programme sponsorship
d. All of the above
Feedback
What option did you choose? B and C are ways of using television
programmes to project an organization’s products. A is not. Option D is
wrong because it assumes B and C are wrong too. Thus, the right option
is A.

76
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

9.1.3 Photography
The purpose of photography is to tell a story through a picture or to help
words to tell it better. Photographs serve two purposes: to illustrate a
point which could not be easily explained verbally, and to arrest the eyes
through dramatic demonstration of the strength of a product or service.
Thus, photography is said to be one of the most potent techniques a PR
man can use to advantage. To use photography effectively requires
logical thinking, clear planning and calls for the understanding of the
following rules:
1) The PR man must first ascertain if a photograph would be better than
an illustration.
2) The PR man and the photographer must be creative.
3) The PR man should brief the photographer regarding the reason for
the picture.
4) The PR man should compile a list of notable photographers who can
be reached for specific assignment at short notices.
5) The PR man must ensure that every photograph is appropriately
captioned for easy identification.
6) Captions on photographs should reflect necessary information, such
as date, name, and the telephone or contact address of source.
It is important to note that copyright for (photographs) pictures rests with
the originator of the idea for photography (Bowman and Ellis, 1979).
ITQ

Question
Photography is an audio-visual medium. TRUE/FALSE.
Feedback
This is false. Photography is only a visual medim.

9.1.4 Radio
The uniqueness of radio is in the immediacy of messages transmitted
through it. It conveys news and information spontaneously to a
heterogeneous audience simultaneously. Thus, radio is a friendly
medium to Public Relations practitioners. The basic community social
services which radio provides comprise: news, entertainment, education
through variety music, drama, traffic and weather conditions, chit-chat,
panel discussion and the latest, phone-in programmes.
With the advent of private radio stations, the local radio, has assumed an
increasing significance in Nigeria. The first private radio station in
Nigeria - Ray Power 100 FM located at Alagbado Village in Lagos State
is the toast of the youth and the elderly. Other commercial radio stations
in Nigeria include - the Heritage Radio in Minna, Niger State; Rhythm
Radio, Lagos, etc.
The radio must be used to serve an organisation profitably. It is therefore
the responsibility of the Public Relations man to ensure that any
broadcast material offered to a radio producer or that is meant to be paid

77
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

announcement is well packaged. All descriptions must employ words that

can graphically and vividly present the message for the ears, or those that
can make appropriate sounds that identify what is being described clearly
to listeners. In other words, the message content must be simple and
clear.
In relation to the use of radio, the PR man must do the following to serve
his employer(s) or client(s) profitably:
 listen to various radio programmes with the aim of identifying the
ones for which he can make proposals for sponsorships.
 learn when and how to make write-ups that are newsworthy.
 learn how to condense his materials into a few words without
sacrificing any essential information.
 be aware that materials with complicated and ambiguous stories that
require long explanations are not acceptable. The editor has no time
to waste in rewriting such material when there are other concise, clear
and straight-to-the-point materials to choose from.
The required sense of judgment will help the PR man in this regard. It is
in the interest of effective Public Relations that practitioners must endear
themselves to both journalists for news mentions and producers for
broadcast programmes. This will make it easy for PR practitioners to
receive the co-operation of newsmen and producers, especially when they
have special events: competitions, anniversaries; journal, book, product
or service launch or re-launch; employees’ long service award, decoration
of the chief executive for an award in recognition of corporate
achievement - best XYZ of the year, etc.
The PR man who plans to get the products, services, or some key
personnel of his employer or client on radio broadcast should understand
that one best way to work with the radio is to listen painstakingly to radio
programmes, identify popular programmes and arrange corporate
sponsorship.
ITQ

Question
In order to serve his employer or client, a PR man who seeks to se the
radio for PR purposes must do all but one of the following.
a. He must know the owner of the radio station.
b. Learn how to condense his materials into a few words without
sacrificing any essential information.
c. Learn when and how to make write-ups that are newsworthy.
d. Listen to various radio programmes with the aim of identifying
the ones for which he can make proposals for sponsorships.
Feedback
If you go over the rules that were given to you in this segment, you will
see that options B, C, and D are rules that a PR consultant must adhere
to. The odd item here is A.
78
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

9.1.5 The Folk and the Oral Media

9.1.5.1 The Folk Media
Folk media are forms of traditional medium of communication through
which information were disseminated to the traditional communities
before the advent of mass communication.
Characteristics of the Folk Media
a) They have their origin rooted in tradition
b) They have limited application in specific locality and situation.
c) In scope - they cannot perform more than any of the functions of
modern communication media - i.e., they can only be applied to inform
and to educate through the town crier, and thus impact limited audience.
Examples of Folk Media are:
1) War drum: this is used to alert community members of an
invasion by enemies.
2) Aroko : It is a traditional way of encoding and decoding a
message. For example, if a village head sends kola nut and a gun to
another village head, the former is asking the latter to choose between
war (gun) and peace (kola nut) (Faleye Jnr., 1997).
3) Warning Drums: These are employed to effect imposition of a
curfew on a town. Festival drumming is employed to alert people of an
impending festival. The death of an aged drummer is heralded by
drumming on roof-top early in the morning in some Yoruba settings.
The Importance of Folk Media to PR
The importance of folk media to public relations practice is that they help
in creating awareness, among the people, of certain events and situations.
Thus, folk media promote a sense of belonging among the people and
enhance societal cohesion. For example, when the people of a
community are alerted by war drum so that they are not taken by surprise,
warriors and gallant men come out to defend their town from captivity.
The importance of the warning drum to PR is that it keeps people out of
sight during the time of the curfew and any person caught is deemed to be
a perpetrator of evil and he is accordingly dealt with if he is lucky to
escape being sacrificed to the gods.
ITQ

Question
------ is not an example of folk media.
a. War drum
b. Warning drum
c. Poetry
d. Aroko

79
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Feedback
Poetry belongs to the oral media and not the folk media. Therefore the
right option Is C.

9.1.5.2 The Oral Media

The oral media comprises Ewi (poetry), tales by the moonlight, the palace
trumpeter and the town crier. The implication of oral media for public
relations practice is that the poetry, Ewi, can be used to promote the good
ideals of a product or a range of services via the radio and television or by
point-by-point canvassing, for sales, of the salesmen. Ewi is often
employed in government public relations to alert the public of the need
to support government policies on social and economic developments. It
is also used to warn people against bad habit. For example, it has been
used, among other things, to warn people against indiscriminate sexual
relationship to avoid the killer disease-AIDS. Tales by moonlight could
be used to promote company products by incorporating the company’s
radio jingle or television commercial or corporate advertisement into
segments of a sponsored programme.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed films and other public relations
mediums which public relations practitioners deploy to provide
knowledge for their orgranisations’ publics to achieve mutual
understanding between them and their publics. Thus, we covered topics
such as: television, video, photography, public/private cinemas and
documentaries. We also discussed and exemplified, among others, folk
Summary and oral media, their characteristics and importance to public relations
practice. We closed the Study Session by discussing interpersonal
communication and how the practitioner can deploy it to achieve source
credibility: trustworthiness, expertise, fluency, and charisma to position
his organisation among its competitors. We also discussed the
uniqueness of radio and how the PR practitioners can maximise it to
position his organisation.

Assessment
SAQ 9.1 (tests Learning Outcome 9.1)
Highlight and discuss the various forms of audio-visual media that can
be used in ensuring effective public relations practice, pointing out the
importance of each medium.
Assessment

80
 Study Session 9The Media of Public Relations II: Audio-Visual

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading Biddlecombe, Peter (1970). Financial Advertising and PR London:
Business Books Ltd.
Bowman & Ellis. (1979). Manual of Public Relations. London:
William Heinemann Ltd.
Brooks, W. D. & Heath, R. W. (6th ed.) (1989). Speech Communication.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
CAM FOUNDATION (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and
Stoughton Ltd.

81
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 10

The Media of Public Relations III: News

Release
Introduction
In this Study Session, we shall focus on News Release in all its
ramifications which include its origin, elements and its variant – Video
News Release. We shall also discuss its criticism, when it is embargoed,
how to write and distribute it, and its division into main sections of:
content, format and presentation. This is to enable you to choose any
aspect of it that you might need when you need it.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to
10.1 use news release

Outcomes

10.1 Overview of News Release

A news release, media release, press release or press statement is a
written or recorded communication directed at members of the news
media for the purpose of announcing something claimed as having news
value. Typically, it is mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors at
newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television stations, and/or
television networks. Commercial press-release distribution services are
also used to distribute news releases. Sometimes news releases are sent
for the purpose of announcing news conferences. Experts say its length
should be between four or five paragraphs comprising between 400 to
500 words.
A press release is different from a news article. A news article is a
compilation of facts developed by journalists published in the news
media. However, a press release is designed to be sent to journalists in
order to encourage them to develop articles on the subject. A press
release is generally biased towards the objectives of the author who may
be a press officer, a Public Relations Officer or a Press Agency.
The use of news releases is common in the field of public relations, the
aim of which is to attract favorable media attention to the PR firm's

82
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

client, and publicity, whose aim of is to attract favorable media attention

for products or services marketed by the clients.
The Journal
The Journal keeps employee abreast of development in the organisation.
They are more detailed and technical than the newsletter. It contains
contributions from all departments and made available to the public. It is
published quarterly, bi-annually, or annually and made available to the
public. Sometimes, circulation is restricted, and its regularity depends on
the organisation’s financial ability to sustain it. Usually, it is not sold. It is
distributed to target publics for information, education and awareness.
The Annual Report
The Annual Report is usually technical and detailed. It provides
information about organisation’s performance within a given period,
usually, one year.
The Fact Sheet
The Fact Sheet contains a one-page but compressed facts and figures
about an organisation. It is often slotted into newspapers and journals for
wide circulation.
Speeches and Handouts
Speech/Handouts receive maximum attention. However, some journalists
depend so much on it at the expense of additional news that breaks at
events.
The Bulletin
The Bulletin is used within the organisation for a two-way
communication among employers and employees, organisations and
shareholders – for sharing information. It deals with specific issues
addressed to particular groups to achieve certain goals.
The Feature Articles
Feature articles are written to polish the image of an organisation.
ITQ

Question
A fact sheet is usually a ---- document.
a. One-paged
b. Two-paged
c. Three-paged
d. Four-paged
Feedback
A fact sheet is usuall contained just a page. The right option is A.

83
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

10.2 Origins of Press Release

One anecdote on an origin of modern press releases is about an incident
in 1906 involving Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who is often referred to as the first
real public relations practitioner and the first to issue news release. At
that time, Lee's agency was working with the Pennsylvania Railroad,
which had just fallen victim to a tragic accident. Ivy Lee convinced the
company to issue the first press release to journalists, before other
versions of the story, or suppositions, could be spread among them
and reported. He used a press release, in addition to inviting journalists
and photographers to the scene and providing their transportation there,
as a means of fostering open communication with the media.
ITQ

Question
The origin of press releases is traceable to Adams Smith. TRUE/FALSE.
Feedback
This is false. The origin of press releases is traceable to Ivy Lee.

10.3 Elements of Press Release

While there are several types of press releases (such as the general news
release, event release, product press release and, more recently, the
social media release), press releases very often have several traits of their
structure in common. This helps journalists separate press releases from
other PR communication methods, such as pitch letters or media
advisories. Some of these common structural elements include:
 Headline: Headlines are used to grab the attention of journalists
and briefly summarize the news.
 Dateline: Dateline contains the release date and usually the
originating city of the press release.
 Introduction: Introduction is the first paragraph in a press
release, that generally gives basic answers to the questions of
who?, what?, when?, where? and why?.
 Body: The body further explanation, statistics, background, or
other details relevant to the news.
 Boilerplate: Boilerplate is generally a short "about" section,
providing independent background on the issuing company,
organization, or individual.
 Close: In Nigeria, the close is traditionally indicated with #
symbol at the bottom of the page of the news story. The close is
traditionally indicated by # symbol at the bottom of the page of
the news item. Other means of indicating the end of the release
may be used, such as the text "ends".

84
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

 Media Contact Information: Name, phone number, e-mail

address, mailing address, or other contact information for the PR
or other media relations contact person.

ITQ

Question
The part of a press release that is used to catch attention of the audience
is the -----.
a. Dateline
b. Headline
c. Body
d. Introduction
Feedback
A dateline contains the date of release of the Press Release; the
introduction is the first paragraph, and the body is the remaining part that
contains the focus of the release. The part that is used to catch the
audience’s attention is the headline. The right option is B

10.4 Video News Releases (VNS)

Some public relations firms send out video news releases (VNRs) which
are pre-taped video programs that can be aired intact by TV stations.
Often, the VNRs are aired without the stations' identifying or attributing
them as such.
TV news viewers can often detect the use of VNRs within television
newscasts. For example, many movie-star "interviews" are actually
VNRs, taped on a set which is located at the movie studio and decorated
with the movie's logo. Another frequent example of VNRs masquerading
as news footage is videotapes of particular medical "breakthroughs," that
are really produced and distributed by pharmaceutical companies for the
purpose of selling new medicines.
Video News Releases can be in the form of full blown productions
costing tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of Naira. They
can also be in the TV news format, or even produced for the web.
Recently, many broadcast news outlets have discouraged the use of
VNRs. Many stations, citing an already poor public perception, want to
increase their credibility. However, Public relations companies are having
a tougher time getting their pre-edited video aired.
VNRs can be turned into broadcast material and then posted onto
newswires. Besides, a story can be kept running longer by engaging
"community websites", which are monitored and commented on by many
journalists and features writers.

85
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

10.5 How to Write and Distribute a Press Release

We would not be surprised if you are keen to get started and actually
write a news release for your company. Excitement aside, you can save
yourself time and money if you assess the viability of your release before
you start.
First, consider when it is appropriate to issue a news release. A news
release can be used when you open a new office; win an award; introduce
a new product or service; sponsor an event; or any other such happening.
The purpose of the news release is to connect with the media. In fact, the
news release is the expected first communication with a media outlet.
Perhaps you are looking for a story, interview, or a TV appearance – the
news release is the right place to start. However, even if your company
meets the above criteria there is no guarantee that the media will use your
release.

10.5.1 Questions to Consider Before You Start

Before you start, consider the following questions.
Do not worry about writing down answers to these questions because
those that relate to writing the release will be addressed again later.
Instead, use these questions as a general guide when deciding whether or
not it is appropriate to issue a news release.
□ What results do we hope to produce from our news release?
Perhaps your company hopes to generate media interest in a new
product, or to promote an event that you are sponsoring. Outline
your goals from the start. This will help you assess their viability,
and will give you direction when the time comes to prepare to
write the release.
□ What audience will my news release speak to?
Business people usually have their company at the front of their
mind when considering the news release. However, journalists
will have the interests of their audience at the top of their
considerations. To be effective, consider this question from the
journalist's perspective.
□ Is their anything unusual or noteworthy about the
release our company will issue?
Your news release will be more effective if it has a good news
angle.
□ In a stack of dozens of news releases, is there something
about my news release that would catch the attention of
the media?
Journalists usually wade through dozens of news releases on a daily
basis. You can help your release to stand out by ensuring that it is well
written and presented. However, you will also want to make sure that the
content of your release is worth noticing.

86
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

□ How will our company distribute the release (wires,

mail, fax, e-mail, etc.)? You will invest a lot of time into
crafting a good news release, and it is important to make sure that
you have the distribution network to support it.
It is obligatory for you to consider your answers and assess whether or
not a news release would enable you to achieve your goals. After reading
this, you may find that you are not yet prepared to do a news release, in
which case we would suggest that you return and go through the
preceding sections at a later date when it is appropriate. Now that you
have assessed the viability of your news release, consider how to create a
news release with impact. This advice will help you make your release
stand out from the crowd! We've divided the tips into three main section:
content, format and presentation.

Content
The content that you include in your release, as well as the way the
release is written, will play an important role in the success of your news
release.
Content Hints: Style
You should:
 answer the questions: who?, what?, where?, when?, and how?.
Tip  ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and without jargon.
 organize information from most important at the beginning
through progressively less important information (the media
may only use the first paragraph or two and they don't have
time to wade through several paragraphs to get to the meat of
the story!)
 write about yourself in the third person, using "he/she" rather
than "I".
 remember that news releases are meant to be informational,
not flowery or written like advertisements. Stick to the facts.
Content Hints: Headline
The headline should capture the reader's attention and is therefore very
important. This may be the one factor that gets the reader to read the
rest of the release. Here are some tips to help you create a catchy
heading:
 Alliteration: "Florist fashions fountain from flowers".
 Use colons: "Wedding Flowers: A new look for an old
custom".
 Offer business or consumer tips: "Local florist offers tips on
making Christmas wreathes".

87
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Content Hints: Directing your news release

 Ensure you think about the reader or viewership of the media
you send the release to. Write for that audience. A large news
or TV outlet is unlikely to be interested unless there is
something truly unique about your business.
 Research the media before you send out your release. See what
kind of stories they air or publish.
 When you write your release, approach your subject as though
you are a news reporter, emphasizing the news aspect and the
facts.
 When you send your release to a television or radio outlet,
remember that there are two factors to be considered: sight and
sound. You should therefore consider writing a different slant
into each news release to appeal to the different kinds of
media.
Content Hints: Tips to making your release more interesting
If you can support the fact that your event is the largest or first, for
example, you can use these superlatives in your news release.
 Use quotes and reactions.
 Look for ways to sell your story: a new angle or detail may
help. For example, think of the times you have seen a story
about someone who graduated from a university or
Polytechnic. It doesn't happen, does it? Unless that person is a
senior citizen or has ten children or suffers from a disability.
Bring your unique angle into your news release.
Human interest aspects can sometimes be used to spark
interest.

Format
Layout, formatting, and attention to detail are all important components
of your release. Journalists are accustomed to a standardized news release
format, and chances are good that this is not the time to do your own
thing.
Formatting Hints: Layout
 Use a minimum of one-inch margins on each side of the page,
with the body of the text of your release centred on the page.
 Double-space your press release.
 Complete the paragraph on one page rather than carrying it
over onto the next.
 Use only one side of each sheet of paper.
Hint
Formatting Hints: Length
 Make it short. Make it two pages maximum, but one page is
better. Indeed, the shorter, the better.

88
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

Formatting Hints: Format

 Do not use abbreviations or acronyms when you first refer to
someone or something. Instead, spell out the full name –
Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria - and then put FRCN.
After it in brackets (FRCN). The next time you refer to it you
can say FRCN.
 When you use someone's name say: "Miss Adefisayo Adegoke
the first time and then "Miss Adegoke" in further references.
 Use the names of both the city and the local government the
first time you refer to a location.
 When you mention a day use the date and year.
 Type 'more' at the bottom of the page when there is more than
one.

Presentation
You are sending your news release to busy journalists, where courtesy
and presentation do make a difference.
Presentation Tips:
It is obligatory that you:
 keep the release neat and attractive for effective visual bites .
Tip  use good quality paper.
 print the release on your company letterhead or special news
release paper.
 proofread the release not once, but several times. Reading the
release out loud will often help you find the mistakes you've
missed; having someone else read over your release is even
better.

Use the following worksheet to help you prepare your News Release. Jot
down answers to each question, and use your answers to help you write
the actual release.
1. What is the most important fact you wish to get across? One
technique is to imagine what headline you would like to see if the
media picks up your story. What is the:
- Who? - What? - Where? - When? - How? - Why?
of your story?

2. Is there a cost attached to your product or service or to your

89
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

sponsorship of an event?

3. What special features are attached to your product, service, or

event? Is it free? Half-price? The most expensive? Are you part
of the fastest-growing industry?

4. Is the award for the oldest citizen? The first through the
turnstile? The first mutual fund of its type?

5. Are there any restrictions, activities, or hours?

6. Are there any other newsworthy aspects of your event,

announcement, activity, product, or service?

After reading through the preceeding sections of this session, you should
be ready to write your release, keeping in mind the tips from past sections
and the answers to the questions that you have asked yourself.
ITQ

Question
--------- is not a relevant question to ask when about to write a Press
Release.
a. What does the release aim to achieve?
b. What will catch the audience’s attention?
c. How will it be distributed?
d. Who will the release be sold to?

Feedback

90
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

If you look at all the questions, you will agree that option D does not
have a place of relevance when drafting or about to draft a press release.
The right option, therefore, is D.

10.6 The Newsletter as a Medium of PR

The Newsletter is published at regular intervals. It documents the
organisation’s activities and it is made available to staff, shareholders and
members of the public who relate to the organisation. The Newsletter is
good for information dissemination within organisations. Indeed, a
company’s newsletter is a veritable instrument in the hand of a PR man
for reaching out to various segments of its informed reading publics about
the developments in the company.
The following are what a newsletter should contain, among other things.
Cover Story
A very significant PR activity that touches on the welfare of members of
the community/public could be made the cover story.
Product or Service News
This segment of the newsletter will be used to either blow the trumpet of
an existing product or service, or talk about the additional qualities of a
re-launched or repackaged services. It may also talk about testimonies
given about products or services, or give success stories of achievement
and how consumers have regarded the product or service over the years.
This is what Nestle said about Maggi Cube under the caption “success
through generations”: “our grandmothers used it... Our mothers used it...
And today, we all trust it... as a cooking companion. Its story began in
1966 when a lone cargo ship docked in the ports of Lagos, off-loading a
few containers of a “new” seasoning product, Maggi Cube”.

10.7 Embargoed News Release

Sometimes a news release is embargoed. This means that, news
organizations are requested not to report the story until a specified time.
For example, news organizations usually receive a copy of presidential
speeches or speeches of governors several hours in advance. In such
cases, the news organizations generally do not break the embargo. If they
do, the agency that sent the release may blacklist them. A blacklisted
news organization will not receive any more embargoed releases, or
possibly any releases at all.
However, it is very hard to enforce embargoes on journalists, as there is
constant pressure by editors to be first to a story. It is unlikely that a PR
agency will blacklist a form of media, as other clients may want to be
featured in this publication. This problem is sometimes overcome by
controlling the timing of a release via email rather than relying on the
journalist to do so.

91
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

10.8 Criticism against News Release

News releases have been a large source of criticism against various types
of journalists, who sometimes rely on them heavily. Some people
criticize writers for creating articles in this way, contending that it
constitutes free advertising for the company on whose behalf the news
release was issued, especially if it is not contrasted with criticism of that
company or product in the same article. On the other hand, few dispute
that news releases remain a valuable way for media to be made aware of
new products and services, and recent and upcoming events of interest.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we talked about News Release, its origin, elements
and its variant – the Video News Release. We also discussed the
criticism against news release, when it is embargoed, how to write and
distribute it, and its main sections of: content, format and presentation
Summary and tips about them. We emphasized the differences between a news
release and a news article among other things. Finally, as part of the
media of public relations, we discussed the following items: newsletter,
house journal, annual report, fact sheets, speeches and handouts,
bulletin, feature articles and a synopsis on the electronic media.

Assessment
SAQ 10.1 (tests Learning Outcome 10.1)
Write a detailed explanation on what you understand by a news release?

Assessment

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan:
Afrika-Link Books.
Reading Biddlecombe, Peter (1970). Financial Advertising and PR London:
Business Books Ltd.
Bowman & Ellis. (1979). Manual of Public Relations. London:
William Heinemann Ltd.
Brooks, W. D. & Heath, R. W. (6th ed.) (1989). Speech
92
 Study Session 10The Media of Public Relations III: News Release

Communication. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown Publishers.

CAM FOUNDATION (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Limited.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and
Stoughton Ltd.
en .wikipedia.org/wiki/plan Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Accessed
August 12, 2009.

93
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 11

The Methods of Public Relations

Introduction
In this Study Session, we shall discuss how the practitioners use the
media of public relations and other elements to design and implement
campaigns to establish and nurture the image of their organisations and
their brands to an enviable position among competing organisations
within the industry they belong to. As we did with the media of public
relations, we shall segment the Study Sessions on PR methods into three
or four little chunks of information to avoid involving you in information
over-load. This will enable you to achieve comprehension as you settle
down to empower yourself with knowledge in this profession.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
11.1 define public relations methods.
11.2 itemise and discuss the methods practitioners use to
Outcomes position and reposition their organisations’ brands.

11.1 Defining Public Relations Methods

Public Relations methods refer to the techniques which the PR
practitioner uses to interact or disseminate information to the publics of
his organisation. For example, a Chief Executive or any personnel of a
company may be honoured with a national, state or local government
appointment into a commission or committee. The story is good enough
for placement in a newsletter. Such appointment is in recognition not
only of the person appointed but also of the organisation he represents. It
is also in recognition of the services which such organisation renders to
the public. In this case, the act of placing the story in a newsletter is the
method which the PR practitioner uses to disseminate the information
about the award. The newsletter which is a tool of PR is the medium. We
now begin the discussion of some PR methods with community
relations.

94
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

11.2 Community Relations

As a Public Affairs function, community relations focuses on the host
community in which an organisation operates. For example, if a state or
company intends to build an airport, those whose land will be taken or
devalued must be satisfied. If not, there will be widespread opposition to
the project.
The philosophy of community relations according to Bowman and Ellis
(1979) is that no man is an island unto himself. Every person or
corporate organisation has one kind of affinity with the members of the
environment where he or it operates. It does not matter whether the
individual or organisation thinks about the environment or not. Thus,
where the right attitude is exhibited, there will always be a mutually
benefiting relationship between the organisation, individual and the
community. This is why every organisation should have a community
relations policy.
The operation of a community relations policy is hinged on three
fundamental motivating factors. The first involves “a sense of corporate
social responsibility.” The second is about “an understanding that in
recent time, (I say as a matter of obligation) every organisation is
expected to partake in activities happening outside their premises.” The
third is about the acknowledgment that every person around an
organisation is important. Consequently, community relations may be
effected through a mix of the various media of Public Relations by an
organisation. The media that a company can use to impact its publics
will depend on its products or services, its size and hence its budget. This
is because the issues about which an organisation might want to relate
with its publics will differ from company to company.
For effective community relations, it is essential for an organisation to
develop a clear understanding of its responsibilities to its neighbours.
According to PR experts, the most effective way to start community
relations programme is to formulate the initial programme by seriously
considering the following proportions.
1) A company should announce its inception, its products or services to
its publics.
2) The management of a company should endeavour to be at peace with
government agencies within its host community.
3) An organisation should encourage students from schools in its host
community to come on visits to see its production lines.
4) An organisation should make its facilities available to its publics for
social activities such as sports and social meetings.
By and large, for virile community relations there is the need for
organisations to employ effective communication strategies in reaching
out to its publics.
Community Relations Activity
Among the methods which have become popular in community relations
are the convening of Town Hall Meetings and arranging Video

95
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Viewership Centres (VVC). Town Hall Meetings are success stories

because they afford both the establishment and its host communities an
opportunity to dialogue and agree on issues of mutual interest. Such
Town Hall Meetings could be shifted to different communities from time
to time. This infuses a sense of belonging into the various host
communities of a company. The Video Viewership Centres (VVC) are
meant to be used for the dissemination of company documentaries. Such
documentaries should normally be produced both in English and
Vernacular. The significance of the Video Viewership technique is that it
enables participants to hear corporate statements and values from officials
who would otherwise have been unavailable, (Omole, 1998: 6).
Besides, the philosophy of corporate social responsibility makes it
obligatory for a company to effectively - morally and financially -
participate in development projects in its areas of operation. Thus,
companies build school blocks, provide bore holes for potable water,
donate hospital equipment, and award scholarships to children in their
host communities. Companies may also donate toward community
development projects.
For example, Nestle Foods Nigeria Plc. donated 0.4m to Lagos School of
Business in 1995. The community relations impact of the donation is
reflected in the speech of the Chairman of the Board of Directors of
Nestle, Mr. George Dove-Edwin. He said among other things: “... the
corporate donation was in support of management development in
Nigeria. The company ... believes management development is a mutual
responsibility since Nestle uses high quality manufacturer for its
operations.
Among Nestle’s many other community relations programmes is its
Musical Fiesta which pooled “a total of 468 entries”, and “over 1,000
people ...”. The “objectives of the musical fiesta include: consolidation
of the close emotional link between Nestle and children, increasing
awareness of Nestle brands, creation of an opportunity for trial use and
winning new users for company products.”
Nestle also organises an Annual National Cooking Competition on a
unisex basis. The 13th edition of its Maggi National Cooking
Competition was won by Mr. Israel Wekpe, a 29-year old Theatre Arts
Student of the University of Benin, Nigeria. Nestle also motivated its
commissioned agents to join market traders in their weekly
environmental sanitation exercise in pursuance of its policy of
contributing to a “sustainable environmental development.”
- Nestle Nigeria Newsletter, Vol. 5, Nos. 1-4, pp. 22-23, 1995 (1st - 4th
Quarter).

96
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

ITQ

Question
The focus of community relations is -----------.
a. Customer
b. Host community
c. Shareholders
d. Employees
Feedback
From what you have studied in this segment, the focus of community
relations is not the customers or shareholders or employees but the host
community of the organization. The right option is B.

11.3 Customer Relations

The basic philosophy guiding the planning and implementation of
customer relations is hinged on the legend that the customer is the king.
Individuals and organisations who buy from other individuals and
companies are referred to as customers. For example, an industrial
company building a plant is a customer for people dealing in various
materials - air-conditioning installations, building materials, and many
other materials necessary for the building.
However, the differences between individuals and companies are a matter
of size. One thing that is important for customer relations is that any
promise made about a product or service should be fulfilled. Companies
make promises through promotional and selling services. Such promises
include assuring customers that their products or services are of such
good quality that would give buyers value for their money.
- Pat Bowman and Nigel Ellis, 1979
Other promises include assurance of prompt delivery and regular and
superb after sales service and friendly handling of customer queries. For
effective customer relations therefore, promises must be fulfilled. This is
why many companies that offer cash or material prizes redeem their
pledges at the presentation of what entitles a client to a prize. In Nigeria,
organisations establish redemption centres to facilitate the collection of
prizes won by customers. Relationship between the buyer and the
company will be strained whenever the company breaks its promises.
Relationship further degenerates if promises are not kept. For the
sustenance of existing relationship, there is the need for either party to
fully understand whatever problems that exists. This is why there should
not be any communication gap.
Customer Relations Activity
When a company’s Research, Marketing and Sales Departments identify
specific customers as having contributed to its growth through sales, such
customers are identified and rewarded accordingly. Nestle did this in
March, 1997 when it honoured 100 customers for their significant

97
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

contributions to the company’s sales in 1996. Nestle thus gave a new

Mitsubishi 3.5 tons truck to two first prize winning firms of Zubairu
Bello & Company Limited, Kano, and Sam Grace and Company Limited,
Lagos. The two winners were also sponsored to do the holy pilgrimage
to Mecca and Jerusalem according to their religious faiths. Nestle also
gave three new Peugeot 504 pick-up vans and five 15 KVA Lister
generating sets to distributors, among other prizes. (Nestle Annual
Report, 1996). Events such as this in pictures and words can make the
segment on Customer Relations for the records in a Newsletter.
ITQ

Question
The focus of customer relations is -----------.
a. Customer
b. Host community
c. Shareholders
d. Employees
Feedback
From what you have studied in this segment, the focus of customer
relations is not the host community or shareholders or employees but the
customers of the organization. The right option is A.

11.4 Employee Relations

Employee relations is effected through the contacts between employees
on one hand and customers and potential customers or the general public
on the other hand. Good employee relations, an invaluable asset,
enhances good public relations for an organisation. For influencing
public opinion in favour of an organisation, all its employees are no doubt
the most important feature of the face which an organisation presents to
the public. Employee relations is a very vital aspect of public relations.
When an organisation wins an award for high quality products or
services, or when an employee wins an award from his company or from
professional bodies for his contribution to corporate growth and
professional excellence, it could be mentioned in a Newsletter. Awards
that can be used in the Newsletter of a company thus include those given:
 by a Country’s Standard Organisation for high quality products or
services of a company.
 by employers for long service and loyalty.
 by professional bodies to searched individuals for their contribution
to professional excellence.
 by tertiary institutions for contribution to educational development
 by social organisation for special recognition, etc.

98
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

Above all, positive Employee Relations would always be achieved if the

PR man ensures that a well-timed publication - Newsletter or House
Journal - highlights issues that concern the overall well-being of
employees. Such journal should feature matters relating to promotion,
monthly, or quarterly recognition of staff such as “Sales Man of the
Month”, “Driver of the Year”, etc.
It is equally important that the PR man should use the medium of either a
Newsletter or House Journal to explain to employees the company’s
position on national, or local issues, and how the company is actually
projecting itself to its external publics. In other words, information that is
meant for the external publics should first be made available to
employees. This implies that employees are being carried along, and this
enhances a sense of belonging.
However, any information that is strictly meant for the internal
consumption of the employees should not be dispatched to external
publics, especially when such information concerns trivia, criticisms,
gossips and other personality news such as marriages, births, etc., that
will be of no interest to the external publics.
For good employee relations to subsist, employees must have certain
qualities such as: courtesy, patience, clarity of expression, good physical
appearance and good grooming through induction and staff development
courses, preference for explanation and clarification rather than
argument. Other qualities are a deep grasp of the philosophy that the
customer is always right; ability to deal with difficult or hostile customers
without causing office offence. Employees should be able to handle
difficult customers courteously and intelligently.
One important aspect of employee relations is staff education to the effect
that without the customer, there will be no job for employees. This is
why PR in management should emphasize the need for an induction
course for new employees, provide them with manuals containing house
style, the departments, how they interrelate and why there should be a
team spirit among employees.
ITQ

Question
The focus of community relations is -----------.
a. Customer
b. Host community
c. Shareholders
d. Employees
Feedback
From what you have studied in this segment, the focus of EMPLOYEE
relations is not the customers or shareholders or host community but the
employees of the organization. The right option is D.

99
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

11.5 Shareholder Relations

Here, issues that touch on the company’s financial situations, and how the
company invests its fund could gain mention in the Newsletter. Also,
statements to authority on how to create an enabling environment for
economic growth will interest shareholders; this could also gain a
mention in the house Newsletter. A company’s effort in ensuring that
shareholders’ fund is well guarded against fraudulent activities could lift
the spirit of shareholders; this ought to gain a mention in the house
Newsletter. For instance, Nestle has made a mandatory subscription to
Central Securities Clearing System Limited (CSCS). This will enable
Nestle to make available to investors all over the world vital information
about the company. Nestle would, by that token, have access to vital
information about other organisations world wide.
ITQ

Question
The focus of community relations is -----------.
a. Customer
b. Host community
c. Shareholders
d. Employees
Feedback
From what you have studied in this segment, the focus of shareholders
relations is not the customers or host community or employees but the
shareholders of the organization. The right option is C.

11.6 Media Relations

Every PR man should court, obtain and enjoy the confidence of the
media. He should provide the required information in good form and in
good time, not waiting till the media had gone to town with rumours.
This is because rumours have negative effect on corporate and product
image and by implication on corporate reputation.
The practitioner should interact with the media through letters and
personal calls on points of interest, interviews, and meetings with
specialists especially business journalists and editors in the print media;
producers, and presenters on the electronic media: radio and television.
The PR man in relating with the media can arrange interviews with the
press for his Managing Director, General Manager or the company’s
spokesman, etc. on significant national issues. However, the practitioner
must recognise that wining and dining with editors will never give a place
to badly written, uninteresting and irrelevant press release or feature
article.

100
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

PUBLIC RELATIONS, SPECIAL EVENTS MANAGEMENT

AND PROMOTIONS
Event in Public Relations is a crucial phenomenon that must be adhered to by a public relations
executive in an organization. The public relations practitioner can create his own public relations
opportunities through the development and management of special events including commissioning of
new or branch offices, celebrations, anniversaries, seminars, competitions, exhibitions and
sponsorships, among other events.
For corporate organizations whose raison d’etre is to make profit, promotion involves using
advertising and public relations methods to achieve sales for products and services. It also involves
using advertising and public relations techniques to enhance an organisation’s reputation. The
following are the vehicles of promotion: press parties, media luncheons, open houses, anniversary
celebrations, issuing of press release, sponsoring of contests, talk shows, among other pseudo- events.
The following are examples of special events:
 turning the sword,
 launching of a new product/service,
 re-launching of an existing product/service,
 foundation laying ceremony for public building, awards for individuals who
have distinguished themselves in their callings,
 unveiling of a statute of a legend,
 award of special scholarship,
 fund raising for charity purposes,
 presentation of officials of international and local club among many others.
It is the responsibility of a PR practitioner to generate ideas for special events, plan them and stage
them. It is also the responsibility of the PR person to arrest the attention of the mass media and
consequently impact the publics of his organization. When he has done these successfully, he would
have fulfilled the purpose of his being in the establishment where he earns his living. In planning
events in the public relations programmes, the PR practitioner is obliged to:
1. get an agreed communications objectives and outline public relations plan before he looks at
special events.
2. look at the company’s calendar of activities and identify those occasions where he needs to
create a special event to generate interest and/or news.
3. brainstorm with other colleagues from other departments to develop ideas for such events.
4. make the ideas developed relevant to the broadest audience.
5. use a personality where necessary.
6. know and determine if the personality will be involved in a few or all the events.
7. involve a royal personality or a celebrity if need be.
8. ensure that a public or political figure he invited is acceptable by his audience.
9. ensure that the association he wants between his special guest and his organization or product
is relevant and valuable.

101
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

10. make his “celebrity” a piece of machinery and not an animal.

11. ensure that he involves all the necessary media for the events in order to reach a wide
audience.
12. involve his celebrity in other promotional activities in the organization.
13. organise every detail of the event and prepare an agreed programme.
14. ensure that he prepares the budget for every event.
15. prepare his celebrity before the event to enable him to know his role in the event.
16. brief both the local or trade media on what is attainable.
17. set-up a team of executive that will see to the success of the event in all its ramifications.
18. ensure that other media events are not coinciding with his event and be sure of his:
a. timing and venue
b. theme and printing
c. invitations
d. publicity and photography
e. presentations and papers
19. appoint an assistant for record keeping of feedbacks to ensure improvements in the
subsequent events.
20. establish how he would monitor success in meeting the objectives that are related to the event
and how this might affect decisions and budgets for successive years.

News/Press Conference, Press Briefing, and Press

Reception
News Conference
News Conference is called to present hard news to the media. It could be called when a major-oil-
field has been discovered; if Nigeria is signing a trade treaty with any foreign country; when a project
like the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is to be commissioned or when an establishment has something
unique to present to the public, and so on.
The Why and How of News Conference
The News Conference is an organized event.
Why? News conference is organized to break news of things happening in an organisation e.g. new
products, new innovation, new range of services; product launch, service launch, or additional
service launch. It is organized to give invited newsmen the opportunity to ask questions relevant to an
organisation’s activities.
How? News conference involves face-to-face communication. It requires organizational ability and
must be planned such that it is itch-free. Invited media/news organisations must be given sufficient
notice of the impending conference. Its venue must be accessible and comfortable. It should be held
102
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

at the time of the day convenient to newsmen who will have to write and file in their reports to their
media houses.
Press kits must be prepared for the newsmen. Press kit consists of a copy of the speech (es) given,
relevant photographs of the speaker(s) and a prepared news release based on the speech given. The
press kits should be distributed to news men preferably at the end of the news conference. The
speaker or the organisation’s spokesman should be carefully selected or coached for the role. If visual
aids must be used, they must be arranged properly and placed within the reach of the speaker. In this
computer age, the speaker must know how to use the power point to present highlights of the speech
and what appears on the screen.
The person presenting a speech should be advised to avoid using “as stated above” in the speech
because it is supposed to be read or spoken. The host organisation usually offers the newsmen some
hospitality.
Virtues of News/Press Conference
When a News/Press Conference is called, it is possible for the Chief Executive to address many
people, including journalists as an audience. This saves the establishment some money, energy and
ensures clarification and accuracy of information. The speaker, that is, the Chief Executive or the
company’s spokesman can use audio visual aids such as diagrams, charts, film projector, etc., to
complement what he says. This medium especially facilitates interpersonal contact, and thus gives an
opportunity of immediate feedback during question and answer session. It also gives journalists the
opportunity for on the spot interview and investigative reporting.
Press Briefing
Press briefing is given to the media to ensure that specialist writers and commentators understand the
background to some events or developments. This is to help such specialists in their interpretation of
any event or development. It may also be a selective occasion where a handful of knowledgeable
journalists, such as political reporters are taken into confidence by an Electoral Commissioner or by a
Chairman of a political party to clarify certain issues such as a split in the rank and file of
membership, etcetera.
Press Reception
Press reception is organised when the story to be told would provide hard news for the media. If the
function of a new engine is to be demonstrated, a press reception is a good platform. It is also a good
medium if a new General Manager has been appointed for a company and he wants to meet members
of the press on a know-you’ or ‘know-one-another’ basis, press reception is an effective medium.
Whatever the medium the PR man has chosen, it is important that he should give adequate notice of
about two weeks by a formal letter or invitation. It is important that the PR man should make
available adequate and necessary facilities including the venue that will suit the different media men
and their deadlines.
Media Luncheon
Media luncheon is organised to announce the inception of a new company or to announce the
resuscitation of a previously ailing company. It presents an opportunity of re-presenting a new vision
through the company’s mission statement. It also gives the company an opportunity of presenting to
its old customers/publics what plans it has to redress its past shortcomings. A Media Luncheon can
be given to enable an organisation’s CEO to articulate the new direction his company is moving to
either to correct the mistakes of the past or reconsolidate its enviable position within the industry. He
may also use the occasion to announce the company’s new assemblage of vibrant, young, energetic,
intelligent and professionally qualified personnel for excellent customer service delivery besides the
acquisition of state of the art technology that will properly reposition the organisation among its

103
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

competitors.
Related Media
Biddlecombe (1970) lists the following as some of the related media through which a corporate
institution can effectively relate with its publics: name, symbol, image, anniversary, art, awards, and
educational programmes.
The Name
As communications philosopher Marshal Mcluhan puts it,
“Love thy label as thyself.” Some companies are immediately identifiable with
their products as in the cases of Guinness, Ragolis, Coca-Cola; University of
Ibadan - Medicine; University of Ife/University of Lagos - Law; Ahmadu Bello
University - Public Administration, etc.
The Symbol
According to an international designer, Henri Henrion,
In great organisations a symbol is in some sense a status symbol, feeding the
vanity of the chief executive who commissioned it.Or again, a symbol is thought
to be an agreeable extra to a company’s name style which may have no rational
justification in marketing terms.
The Image
An image is like Coca-Cola (or University of Ibadan - “The Premier
University”). It cannot be created overnight, but in years, with immense
patience and promotion investment. It took years and a creative design group
headed by Paul Rand, Charles Eames and Goerge Nelson to create the ‘clean,
impressive’ image of IBM, (Ditto for NIPR, FRCN, UAC, AP, UI, ABU, UNN,
OOU, NAN, BCOS, AIT, etc.). A successful image should, therefore, be
memorable, synthetic and believable. It must also be simple.
- Peter Biddlecombe, 1970
The Anniversary
A company can celebrate its founder’s day by a cake-cutting ceremony alongside a life-size
replica of its most famous products. It could be celebrated as years of existence or in
product/service years. Thus, the University of Ibadan in 1998 had a year-long celebration of its
50th Anniversary.
Art
A company can sponsor an art show, an exhibition, etc., for the following reasons:
1) The desire to take part as a corporate citizen in the life of its host community. This informs
why many business outfits endeavour to participate in exhibitions and trade fairs held annually
at the International Trade Fairs complexes at Lagos, Kaduna and Enugu.
2) The search for prestige and recognition.
3) The need to provide amenities for staff and employees.
4) The wish to engage in a form of reminder advertising.
It is a sort of prestige advertising which sets out deliberately to attract the attention of that
influential minority of the public, the opinion leaders.

104
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

Awards
When a chief executive wins a national award, it hits the headlines in the Print and Electronic Media.
The annual National Merit Awards which the Federal Government bestows on chieftains of industries
and other institutions are pointers in this regard. The gesture is a recognition of the awardees’
contribution to national development.
Educational Programmes
Sponsorship: A company can sponsor annual Essay Writing Competitions, or Annual Science Talent
Search by inviting senior secondary school students to compete for scholarship. First Bank Plc.,
Wema Bank Plc., Lever Brothers, Shell & Chevron in Nigeria award similar scholarships, and prizes.
University chairs are endowed by companies to develop a reputation for a genuine concern for
education. Lobbying is done through pressure groups to get the interest of a company represented in
the National Assembly and feed legislators representing the constituency where the company is
based, with regular information.
Lectures are given to impact the immediate audience and to catch the attention of the business
public through business news media.

Let’s continue with our discussionson methods of public relations. In this

next set of sections, we shall discuss facility visits, sponsorships, visits to
media houses, and visits to opinion leaders. We shall also discuss direct
mail, its advantages and disadvantages.

11.7 Facility Visits

Facility visits are organised for the media to provide first hand
information about a new development or new discovery especially when
the item requires demonstration. For example, when a company plans to
test-run its equipment comprising the latest in technological innovations
with high productivity capacity, facility visit is a medium worthy of
consideration.

11.8 Sponsorships
PR uses institutional sponsorship by providing entertaining radio and
television programmes to get publicity, to secure the interest of potential
customers and retain existing market for products or services. Corporate
organisations often sponsor the professional league matches and other
sporting events in Nigeria. Besides, companies also sponsor sporting
events through which they gain wide publicity. For example, Nestle
Nigeria Plc sponsors Basketball Coaching Clinics for school children.
However, PR should consider the following before embarking on
sponsorships:
1) the audience to be reached
2) the expected impact of the attitudes being influenced
3) the message of the company: is the sponsorship for corporate or
product advertising?
4) how the effectiveness of the medium of sponsorship could be
measured.

10
5
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

ITQ

Question
A PR expert should consider all but one of the following before
embarking on sponsorship.
a. How effective is the medium of sponsorship?
b. What is the message?
c. Will the employees of the ORGANIZAtion bear the cost of
sponsorship?
d. What will be the impact of the sponsorship on customers?
Feedback
For all intents and purposes, a PR expert does not have to bother himself
about whether the employees of the organization will bear the cost of
sponsorship. Hence, the right option is C.

11.9 Visit to Media Organisations

This method usually results in a lot of rewards. It enables the public to
know more about a corporate establishment, its products or services. It
allows the chief executive officer (CEO) to raise issues that affect its
products and/or services on behalf of others in the industry. For example,
a chief executive can embark on a tour of media houses as part of the
celebration of his company’s anniversary to review his company’s
achievements and to enlist the patronage of the public, or to canvass for
patronage by asking the public to buy shares in the company. This
demands adequate planning, and the PR man must rehearse with the CEO
on issues that might arise during the tour of the media houses and how to
handle them. The PR man should get ready, necessary information about
the organisation. Such information should include facts about production
capacity, capacity utilization, answers to issues raised by the company’s
publics in the past, etc.

11.10 Visits to Opinion Leaders

It is important to rally support for company projects. Thus, when opinion
leaders are visited, they could be carried along; explanations could be
offered by the company that intends to carry out certain actions. Because
of their position and the influence they wield, opinion leaders are seen as
repository of information by their followers. Thus, whatever they say
usually has a bandwagon effect on their followers. This medium is an
effective one since it involves interpersonal or small group
communication encounter.

11.11 Direct Mail

Direct Mail is one of the most potent tools of Public Relations. It is not
Mail Order advertising, neither is it postal selling with which it is often
106
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

confused. In PR, Direct Mail technique implies the distribution of

invitations, news releases, house journals and magazines to specific
individuals and organisations and importantly to media houses.
Direct Mail involves continuing operations concerning the regular
dispatch of up-dated information about an organisation to people with
mutual interests. The material sent by direct mail may be printed, or
stenciled. In this age of information super highway via the computer,
direct mail could be effected via the fax and the (Electronic Mail) E-mail,
voicemail, etc. The selection of the recipients of direct mail may be
random or closely controlled.
The essence of direct mail is that there is no barrier between the sender
and the receiver. Consequently, the sender can personalize the Direct
Mail by sending directly to a specific officer in his name. Direct Mail
technique can be used in dispatching a house journal, an annual general
meeting report to home addresses of employees and shareholders or
direct to the publics of an organisation. Also a brochure describing an
organisation, its history and facilities, range of services, equipment,
techniques, and qualified or skilled personnel might well be directly
mailed to the clients and potential customers. Equally, invitations to
facility visits, an exhibition stand, premiere film show, seminar, product
and service demonstrations, dealer conferences, press or news conference
or press reception require direct mail techniques. These include accurate
mailing lists, planned contents, correct timing, and reply facilities where
necessary.
Direct mail can be used to distribute a message to opinion leaders such as
members of parliament, ministers of religion, teachers, doctors, nurses,
university vice-chancellors, professors, professionals and others who can
be personally addressed. On such occasions, information can be
presented in a personalised style to bear the signature of a central figure
in the management, such as the chief executive officer of the
organisation.
To use direct mail effectively, the following four things are very
essential:
1) an objective;
2) a list of names and up-to-date addresses;
3) the content and presentation; and
4) an understanding of postal rules and regulations. It is important,
like in all PR programmes, that the objective of a direct mail campaign
must be clearly stated and understood before the work begins.
Direct mail is one of the most obvious means of communication that
helps sustain the publics of a company or institution. According to
Jefkins (1972), and Bowman and Ellis (1979), the following are some of
the advantages and disadvantages of direct mail technique:
Advantages of Direct Mail
1) It is a selective medium with a minimum of waste as few or many
individuals or organisations regarded as good prospects are
usually contacted through direct mail within an area.

107
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

2) It is a personal medium. The personal characteristic of this

medium is inherent in the way the information packaged is
addressed to individuals by their names with the salutation “Dear
Sir/Ma”, “Dear Music Lover”, “Dear Parent” . It invokes a sense
of personal recognition.
3) Enclosures may be included - an important advantage over other
media because much detail can be given. Leaflets, reply cards,
order form, where applicable, brochures, price lists, catalogues
and even samples can be enclosed. This intensifies the impact,
interest and ability to activate the prospects. Recipients must not
be confused by too many items.
4) It is a secretive medium - the campaign or purpose is not visible
to rivals until after the initiative has been taken. This could apply
to special offers made to distributors or to space offers made to
agencies by publishers.
5) A direct mail campaign can be undertaken quickly if so desired.
A letter can be written, reproduced and packaged into addressed
envelopes in a very short time if there is such urgent need to
make a sudden announcement or stimulate sales or clear stock.
6) By comparison with other media, direct mail is inexpensive per
cost of campaign - since a smaller number of selected people can
be reached by direct mail. In some cases, without enclosure the
biggest item is postage.
7) The prospect of the mailing list can be checked and updated.
Obsolete addresses can be eliminated by periodically posting
cards asking for revised information or asking if people are still
interested. Such postcard enquiry will save wasting expensive
booklets.
One pertinent question is: when would mailing be used as a tool of
Public Relations? It is used when the practitioner intends to reach larger
external publics. It is used when the message involves technical details
and statistics not suitable for dissemination through conventional mass
media. Mailing is also used by people seeking elective office.
Disadvantages of Direct Mail
a) It is limited to the availability of mailing lists, and sometimes
subject to the inaccuracy of mailing lists.
b) The stigma of circularising may have to be overcome .Cheap
duplicated sales letters having created an impression that direct
mail is no more than the mass circulation of duplicated forms.
c) It is subject to the vagaries of postal system, especially where the
system is not dependable because mails are either tampered with
or stolen outright.
d) It can be annoying if too many mailings are received especially
when a person is on several mailing lists or belongs to a
profession or business which is frequently mailed.
e) It can be disappointing if the recipient thinks he has received a
personal letter only to find out upon opening that it is “only an
addendum to an annual report.”

108
 Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

f) Some exponents of direct mail make a practice of selling or

hiring out lists. Consequently, private individuals find
themselves pestered by those who acquire the list for
unwarranted appeals.
g) Whereas high standards exist and are fostered in other media,
direct mail can be undertaken by anyone. Consequently, much of
it is unprofessional and crude and detrimental to that which is
well produced.
ITQ

Question
. A direct mail has all but one of the following as its merits.
a. It is only limited to the mailing list.
b. It prevents wastage.
c. It is inexpensive.
d. It is a personal medium.
Feedback
Based on what has been learnt so far in this segment, you will agree that
options B, C, and D are merits of direct mail while option B is a demerit.
Hence, the right option is A.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we have discussed some of the techniques through
which practitioners relate with their publics for sustained relationship
and to build customer loyalty to organisation’s brands. So far, the topics
we have exemplified include: community relations, employee relations,
Summary and the activities involved. We drew concrete examples from Nestle
Foods Nigeria Plc community relations.

Assessment
SAQ 11.1 (tests Learning Outcome 11.1)
Identify and discuss the various public relations methods techniques
through which practitioners relate with their publics for sustained
relationship.
Assessment

10
9
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Bibliography
Ajala V. O. (1993). Public Relations: In search of Professional
Excellence, Ibadan: Afrika-Linkoks.
Biddlecombe, Peter (1970). Financial Advertising and PR London:
Business Books Ltd.
Reading Bowman & Ellis. (1979). Manual of Public Relations. London:
William Heinemann Ltd.
Brooks, W. D. & Heath, R. W. (6th ed.) (1989). Speech
Communication. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
CAM FOUNDATION (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM.
Dominick, J. R. (1993). The Dynamics of Mass Communication (4th
Ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company (UK) Ltd.
James, Ode & Soola (1990). Introduction to Communication for
Business and Organisations. Ibadan: Spectrum Book Ltd.
Jefkins, F. (1972). Planned Public Relations. London: Intertext Books.
Jefkins, F. (1983). Public Relations for Marketing Management.
London. The Macmillan Press Limited.
John, Shubin (1957). Business Management, New York: Harper & Row
Publishers, Inc.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and
Stoughton Ltd.
Nestle Nigeria, (1995). Newsletter. Lagos: Public Relations Unit Vol.
5, Nos. 1-4.
Nestle Nigeria (1996). Annual Report and Financial Statements.
Lagos: Public Relations Unit.
Ogunsanya, Adegboyega (1991). Strategy and Public Relations for the
Chief Executive Officer. Lagos: Richmond Books Limited.
Omole, Sola (1998). Appropriate Strategies for Communicating
Environmental Issues with Oil Producing Communities: The Chevron
Experience.” A Paper presented at the National Conference on
Communication and the Environment, held at the University of Lagos,
March 10, 1998.
Weihrich, H. & Koontz, (1995) H. (10th ed.). Management: A Global
Perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

110
Study Session 11The Methods of Public Relations

111
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session 12

Public Relations Case Studies

Introduction
In this Study Session, we have provided real corporate public relations
problems and how they were handled for the attainment of corporate
objectives. As you read each of them, note the different problems and the
strategies used in solving each of them. As you would have read in Study
Session Five, “... no two sets of circumstances are alike (see paragraph
three). Consequently, we have provided four case studies to show you
how to handle public relations problems that may arise in the course of
your practice. We hope you will benefit from them as you read.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
12.1 evaluate the presented public relations case studies

Outcomes

Case Study I: The Problem or Issue: Competition for an Upper Edge in the
Production of a new Vaccine
In the later part of the 1960s, there was influenza which came in an
epidemic quantum in the Far and Middle East, while it was just being felt
in Britain. There was a sort of competition among pharmaceutical
companies to produce the vaccine that could combat the influenza. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) then distributed a small quantity of
the newly isolated virus to some pharmaceutical companies, to combat
the new wave of influenza. Thus, a sort of competition began among
pharmaceutical companies, one attempting to out-pace the other in the
production of vaccine against the influenza.
However, Glaxo Group of Companies won the competition by several
weeks to become the first to produce the product: admune-Mono-68.
This gave Glaxo a head start in the publicity that put it ahead of others in
the production of the anti-influenza vaccine. This opportunity generated
good news story that arrested national attention.

The Public Relations Strategies

112
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

A three-phase PR strategy was designed to attract coverage.

First Phase: Announcing the readiness of the new vaccine.
Second Phase: Writing news story to fit into the context of the weekly
trade press.
Third Phase: Providing follow-up materials to cover other angles of
the story, e.g. pictorial coverage, supply situation, etc.
Local Angle Perspective
A decision was taken to hold an informal press conference for the
local press within the setting where the production of the vaccine was
produced. Three newspaper editions - morning, evening and weekly
newspapers were invited. Also, the city’s monthly magazine, and the
local radio station were invited. The chief executive of a popular
pharmaceutical company presided at the occasion. Simultaneously, a
400-word, tersely and tightly written press release was sent by Telex and
the telephone to the Press Association that wired a concise version to the
newspapers that subscribed to its service.
Consequently, the story that emanated from the press conference was
carried by many of the national newspapers the following morning.
Leading local newspapers also carried the story the following morning.
Coverage in the city where the press conference was held was very
impressive; local papers devoted extensive space to the story. The city
radio had an interview with the man who presided at the press
conference. The national radio and television stations broadcast the story
in their news bulletins.
However, there was nothing new pictorially because there was nothing
unusual about the production and distribution method. Consequently, the
medium that insisted on picture encouraged Glaxo technicians to
photograph the new virus used in producing the vaccine. Thus, the
technicians took some superb shots with a magnification of 300,000
viruses on their electron-microscope. The subsequent photograph was for
exclusive first use to the Sunday Times which suggested this pseudo-
event along with the offer of an exclusive interview with the Head of the
Glaxo Research Virus Unit. From the exclusive interview, a head-of-the-
page feature article, by the Sunday Times Technology Correspondent was
published under the title “How Glaxo Plans to Clobber Mao Flu”. The
feature was illustrated with the photograph of the virus which was later
distributed to other pharmaceutical trade papers (that had given the initial
story good coverage) which gave further greater coverage.
Besides, the Technology Correspondent of the Sunday Times gave a talk
on the national radio and television as well as on an independent
television on the race to produce a vaccine and included his interview
with Head of the Glaxo Research Virus Unit. The television stations that
gave coverage also used newsreel film on vaccine production at the
company of the Chairman of the press conference, in colour and black-
and-white.
The PR programme was not focused towards the normal marketing
operation concept. Hence, supplies of the vaccine were limited, forcing

113
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

demand to outstrip production at that stage. The PR programme was

essentially designed to enhance the prestige of the Glaxo Group and other
subsidiaries involved.
Primary Dose Stage and PR Strategy
The idea to further employ pictorial coverage of the first series of dosage
was jettisoned when the PR impact was considered. For example, the
initial supplies were meant to be used on high risk cases comprising
patients with chronic heart and respiratory disease, whereas a pictorial
coverage would not be received with pleasure and this would have
detracted from the product and corporate images. This is deliberate.
Source: Jefkins (1972). Planned Public Relations. London: Intertext
Books, as earlier cited in Adegoke, L.A.(2001). Introduction to Public
Relations: Principles, Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik
Publishing Company.

Case Study II: The Problem or Issue: Projected fears of Intrusion, Pollution and the
Nuisance Value of a Proposed Cement Factory on an Island that absolutely
depended on the Tourist Industry
A reputable multinational company had wanted to sell and install
equipment for a full-cycle cement factory on an island endowed with the
basic raw materials of clay and limestone in large proportions. Hitherto,
the client deals in the importation and distribution of cement in another
neighbouring island. There was full backing by a powerful group outside
government, some sectors of the home government and a local
industrialist. Besides, the citizens of the island for the location of the
proposed cement factory needed new employments. The island is a
tourist haven and an agricultural economy.
However, the government was convinced that the presence of a cement
factory in the island would jeopardize the tourist attractions, deal untold
damage on the agricultural investment in the economy, and push up the
price of cement in a fledgling building industry. Consequently, there was
the need for astute PR strategies to educate and inform the citizens who
might be swayed by the potential job opportunities from the proposed
cement factory. Thus, the government offered a Public Relations
establishment the consultancy to present facts and achieve absolute
understanding of the dilemma which faced the citizens of the areas
involved. The objective for which the consultant was hired was to
prevent installation of cement factory on the island.
The Public Relations Strategies
To achieve the objective, the consultant worked out a four-point-action
plan as solutions to the problem.
Action-Plan One:
 To project the client proposing the erection of a full-cycle cement
factory as one that had consistent, and enviable good track record
in importing cement from producing countries at the most
mutually beneficial market prices.

114
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

Action-Plan Two:
 To project the alternative progressive project of a cement clinker-
grinding plant which the proposer of a full-cycle cement factory
was prepared to install in an industrial setting at the main port of
its location.
Action-Plan Three:
 To sensitize members of the Government and the Civil Service,
Commerce, Industry and General Public , and in particular the
citizens about the implications of the proposed erection and
operation of a full-cycle cement factory on the island.
Action-Plan Four:
 To seek and obtain the support of the members of the Civil
Council.
PR Programme Prosecution
The programmes listed below were designed and implemented to achieve
the preceding four action plans or objectives.
1. Memoranda were prepared in full detail on
a. the economics of the supply and production of cement in the
island;
b. the feasibility of the cement clinker-grinding factory;
c. the argumentation of (a) above, upon receipt by the proposing
company of the cement plant complex of information of a politico-
economical arrangement involved in the proposal to establish the
full-cycle cement plant, that would have resulted in some far
reaching disadvantages to the nationals of the island.
1. The insertion of full-page prestige advertisement stating the
aims and reasons of the client to prevent the establishment of
a full-cycle cement plant in the island.
2. The sustained issuing of news releases and, when thought
opportune, the calling of press conferences. Letters to the
editor on the issue was encouraged.
3. The writing and placement of authoritative articles on the
economics and difficulties of manufacturing and exporting
cement in the currently saturated market. Such articles were
published in three Sunday Newspapers and on that occasion
one thousand copies of each were purchased and sent to the
island on the first ferry. The consignment was then
distributed gratis by hired taxis in the ratio of one to every
three houses on the island.
4. The lobbying of Members of Parliament especially cabinet
members and other opinion leaders in the opposition party.
5. The obtaining and spreading of knowledge of findings in
Europe and elsewhere of pollution and other nuisance values
of cement factories.

115
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

6. The annulling of favourable opinions on the development of

the full-cycle cement factory which was being expressed by
individual priests in the island on the mistaken belief that
temptations are associated with facilities, such as night clubs
for tourists!
7. The overcoming of the threat by four MPs of the island to
cross the carpet if the government refused to permit the
establishment of the full-cycle cement factory. This would
have spelled doom for the national party because the
government’s Parliamentary majority was only six.
8. The supporting of major sponsor of tourist resort
development - the National Trust - in the preparation of a
long statement, which was given tremendous prominence in
the island’s newspapers, listing not less than 13 reasons -
from dust to other polluting agents - why the proposed
cement factory should not be built on the island.
9. The promotion of touristic developments on land adjacent to
the site chosen for the proposed cement factory.
The PR Campaign and Its Results
The preceding extensive PR campaign succeeded by gaining a
widespread understanding within government, industrial and commercial
circles and by the public in general of the disadvantages that a
comparatively dirty industry, such as a cement factory, would unleash on
an island community. Consequently, it was agreed that there should be an
indefinite period of statusquo, pending the government’s re-appraisal of
the cement factory in general. Meanwhile, very soon after this position by
the island community, the tourist industry in the island gathered the much
desired impetus since the threat to its future had been removed.
Source: Jefkins (1972). Planned Public Relations. London: Intertext
Books, as earlier cited in Adegoke, L.A.(2001). Introduction to Public
Relations: Principles, Media and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik
Publishing Company.

Case Study III: The Problem or Issue: Crisis of Confidence

Up-Crown Paints Limited, a reputable company in the paints industry
produced and successfully launched a new range of paints. A year later,
complaints about the unpleasant odour given off by the paint started to
pour in. (The smell was not noticeable when the walls were originally
painted). Within a short period, torrents of complaints kept coming in
everyday, in their hundreds. The mass media learnt of this problem and
enquired what the company proposed to do about it.
Question:Outline the Public Relations recommendations you would
make to your Board in an effort to overcome this problem.
The recommendations of an anonymous Public Relations Officer to the
Board of his company are presented below:

116
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

Memorandum to Director-General
The Situation
Our investigation as you are aware has shown that the fault is absolutely
with the product. The oil base used in the production runs of Up-Crown
Paints was imported from the Europe in a very large carrier of crude oil.
On an earlier run, the vessel had been carrying molasses and it is now
clear that contamination occurred. The Research Department asserts that
when the atmosphere is warm and over a period of time, the paint will
give off an unpleasant odour.
The Issue or Problem
The company risks losing its reputation for quality and reliability which
it has spent so much time, money and effort, building up. Thus, if we
lose our reputation, our market share is bound to be adversely affected.
We know now that it is only the initial production runs that have been
affected. The product is now excellent. Our problem is to take a quick
action to secure the company’s corporate image.
Target Audiences
Our market research has shown that our customers include:
 building firms
 professional painters and decorators
 contract painters
 do-it-yourself enthusiasts, and also
 paint stores
 paint wholesalers
 DIY shops
These audiences are widespread throughout the country. Besides, we
must include our own workforce, shareholders and local community.
The Message
We wish to get across to our audiences that Up-Crown Paints Ltd. is a
very reputable manufacturer of high quality paints, and that it is
concerned to help its customers overcome this most unusual problem
which relates to only a single batch of paint.
Objective
Our objective must be: to communicate our message as quickly and
effectively as possible to our target audiences.
Recommended Programme: The PR Strategies
The Public Relations department has discussed this issue with the
financial, marketing, distribution and personnel departments. Our
suggestion is that: a two-point programme should be adopted:
1. Those that purchased the faulty paint should be offered new
supplies, gratis, on production of suitable evidence that they
bought paint earlier. The offer would be open for a limited period

117
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

of two weeks from a specified date. The estimated cost to the

company is N2000,000. (There would be no difficulty in
providing supplies). The details of administering this offer are
being worked out by the marketing department in a separate
document.
2. A communications programme should be implemented to let our
audiences know that we are a responsible organisation which is
taking action. The programme would be as follows:
a) Internal Publics
i. Convene a senior management meeting immediately to explain
agreed plan.
ii. Special briefing to be arranged for sales representatives.
iii. Brief memorandum drafted by Public Relations department to be
circulated to management and supervisory grades by the director
general explaining the situation and actions to be taken.
Information to be passed on to other staff.
iv. Bulletin to be prepared for all company notice-boards.
b) External Publics
i. Inform wholesale and retail outlets of the programme. When
supplies of replacement paints are known to be available, the
Public Relations department will invite local media
representatives for a briefing meeting with the Director General.
Policy line, likely questions, will be reviewed beforehand.
ii. Following day, arrange press conference in Ibadan, Lagos or
Abuja for national media, trade and technical press.
iii. Quarter page advertisements to be placed in single issues of trade
journals such as The Decorator; Painting and Decorating Journal;
Wallpaper, Paint and Wall covering (all these are monthly
journals). Also in monthly trade publications such as The
Painting Trade, etc.
It is important that we take action quickly. This is to make it possible for
explanatory advertisements to appear within two weeks.
Feedback
Through sales representatives, we should keep in close touch with the
progress of the operation. Funds of N800,000 should be set aside to carry
out a selective attitude survey among customers. In this way we shall see
the degree to which our action may have encouraged customers to
moderate their hostility or antagonism against the company.

Follow-up
We must ensure that the project is underway and operating successfully,
we must make sure that regular reports are sent to the press. In this, we
shall demonstrate that we are indeed the reputable organisation we claim
to be and that we are taking swift actions in the interests of our
customers, and our corporate image.

118
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

Budgets
We suggest that an initial budget of N3000,000 be set aside to cover the
costs of the communication programme, including travel, production of
press information, arrangement of a press conference and a post-operative
attitude survey. Detailed costing will be established within the next 48
hours.
Conclusion
The above recommendation is proposed for the Board’s approval, as a
matter of urgency, in the interest of our corporate image and thus
reputation.
Source: An adaptation from CAM Foundation’s Guided Studies. London:
Communication and Marketing Foundation (CAM), as earlier cited in
Adegoke, L.A.(2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles, Media
and Methods. Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.

Case Study IV: Department of Communication and Language Arts (CLA),

University of Ibadan, 2000
Introduction
This case history was my account of what was prevailing, in year 2000, at
the Department of Communication and Language Arts (CLA), University
of Ibadan, Ibadan, where I was a member of faculty. It exemplifies,
especially, the potency of interpersonal, face-to-face communication as a
tool of Public Relations in resolving human/institutional problems.
Indeed, I cannot agree more with Dr. Larinde Akinleye who said, in year
2000, that “...at the opportunity of an interpersonal communication
encounter, understanding tends to increase”.
The Problem or Issue: Staff Situation
The Department of Communication and Language Arts (CLA) University
of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria was faced with the problems of acute shortage
of staff, large number of students and many courses to teach. To resolve
these problems, more lecturers were needed. Consequently, the current
departmental head wrote to the University authority requesting that some
positions which had been frozen since the embargo on new employment
should be defrozen, to enable the department to employ additional staff.
The department then requested for seven academic staff and two
additional non-academic staff. Hitherto, the CLA department had 12
lecturers, 10 on ground, and two on sabbatical leave, and four non-
academic staff: a secretary, two typists and a clerical officer.
However, the University authority approved three lecturers. Members of
the department strongly felt that this addition would not result in any
appreciable reduction in their teaching, and project supervision work
load. The situation was further worsened when the departmental proposal
to fill the three approved positions through temporary appointment was
rejected by the then Dean of Faculty of Arts.

Objective

119
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

The departmental objective was to urgently seek an audience with the

Dean and present the three-pronged problems facing the CLA department
through interpersonal communication. For, “at the opportunity of face-
to-face interpersonal communication, understanding increases” (Dr. J. O.
Akinleye, 2000).
The Public Relations Strategies
The Head of Department convened an emergency meeting where he
informed members about the latest on the efforts to get additional staff.
The members therefore resolved to have a meeting with the Dean who
agreed to meet the staff.
The HOD sent notices of this crucial meeting to members after some
informal chats with individuals and groups of individuals at every
available opportunity. Before the meeting proper, the HOD also consulted
freely to informally articulate the position of the department at the
meeting with the Dean.
Keeping the Appointment
Some minutes before the meeting, the HOD had gone to intimate the
Dean that members of staff were ready for the meeting. However, the
HOD was reliably informed that the Dean had travelled. Nonetheless,
members unanimously decided that it was best to move en-masse to the
Dean’s office to put on record that they were there as scheduled,
notwithstanding the information about his journey. This was to serve as a
mark of respect for the Dean who graciously agreed to meet members of
the department.
When all the staff of the department arrived the lobby of the Dean’s
office, the Dean had not arrived; only one of the administrative staff in
the Dean’s office was available because they were on strike. The staff
then decided to wait for some time to register their presence . After about
twenty minutes, they left for the HOD’s office with the strong conviction
that the Dean might arrive anytime from then.
When the Dean arrived, he sent a message that he would meet members
of the department at the HOD’s office. Members were immediately
alerted to assemble at the departmental office.
The Meeting
The HOD welcomed the Dean to the department. Since there was no
formal agenda, the HOD started off the discussion by briefly restating the
reason for the meeting; he then handed over the conduct of the meeting to
the Dean. The major issue was the staff situation and subsumed under this
were other issues such as work load, project supervision and presentation
of Post-Graduate students’ results.
The Dean started by offering apologies for his inability to honour the
10:00 a.m. appointment. He explained that he had to rush from Lagos
that morning to enable him to attend the meeting. Besides, the Dean
expressed delight at the forum and observed that the CLA Department
was the first to initiate such level of interaction and hoped that such
meetings would continue. He particularly emphasized that this kind of

120
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

forum would afford both the Dean and the academic staff the much
needed mutual interaction for individual and departmental development.
The Dean then told the meeting why he objected to the appointment of
lecturers on temporary basis. He believed that doing so might rob the
department of good hands which normally would come through
competitive interview.
The Dean sought to know the departmental staff strength; he was told that
the department had 12 lecturers: 10 on ground and 2 on sabbatical/leave
of absence. The Dean remarked that it was not surprising that each
member of staff in the department had had to cope with enormous
workload, noting that the staff strength was not commensurate with the
departmental students’ population. Such a situation, he added, was an
exploitation capable of jeopardising staff academic development and
welfare.
While recognising that there were problems, the Dean emphasized that
rather than pass the buck, the actual thing to do was to tackle the
problems. Thus, he counselled that the department should critically
appraise its curricula in relation to its staff strength and identify the
workload that the staff could conveniently carry. He believed that
courses which could lead to coping with extremely excessive workload
should be declared ‘not available’.
At this juncture, a former Head of the Department thanked the Dean for
his concern for the department; he sought to know why the University
authority approved only three positions to be filled when it was
conversant with the precarious staffing situation in the department.
Besides, he also sought clarification on why the suggested names sent to
fill the three approved positions were turned down.
In his answer, the Dean said that defrosted positions were always down-
graded when they were to be filled. For example, he further explained, a
defrosted professorial chair does not necessarily have to be filled by
another professor, except in case of a vacancy. On why the names of
those recommended to fill the approved positions were rejected, the Dean
said it was purely on technical grounds. While noting that though the
positions could be filled through temporary appointments, the Dean
emphasized that it was ideal for such positions to be advertised, adding
that it was only in very critical and emergency situations could such
appointment be made on temporary basis. He further explained that his
position on the matter of temporary appointment was to forestall the
probable problems of loyalty and human influence usually associated
with temporary appointments. However, he suggested that the
department could take advantage of the votes meant for the defrosted
position by employing associate lecturers pending the formal
advertisement of the positions.
The Dean further advised that one of the persons proposed for the
position of Lecturer II should be employed after his Doctoral defence.
On the second proposed name, the Dean said he rejected it on the strength
of not having any Language Arts related Degree.
At this juncture, a senior member of staff offered additional information
by explaining to the Dean that the person proposed for the second

121
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

position had his Masters Degree in language teaching, and that the
proposed person was a Doctoral student in the department. He further
remarked that the person proposed for the second position of Lecturer II
has been rendering invaluable assistance especially in the language
component of the department’s programme.
Commenting on the issue of Associate Lecturers, the speaker pointed out
that Associate Lecturers might not be the best for the department. For
example, he further pointed out, associated lecturers cannot supervise
students’ projects which is one area where staff are extremely
overstretched because of the population of students in the department.
He therefore appealed to the Dean for concession in the appointment of
Assistant Lecturer on Temporary Appointment as a help to the
department.
Responding to the last contribution, the Dean sought to correct the
impression of his being against the department. He remarked that the
meeting had afforded him an additional information which has made him
to appreciate, better than before, the situation in the department. The
Dean emphasized that the information which the forum elicited had
enlightened him, and has thus helped in correcting the previous
impressions he had about the department.
Decision
After further extensive deliberations, the Dean advised the Head of
Department to re-open the matter of additional staff with him as soon as
the NASU/SSANU strikes were over. Besides, he counselled the
department to re-present its additional request for more staff with a view
to obtaining more defrosted positions through the Vice-Chancellor’s
approval.
On the issue of the visiting lecturer, the Dean suggested that the vote of a
member of staff who was on sabbatical leave elsewhere could be used to
cater for the salaries of the visiting Senior Lecturer. Thus, the Dean
advised that this case should also be re-presented.
On how the department could get more hands, the Dean advised that
Ph.D. students who demonstrate adequate intellectual capability for
teaching in the University and who the department could vouch for could
be appointed as Part-Time Associate Lecturers in lieu of anticipated more
defrosted positions.
Closing Remarks
In his closing remarks, the Dean commended the department’s team spirit
and commitment to common goal, noting with satisfaction the
department’s pride of place in the Faculty of Arts. He also extolled the
department’s two-stage Ph.D. examining process and strictness in terms
of students’ accreditation at all levels. He then promised to recommend
these remarkable developments to other departments in the Faculty of
Arts. He also remarked that the department has the best structured Post
Graduate (PG) studies in the faculty, adding that the department should
properly streamline students’ intake on the basis of its staff strength.
The Head of Department seized the opportunity to remind the Dean of the
department’s attempt to ensure the quality of its intakes into the PG
122
 Study Session 12Public Relations Case Studies

programme through a qualifying examination. He noted that the proposal

on this had been forwarded to the PG Board of Studies. He also used the
opportunity to make a passionate appeal to the Dean for a concessional
support in re-presenting some spill-over results which had earlier been
rejected by the Faculty Board of Studies (PG).
In his response, the Dean emphasised that the fault laid with the
department, adding that the department should always endeavour to set
deadlines which it must enforce. He informed the meeting that the PG
regulation only allows for one year concession after the initial twelve
calendar months of full-time study. However, he advised that the
department should present the results that were ready, adding that beyond
the two-year limit, registration would have formally lapsed.
Consequently, he noted, students who fall into that category would not be
fit to seek admission into that department any longer. He said that the
case of spill over could only accommodate the 1996/97 set. The Dean
counselled the department to tidy up loose ends. The Dean, however,
commended the proposed qualifying examination for potential PG
students and noted that the proposal would be modified and adapted at
the faculty level. He described the CLA department as the Faculty of
Arts’ image maker, remarking that good and innovative ideas had often
emanated from the department.
In his closing remarks, the Departmental Head expressed the
department’s appreciation to the Dean for his visit, invaluable
contribution, counsel and concessions. The Dean then reiterated that as
soon as the situations on the campus became normalised, efforts should
be taken to implement the resolutions taken at the meeting.
A very remarkable case which reinforces interpersonal, face-to-face,
communication as an effective tool of PR were the strident criticisms of
the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo’s frequent trips to foreign countries at the expense of urgent
national matters. In reference to such criticisms, Chief Obasanjo used the
platform of the Radio Nigeria’s Presidential Monthly Media Chat in
October, 2000 to give the raison d’etre for his foreign trips. According to
him, what he has achieved for Nigeria through his interpersonal, face-to-
face, interaction with the heads of government of the countries he visited
could not have been achieved through other means of communication.
Remarkably, and for the records, Chief Obasanjo, among other things,
sought and got concession for the release to the government the
avalanche of public money kept in foreign personal accounts by some
notable Nigerian public servants.
Author’s Remarks
The preceding Case Study IV attests to the potency of interpersonal, face-
to-face communication in resolving human problems, and as an
effective medium of Public Relations.

123
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you examined various case studies bordering on
public relations.

Summary

Bibliography
Adegoke, L.A., (2009). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles,
Media and Methods. Amsterdam: Homelab Ventures, Book Publishing
Unit

Reading

124
 Notes on Self Assessment Questions

Notes on Self Assessment Questions

FEEDBACK TO SAQ 1.1

What this question requires of you is to first remove all misconceptions about
PUBLIC RELATIONS. Thus, the first step is to identify these
misconceptions and point them out. The second phase of this question is
to identify the various definitions of PUBLIC RELATIONS as you have
learnt in this session. It is expected that you round off by attempting to
give our own definition of PUBLIC RELATIONS based on the issues
involved in it.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 2.1
This question expects you to mention each of the fourteen areas of public relations
discussed in this session as well as explain the scope of each of the areas.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 3.1
The questions raised here are just an avenue for you to show you actually understand
the concepts related to PUBLIC RELATIONS. For each of the concepts
raised in the questions, ou are expected to tell s what each meant and
entails.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 4.1
This question is a three-in-one package. To answer it apPublic RelationsoPublic
Relationsiately, you are expected to first explain to us what a model is.
Having done this, it is apPublic RelationsoPublic Relationsiate to tell us
which of the models appeal to you most. This means it is expected that
you know about each of the other models as well.
You will recall that we discussed three popular models of Public Relations among
which is R.A.C.E., an acronym which stands for: Research, Action,
Communication and Evaluation; each letter in the acronym was clearly
explained. We also gave brief explanations of the six components of
Jefkin’s model. The six points are: ApPublic Relationseciation of the
situation (or Public Relationsoblem analysis); Definition of objectives;
Definition of publics; Choice of media and techniques (media selection,
methods and messages); Budget and Evaluation (assessment and
modification). We also discussed Grunig and Hunt’s models: Public
Relationsess Agency/Publicity, Public Information, Two-way
Asymmetric, and Two-way Symmetric.
It is expected that our explanation must tell us why you Public Relationsefer a model
to another. You can as well decide to argue that you want to use all of
the models. Our argument is what sends our position across.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 5.1
This question requires that a definition of a theory is first given. Having done this, you
can now Public Relationsoceed explain the connection between a theory
and public relations.

12
5
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

FEEDBACK TO SAQ 5.2

This question requires ou to highlight each of the theories that you studied in this
session. You will recall that we looked at the Harrison’s version of
Shannon and Weaver, the Westley-McLean’s and Grunig’s four
theoretical models and explained their relevance to PUBLIC
RELATIONS Public Relationsactice, using both the Harrison’s and
Wesley-McLean’s graphic constructs. We emphasised that symmetrical
communication facilitates understandable communication through
dialogue which in turn accommodates feedback without which
communication is never complete.
Having explained each of the theories, it is expected that you will explain which of
them you consider most effective and why.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 6.1
This question requires you to identify and explain the Public Relationsinciples of
PUBLIC RELATIONS viz-a-viz its skills. In other words, you are
expected to identify the Public Relationsinciples which are truth, for
management and public consumption; access to management’s thinking
or thoughts; openness; willingness to supply Public Relationsompt and
accurate information and possession of absolute, thorough knowledge of
the organization for which one works. Having done this, you are expected
to link how these Public Relationsinciples come to play in the skills of
PUBLIC RELATIONS which writing, reading, listening, and speaking.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 6.2
This question requires that you identify the functions performed b a PUBLIC
RELATIONS Public Relationsactitioner. In answering this question,
efforts must be made towards explaining how PUBLIC RELATIONS is a
management function as well.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 7.1
This question requires that you highlight and explain each of the sub-categories of
PUBLIC RELATIONS publics. However, it is expedient to first point out
that there are two major classification of PUBLIC RELATIONS publics.
You are expected to mention them and also explain. The question should
be rounded off by explaining why the classification becomes necessary
for an organization.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 8.1
This question requires that you explain what you explain what PUBLIC RELATIONS
media means. It is expected that you point out that an organization has
four fundamental alternatives when it comes to the type of corporate
image it wants for itself: a defender, a Public Relationsospector, an
analyzer, or a reactor and what each means. Your answer is also expected
to explain the mediums of PUBLIC RELATIONS which are the basic
and composite media. Importantly, the connection between interpersonal
communication and PUBLIC RELATIONS must be shown as well as the
impact of the former on the latter. Your answer must also identify and
explain the images available to a corporate organization.

126
 Notes on Self Assessment Questions

FEEDBACK TO SAQ 9.1

This question requires that you cover the various forms of audio-visual media media.
This should range from television, video, photography, radio, folk and
oral media. Your answer must state the rules that a Public Relations
professional is meant to adhere with for each form as well as highlight
their characteristics and importance to public relations practice.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 10.1
In writing a detailed explanation about news release, it is expected that you explain
what it means, its origin, elements and its variant – the Video News
Release. You are also expected to discuss when a news release is
embargoed, how to write and distribute it, and its main sections of:
content, format and presentation and tips about them as well as the
criticism against news release. Efforts must also be made to explain the
differences between a news release and a news article among other
things.
FEEDBACK TO SAQ 11.1
In answering this question, an attempt must be made at defining what public relations
method is. Having done this, it is now expected that you will highlight the
various techniques which range from from community relations,
customer relations, employee relations, shareholder relations, media
relations, and public relations, to special events and promotions in
relation to how they result in mutually benefiting outcomes for both the
organisation and their publics.

127
CLA 211 Principles of Public Relations

References

Adamolekun, W., Ekundayo .T, (2002). Interactive Public Relations. Lagos: Taymos in
Association with Joe-Tolalu & Associates.
Adegoke, L.A., (2001). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles, Media and Methods.
Ibadan: Sulek-Temik Publishing Company.
Adegoke, L.A., (2009). Introduction to Public Relations: Principles, Media and Methods.
Amsterdam: Homelab Ventures, Book Publishing Unit
Ademolekun, W., Ekundayo, T. (2002). Interactive Public Relations. Lagos: Taymos in
Association with Joe-Tolalu & Associates.
Ajala V. O. (1993). Public Relations: In search of Professional Excellence, Ibadan:
Afrika-Linkoks.
Ajala, V.A. (1993). Public Relations in Search of Excellence. Ibadan: Afrika-Link
Books.
Biddlecombe, Peter (1970). Financial Advertising and PR London: Business Books Ltd.
Black, Sam. (1978). Practical Public Relations. London: Pitman Publishing Limited.
Bowman & Ellis. (1979). Manual of Public Relations. London: William Heinemann
Ltd.
Brooks, W. D. & Heath, R. W. (6th ed.) (1989). Speech Communication. Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm.C. Brown Publishers.
Business Dictionary. http://www.businessdictionary.com accessed 26th March, 2013..
CAM Foundations (1982). Guided Studies. London: CAM Foundations.
Dominick, J. R. (1993). The Dynamics of Mass Communication (4th Ed.) New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Dunn, Jim (1990). Public Relations that Works. London: Hawksmere Plc.
en .wikipedia.org/wiki/plan Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Accessed August 12, 2009.
Fawkes, Johanna (2001) “What is public Relations” in Theaker, A. The Public Relations
Handbook. New York: Routledge.
Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory Text. Ibadan:
Stirling-Horden.
Folarin, B. (2006). Advanced Theories in Mass Communication. Lagos: National Open
University of Nigeria.

128
 References

Haywood, Roger (1984). All About PR. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK)
Ltd.
http://www.businessdictionary.com accessed 26th March, 2013.
James, Ode & Soola (1990). Introduction to Communication for Business and
Organisations. Ibadan: Spectrum Book Ltd.
Jefkins, F. (1972). Planned Public Relations. London: Intertext Books.
Jefkins, F. (1983). Public Relations for Marketing Management. London. The
Macmillan Press Limited
John, Shubin (1957). Business Management, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
Lloyd, Herbert (1980). Public Relations, London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd.
Nestle Nigeria (1996). Annual Report and Financial Statements. Lagos: Public Relations
Unit.
Nestle Nigeria, (1995). Newsletter. Lagos: Public Relations Unit Vol. 5, Nos. 1-4.
Ogunsanya, Adegboyega (1991). Strategy and Public Relations for the Chief Executive
Officer. Lagos: Richmond Books Limited.
Omole, Sola (1998). Appropriate Strategies for Communicating Environmental Issues
with Oil Producing Communities: The Chevron Experience.” A Paper presented
at the National Conference on Communication and the Environment, held at the
University of Lagos, March 10, 1998.
Salu, O.S. (1994). Understanding Public Relations. Lagos: Talkback Publishers Limited.
Theaker, A. (2001). The Public Relations Handbook. New York: Routledge
Theaker, A. (2001). The Public Relations Handbook. New York: Routledge.
Weihrich, H. & Koontz, (1995) H. (10th ed.). Management: A Global Perspective. New
York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

12
9