COURSE MANUAL

International Organizations
POS453

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright ©2010, Revised 2015 by Distance Learning Centre, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

ISBN 978-021-403-8

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (80775935727)
E-mail: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of
service in the provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance Learning
Education in Nigeria and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are
committed is providing access to many deserving Nigerians in having access to higher
education especially those who by the nature of their engagement do not have the
luxury of full time education. Recently, it is contributing in no small measure to
providing places for teeming Nigerian youths who for one reason or the other could
not get admission into the conventional universities.
These course materials have been written by writers specially trained in ODL course
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It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.

Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for
Nigerians and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance
Learning Centre has recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which
aimed at embracing a holistic and all encompassing approach to the delivery of its
Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes. Thus we are committed to global best
practices in distance learning provision. Apart from providing an efficient
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educational resource materials for the use of our students. We are convinced that,
without an up-to-date, learner-friendly and distance learning compliant course
materials, there cannot be any basis to lay claim to being a provider of distance
learning education. Indeed, availability of appropriate course materials in multiple
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In view of the above, we are vigorously pursuing as a matter of priority, the provision
of credible, learner-friendly and interactive course materials for all our courses. We
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not only emphasizes cognitive knowledge, but also skills and humane values which are
at the core of education, even in an ICT age.
The development of the materials which is on-going also had input from experienced
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feel isolated from the community of learners.
It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to source
and read relevant materials apart from this course material. Therefore, adequate
supplementary reading materials as well as other information sources are suggested in
the course materials.
Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are
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advisors during your study even before the interactive session which is by design for
revision. Your academic advisors will assist you using convenient technology
including Google Hang Out, You Tube, Talk Fusion, etc. but you have to take
advantage of these. It is also going to be of immense advantage if you complete
assignments as at when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as a guide.
The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop
requisite distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study,
seeking available administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic
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computer skills by availing yourself the opportunity of training that the Centre’s
provide and put these into use.
In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the
regular students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high
quality textbooks. We are therefore, delighted to present these titles to both our
distance learning students and the university’s regular students. We are confident that
the materials will be an invaluable resource to all.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high
quality of work.

Best wishes.

Professor Bayo Okunade

Director
Course Development Team
Course Writer Dr. A. Irene Pogoson

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Dr. Gloria O. Adedoja
Learning Design & Technologist Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
POS453 International Organizations

Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1

Course Overview 3
Welcome to International Organizations POS453 ............................................................................................. 3
Course outcomes .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Timeframe........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
How to be successful in this course ......................................................................................................................... 5
Need help?........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Academic Support............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Activities .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Assessments ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Getting around this course manual 8

Margin icons ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Study Session 1 9
Understanding International Organization .......................................................................................................... 9
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 The Meaning of International Organisations................................................................................... 9
1.2 Origins of International Organisations ........................................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Belief in Community of Humankind ................................................................................ 10
1.2.2 Big-Power Peacekeeping ...................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Functional Cooperation ........................................................................................................ 11
1.3 Growth of International Organisations ........................................................................................... 11
1.4 Roles of International Organisations ............................................................................................... 12
1.5 Classifications of International Organisation ............................................................................... 13
1.5.1 Intergovernmental Governmental Organisations (IGOs)....................................... 13
1.5.2 International Non-governmental Organisations........................................................ 14
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Study Session 2 16
Theoretical Issues in International Relations ................................................................................................... 16
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.1 Definition of Theory ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.2 Foundational Theories in International Relations ..................................................................... 16
2.2.1 Realism......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.2 Liberalism ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Idealism ....................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.4 Neo-Marxism ............................................................................................................................. 18
2.3 Theories of Integration .......................................................................................................................... 18
Contents ii

2.3.1 Functionalism............................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.2 Neo-Functionalism.................................................................................................................. 19
2.4 Contemporary Theories in International Relations .................................................................. 20
2.4.1 Theory of Pacific Settlement ............................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Theory of Collective Security.............................................................................................. 21
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Study Session 3 24
United Nation.................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 Background to the Establishment of United Nation .................................................................. 24
3.1.1 Structure of The League........................................................................................................ 25
3.1.2 Failures of the League of Nations ..................................................................................... 26
3.2 United Nation as a Universal Organization ................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Convention that Led to Formation of the United Nation ........................................ 27
The Charter of the United Nations ................................................................................... 27
3.2.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations .......................................................... 27
Purposes of the United Nation........................................................................................... 27
Principles of the United Nations ....................................................................................... 28
Major Objectives of the United Nations ......................................................................... 28
3.2.3 Membership of The United Nations................................................................................. 28
3.2.4 Benefits of the UN to States ................................................................................................. 28
3.3 Organisation of the United Nations .................................................................................................. 29
3.3.1 The General Assembly ........................................................................................................... 29
3.3.2 The Security Council .............................................................................................................. 29
3.3.3 The Economic and Social Council ..................................................................................... 30
3.3.4 Trusteeship Council................................................................................................................ 30
3.3.5 International Court of Justice: ............................................................................................ 31
3.3.6 Secretariat .................................................................................................................................. 31
3.3.7 The UN Agencies ...................................................................................................................... 32
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)................. 32
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) ................................................... 32
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) .................................................. 33
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) ................................................................... 33
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
......................................................................................................................................................... 33
World Health Organisation (WHO) ................................................................................. 33
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) ........................ 34
World Trade Organisation (WTO) ................................................................................... 34
3.4 UN Budget and Finances ....................................................................................................................... 34
3.5 Achievements of the United Nations................................................................................................ 35
3.6 Challenges Facing the United Nations ............................................................................................. 37
POS453 International Organizations

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 38

Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 39

Study Session 4 39
Bretton Woods Institutions ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Background to the Bretton Woods Institutions .......................................................................... 40
4.2 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) ........................................................................................ 40
4.2.1 The IMF Structure ................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Criticisms against IMF ........................................................................................................... 41
4.3 The World Bank ........................................................................................................................................ 43
4.3.1 Structure of the World Bank ............................................................................................... 44
4.3.2 Criticism against World Bank............................................................................................. 44
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 46
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Study Session 5 47
Security Alliances: North Atlantic Treaty Organization ............................................................................... 47
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.1 Emergence of NATO ................................................................................................................................ 47
8.2 Purpose of NATO ...................................................................................................................................... 48
8.3 Structure of NATO .................................................................................................................................... 49
8.4 NATO after the Cold War....................................................................................................................... 49
8.5 Challenges Facing NATO........................................................................................................................ 50
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 50
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 51

Study Session 6 52
The European Union .................................................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
6.1 Background of EU ..................................................................................................................................... 52
EU Areas of Interest ........................................................................................................................... 53
6.2 Structure of the EU................................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.1 The Commission....................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.2 The Council of Ministers ....................................................................................................... 54
6.2.3 European Parliament ............................................................................................................. 54
6.2.4 The European Court of Justice ........................................................................................... 54
6.3 Challenges Facing the EU ...................................................................................................................... 55
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 56

Study Session 7 57
The African Union ......................................................................................................................................................... 57
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
7.1 Historical Background of AU ............................................................................................................... 57
Contents iv

7.2 Advent of AU ............................................................................................................................................... 58

7.3 Organs of the AU ....................................................................................................................................... 59
7.3.1 The Assembly ............................................................................................................................ 59
7.3.2 The Pan-African Parliament................................................................................................ 60
7.3.3 The Executive Council ........................................................................................................... 60
7.3.4 The Permanent Representatives Committee............................................................... 60
7.3.5 The Economic, Social, and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC)......................................... 60
7.3.6 The Secretariat ......................................................................................................................... 60
7.3.7 The African Court of Justice ................................................................................................ 60
7.3.8 The Peace and Security Council......................................................................................... 61
7.3.9 The Specialized and Technical Committees ................................................................. 61
7.4 AU Financial Institutions....................................................................................................................... 61
7.4.1 The African Central Bank ..................................................................................................... 61
7.4.2 The African Monetary Fund ................................................................................................ 61
7.4.3 The African Investment Bank............................................................................................. 62
7.5 Principles and Objectives of AU ......................................................................................................... 62
7.6 Sub-Regional Affiliations ....................................................................................................................... 63
7.7 Achievements of AU ................................................................................................................................ 64
7.8 Challenges Facing AU .............................................................................................................................. 64
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 66
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 66

Study Session 8 67
Economic Community of West African States .................................................................................................. 67
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
8.1 Historical Background of ECOWAS ................................................................................................... 67
8.1.1 The Main Features of 1975 Treaty ................................................................................... 68
8.2 Organs of ECOWAS .................................................................................................................................. 69
8.2.1 Authority of Heads of State and Government.............................................................. 69
8.2.2 Council of Ministers ................................................................................................................ 69
8.2.3 The ECOWAS Parliament...................................................................................................... 69
8.2.4 Executive Secretariat ............................................................................................................. 70
8.3 Principles of ECOWAS ............................................................................................................................ 71
8.4 Challenges Facing ECOWAS ................................................................................................................. 71
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 72
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 73

Study Session 9 73
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ............................................................................................. 74
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 74
9.1 Formation of OPEC .................................................................................................................................. 74
9.2 Aims of OPEC .............................................................................................................................................. 75
9.3 Organs of OPEC.......................................................................................................................................... 76
9.4 Challenges Facing OPEC ........................................................................................................................ 76
POS453 International Organizations

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 77

Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 77

Study Session 10 78
Translational Actors .................................................................................................................................................... 78
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
10.1 Multinational Corporations ............................................................................................................... 78
10.1.1 What are Multinational Corporations? ........................................................................ 78
10.1.2 Growing Importance of MNC in Global Politics........................................................ 79
10.1.3 Criticisms against MNCs..................................................................................................... 79
10.2 Nongovernmental Organisations .................................................................................................... 80
10.2.1 What are Nongovernmental Organisations? ............................................................. 80
10.2.2 Criticisms against NGOs ..................................................................................................... 81
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 81
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 82

References 82
 About this course manuall

About this course manuall

International OrganizationsPOS453 has been produced by University of
Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All course manuals produced by
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centreare structured in the same
way, as outlined below.

How this course manual is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Margin icons.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
An introduction to the Study Session content.
Study Session outcomes.
Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
A Study Session summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Bibliography

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 POS453 International Organizations

Your comments
After completing International Organizations we would appreciate it if
you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of
this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
To offer comment, visit UIDLC Open and Distance Learning Course
Manuals page on Facebook or click here.

2
 Course Overview

Course Overview

Welcome to International
Organizations POS453
In the recent past, the world has witnessed the proliferation of
international organisations. This trend in world politics is not without
reason. Basically, this is because as the challenges confronting humanity
becomes increasingly complex, states and other international actors have
found it necessary to develop platforms such as international
organisations to confront the problems.
For instance, the end of the First World War and Second World War led
to discussions about how to create an international order that would be
peaceful and would help avert the large-scale wars that marked the past
of humanity. To avoid this problem, the idea of international organisation
was suggested. This thinking found expression in the establishment of the
League of Nations and the United Nations; and increasingly growing
number of international organisations many of which were created to
solve myriad human and societal problems.
In this course, we shall explore the rationale for the establishment of
international organisation, categories of international organisations and
their various functions in maintaining world order.

Course outcomes
Upon completion of International Organizations POS453 you will be able
to:
discuss the principles guiding Nigeria’s foreign policy.
point out the various actors involved in the country’s foreign policy
decision-making.
Outcomes examine the strengths and weaknesses of Nigeria’s foreign policy
since independence.
predict policy steps to strengthen the conduct and administration of
Nigeria’s foreign policy.

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 POS453 International Organizations

Timeframe
This is a 15 week course. It requires a formal study time of 45 hours. The
formal study times are scheduled around online discussions / chats with
your course facilitator / academic advisor to facilitate your learning.
Kindly see course calendar on your course website for scheduled dates.
You will still require independent/personal study time particularly in
How long? studying your course materials.

4
 Course Overview

How to be successful in this

course
As an open and distance learner your approach to learning will be
different to that from your school days, where you had onsite education.
You will now choose what you want to study, you will have professional
and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be
fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.dlc.ui.edu.ng/resources/studyskill.pdf
This is a resource of the UIDLC pilot course module. You will find
sections on building study skills, time scheduling, basic concentration
techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read
essays for analysis and memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.ivywise.com/newsletter_march13_how_to_self_study.htm
l
This site provides how to master self-studying, with bias to emerging
technologies.
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more, go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar phrases.

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 POS453 International Organizations

Need help?
As earlier noted, this course manual complements and supplements
POS453at UI Mobile Class as an online course.
You may contact any of the following units for information, learning
resources and library services.
Help
Distance Learning Centre (DLC) Head Office
University of Ibadan, Nigeria Morohundiya Complex, Ibadan-
Tel: (+234) 08077593551 – 55 Ilorin Expressway, Idi-Ose,
(Student Support Officers) Ibadan.
Email: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng

Information Centre
20 Awolowo Road, Bodija,
Ibadan.
For technical issues (computer problems, web access, and etcetera),
please send email to webmaster@dlc.ui.edu.ng.

Academic Support
A course facilitator is commissioned for this course. You have also been
assigned an academic advisor to provide learning support. The contacts of
your course facilitator and academic advisor for this course are available
at onlineacademicsupport@dlc.ui.edu.ng
Help

Activities
This manual features “Activities,” which may present material that is
NOT extensively covered in the Study Sessions. When completing these
activities, you will demonstrate your understanding of basic material (by
answering questions) before you learn more advanced concepts. You will
Activities be provided with answers to every activity question. Therefore, your
emphasis when working the activities should be on understanding your
answers. It is more important that you understand why every answer is
correct.

6
 Course Overview

Assessments
There are three basic forms of assessment in this course: in-text questions
(ITQs) and self assessment questions (SAQs), and tutor marked
assessment (TMAs). This manual is essentially filled with ITQs and
SAQs. Feedbacks to the ITQs are placed immediately after the questions,
Assessments while the feedbacks to SAQs are at the back of manual. You will receive
your TMAs as part of online class activities at the UI Mobile Class.
Feedbacks to TMAs will be provided by your tutor in not more than 2
weeks expected duration.
Schedule dates for submitting assignments and engaging in course / class
activities is available on the course website. Kindly visit your course
website often for updates.

Bibliography
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of the Study Sessions; these may
be books, articles or websites.

Readings

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POS453 International Organizations

Getting around this course manual

Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

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 Study Session 1 Understanding International Organization

Study Session 1

Understanding International Organization

Introduction
This Study Session will lay a conceptual foundation for the course. In
doing so, we will examine the meaning, reason, functions and classification
of international organisations.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 define and use correctly the term “international organisations”.
1.2 outline the origin of international organisations.
1.3 give reasons for the proliferation of international organisation.
1.4 highlight the functions of international organisations.
1.5 classify International Organisations.

1.1 The Meaning of International Organisations

In the 20th century, humanity witnessed two World Wars, a Cold War,
and dozens of civil wars many of which still persist today. Terrorism has
also become a cause for global concern among the several other problems
that now constitute huge challenges to humanity. So what do we do to
solve these problems?
One option is that we just fold our arms and do nothing and let all of
these challenges consume us all. Another option is that each state should
do what it deems fit. But if every country follows its own path to solving
the problem, such efforts could be counterproductive. For example, if to
solve the problem of global warming, country A decides to reduce its
Green House Gas emission and country B does the opposite, nothing will
be achieved.
The third option is to create an international organisation that would
galvanise and mobilise efforts to solve challenges and threats that
confront humanity. In the twentieth century, it is the third option that
resonates in the efforts that have been evolved to tackle transnational
challenges as evident in the proliferation of international organisations to
such an extent that on almost every issue, over and above the traditional
state-to-state diplomatic network, there exist a more or less permanent
framework of institutions through which collective measures can be
realized (Evans & Newnham 1997). Although states still remain the
primary actors in the international system, they now represent one group

9
POS453 International Organizations

among other significant actors like international organisations which are

increasingly providing frameworks for global governance.

To understand the importance of what international organisation do, imagine

a world where there are no international organisations.
Reflection

International organisations are more or less permanent multilateral

structures established by governments and nongovernmental bodies for
the pursuit of specific or general objectives, which may be economic,
political, socio-cultural or technical in nature. International organisations,
with permanent structures, membership and procedures, are one way
states (and non state actors) have tried to institutionalise diplomacy and
collective peace. (Kaarbo and Ray, 2011:303). The proliferation of
international organisations reflects the application of the principle of
liberalism, which emphasise the importance of international institutions
in global politics as arena for communication, diplomatic bargaining, and
an alternative to conflict. International organisations are institutional
responses to international problems. They are concrete, tangible
structures with specific functions and missions in the international
system.
A variety of actors are involved in the crucial issues of world politics. These are
state and non-state actors that form important parts of the global
environment. Realist theorists see states as the only important actors in
international system. However, since after the Second World War the world
has witnessed a proliferation of non-state actors that affect the possibilities
Hint and probabilities of state actions. Non state actors in the contemporary global
system include International Organisations (IOs) and one type of IO, the
Intergovernmental Organisation (IGO) and another type, the International
Nongovernmental Organisation (INGO) – have become important actors in
international relations. They help to shape the menu for state leaders and the
range of state behaviour in the international system.

1.2 Origins of International Organisations

International Organisations are a modern phenomenon. All of them were
created in the 20th Century. However, their origins extend far back in
history. Their origins can be traced to the following factors:

1.2.1 Belief in Community of Humankind

International organisations are rooted in a universalistic belief in the
concern for humanity. The idea is that all humans share a common bond
and all persons share the responsibility for each other’s welfare. Early
philosophers like William Penn and Immanuel Kant believed that the way
to accomplish these ends was through general international organisations.
This idea was the brain behind the formation of the League of Nations
and the United Nations. Member states of the United Nations regardless
of their size each occupy a seat on the United Nations General Assembly
giving every member-state a sense of belonging.

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 Study Session 1 Understanding International Organization

1.2.2 Big-Power Peacekeeping

IGOs also evolved from the idea that powerful countries have a special
responsibility to cooperate and preserve peace. Hugo Grotius often
referred to as the father of International Law opined that the major
Christian powers cooperate to mediate or arbitrate the disputes of others
or even, if required, to compel warring parties to accept peace (Rourke
2007). Grotius’ argument reflects the view that the survival of any
international order is a function of the resolve of the powerful states to
make it work. This point was evident in 1815 when powerful states
formed an informal coalition known as the Concert of Europe. Through
Balance of Power diplomacy the concert of these powerful states
managed to keep the peace until the outbreak of the First World War.
Today this idea is evident in the Security Council in the United Nations.
The Charter of the United Nations vests the Security Council with the
primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security (United Nations, 2004). The Security Council is made up of five
permanent members which are the big powers in the world today.
Although, some other powerful states have since emerged.

1.2.3 Functional Cooperation

The formation of international organisations has been driven by sheer
necessity. The increasing complex nature of the challenges confronting
humanity has created the need for specialized agencies to deal with
specific non-political technical and social problems. The growth of
specialized IGOs has been phenomenal. The oldest surviving specialized
IGOs are the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815),
the International Telegraphic (now Tele-communications) Union (1865)
and the Universal Postal Union (1874). The World Health Organisations,
International Atomic Energy Agency are similar organisations are either
affiliated with or work in collaboration with the United Nations.

1.3 Growth of International Organisations

The 20th century has witnessed a rapid growth in the number of
International Organisations. Generally, by taking advantage of
international organisations, states are able to achieve goals that they
cannot accomplish alone. Thus the growth of international organisations
occurred because international actors found that they need them and that
they work. In terms of quantity, the number of well-established IGOs
increased sevenfold from 37 in 1909 to 251 in 2004 (Rourke, 2007).
Apart from the quantitative growth, IGOs have expanded in their range of
concerns and roles. Indeed, there are now few if any major political
issues that are not addressed at the international level by one or more
International Organisations and few governmental roles that International
Organisations do not play. In some cases, existing IGOs take up new
roles, such as the role the UN is playing in combating terrorism,
biological warfare and environmental degradation. In other cases,
countries join to create new IGOs to address emerging areas of global
concern. The establishment of the International Mobile Satellite
Organisation (IMMARSAT) in 1979 was in response to the development

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POS453 International Organizations

of satellites, the ability to communicate through them and the need to

coordinate it. The expansion of IGOs has created a complex network of
overlapping international organisations that cooperate with one another to
deal with a wide range of global issues.
Why are IGOs growing in quantity and in their scope?
1. One of the forces behind the proliferation of IGOs is the
increased contact amongst people and states as a result of
revolution in communications and transportation technologies. It
is due to the increased exchanges and interactions between and
among states that IGOs have been created to provide
organisational structures so that these interactions can become
formalized.
2. Increased global interdependence has encouraged the growth of
IGOs particularly in the economic sphere.
3. The expansion of transnational problems that affect many states
and require solutions that are beyond the resources of any single
state like nuclear proliferation, terrorism etc.
4. The failure of the current state-system to provide security.
5. The effort of small states to gain strength through joint action in
order to influence international events. This led to emergence of
organisations like Non-aligned Movement, G-77 (now with more
members), OPEC, etc
6. The existence and successes of other international organisations
provide models and tentacles for other organisations to emerge

1.4 Roles of International Organisations

International Organisations perform many roles. One important role of
international organisations is rule making. It is believed that the rules that
guide international actors are products of international organisations.
However, some have argued that international organisations only give
legitimacy to rules, not to make the rules. International organisational
organisations also help in the enforcement of rules through sanctions and
other measures against erring members. They also help in fostering
peaceful cooperation among states. It is believed it is better to keep states
functionally together instead of having them stay apart, which makes
room for suspicion. International cartels like the Organisation of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) are used to regulate the prices
and supply of their products in order to protect their interests. Some
international organisations also handle international security challenges,
some handle issues of development and economic stability, while others
take of humanitarian issues. Specifically, international organisations
perform the following functions:
1. They provide an arena for communication, interaction,
negotiation and diplomacy.
2. IOs provide avenues for states to cooperate to solve problems.
3. IOs are independent actor that can take independent decisions.
Although what IGOs do is controlled by the wishes and votes of
its members, in reality, IGOs have developed strong and
relatively permanent administrative staff. Organisational

12
 Study Session 1 Understanding International Organization

independence is intended and established in the charters of

various IGOs (Rourke 2007).

1.5 Classifications of International Organisation

International organisations can be categorised in various ways. Some
international organisations are global in scope, other are regional or just
bilateral. Some are general in their purpose while others have specific
functional purposes. It is therefore imperative to distinguish between
types of international organisations. There are:
1) Intergovernmental Governmental Organisations; and
2) International Non-governmental Organisations

1.5.1 Intergovernmental Governmental Organisations

(IGOs)
They can be divided into global or regional organisations and grouped by
functions into general or specialized international organisations. These
categories and some examples of each are discussed below. One
commonality among some of them is that their memberships consist of
national governments. Therefore, they are termed International
Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs). Here we have as the United
Nations (UN), European Union (EU), African Union (AU), Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and etcetera.
IGO’s may be usefully classified according to the scope of their
membership and the scope of their purpose. There are universal political
organisations such as the former League of Nations ant the United
Nations which aim to include as wide an international membership as
possible. Such organisations are also general purpose organisations in
that they perform political, economic, military socio-cultural and other
functions for member states. Other general purpose organisations have
more restricted memberships.
One form of classification is according to the purpose and scope of
membership. Since IOs are established for certain purpose(s), it is
important to note how broad or narrow are the reasons for which they
have been established. To understand this issue, we shall introduce two
concepts – scope and domain (see Evans & Newnham, 1997). Scope
refers to the range of issues an IO exercises control over while domain
refers to the range of states that an IGO exercises control over. The issues
are as varied as trade, defence, disarmament, economic development,
agriculture, health, culture, human rights, the arts, illegal drugs, labour,
women’s issues, tourism, crime, the environment, immigration, refugees,
science and so on. The domains may be global or universal; regional or
continental; sub regional; or inter-regional, i.e. cutting cross regions.

The IGOs we will be considering in this course can be organised according to the
scope of membership and range of their purpose as indicated below.
Country Scope (Purpose) Domain (Membership)

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POS453 International Organizations

1. UN Multipurpose Global
2. EU Multipurpose Regional
3. AU Multipurpose Regional
4. ECOWAS Multipurpose Sub-regional
5. IMF/WORLD BANK Single Purpose Global
6. NATO Single Purpose Inter regional
7 OPEC Single Purpose Inter regional

1.5.2 International Non-governmental Organisations

This is the other type of international organisations made up of
transnational actors made up of private organisations and individuals
instead of member states. Examples of these are Transparency
International, Amnesty International; Multinational Corporations
(MNCs), International Committee of the Red Cross/Red Crescent
etcetera.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we focussed on the concepts of International
organisations and we noted that they are more or less permanent
structures formed by states and non-state actors operating across state
Summary borders in pursuit defined goals which may be economic, political,
social, cultural, technical etc. International organisations have become
increasingly important in international affairs performing vital functions,
mobilizing states for common action and helping to solve complex
problems.
The growth of international organisations is happening quantitatively
(number) and in terms of the range of issues that international
organisations make decisions over. Increased contact, interdependence,
growth in transnational problems, failure of the state system to solve the
problems of humanity and the success of international organisations has
led to rapid growth of IGOs. Lastly, IGOs provide an arena for
communication, cooperation, and have ability to act independently
though this varies from one organisation to the other.

Assessment

1. What is an international organisation?

2. Explain the reasons for the proliferation of international organisations.
3. What are the functions of international organisations?
Assignment
4. What are the classifications of international organisations?

14
 Study Session 1 Understanding International Organization

Bibliography
Kaarbo, J. And Ray, J.L. 2011. Global Politics. Wadsworth; Cengage
Learning.
Kegley, C. 2009. World Politics: Trends and Transformation. Belmont:
Re Wadsworth Cengage Learning
ading Rourke, J.T. 2007. International Politics on the World Stage. NY:
McGraw Hill
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1947502 retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.laetusinpraesens.org/docs70s/typeap4x.php retrieved
August, 2013.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/International_Relations/International_Orga
nisations retrieved August, 2013.

15
POS453 International Organizations

Study Session 2
Theoretical Issues in International
Relations
Introduction
Theories are useful for understanding the world. Because social and
political phenomena are complex due to the rapid or quickening pace of
change, there is a need for theories to make social and political
phenomena appear meaningful and intelligible. In this Study Session, we
shall acquaint ourselves with the theories that have been developed to
justify the need for international organisations.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
2.1 define and use correctly the term in bold:
• theory
2.2 discuss the disposition of foundational theories in international relations.
2.3 explain the theories of integration.
2.4 discuss at least two contemporary theories in international relations.

2.1 Definition of Theory

A theory is a set of hypothesis postulating the relationship between
variable or conditions advanced to describe, explain or predict
phenomena and make prescriptions about how positive changes ought to
be engineered to realize particular goals and ethical principles (Kegley
2007). A theory can also be defined as a set of general statement that
proposes an explanation to events in reality.
There are several theories in international relations which are useful in
the study of international organisation. Some of them are discussed
below.

2.2 Foundational Theories in International Relations

2.2.1 Realism
Realism, also known as Realpolitik, is a theoretical perspective which
emphasizes states as the most important actor in global politics, the
anarchical nature of the international system, and the pursuit of power to
secure national interests. Historically, realism has been the perspective
from which leaders and scholars approach international politics. The first
proposition of realism is that states are the most important actors in
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 Study Session 2 Theoretical Issues in International Relations

global politics and these states are sovereign, the highest authority over
its territory without outside interference. The second proposition is that
states go into international politics to pursue their national interest, and
not to promote any ideology or value. In order to effectively realise their
national interests, states try to maximise their power. The realists also
propose that the international system is anarchic, having no overarching
political authority or world government. In the absence any central
authority to moderate international politics, states resort to self-help in the
protection of their national interest. This makes states to compete with
one another, resulting to intermittent wars between states as their national
interest clash. For the realist, since states are principally concerned about
their national interest they will be hesitant to form associations or
organisations that do not advance their own interest. States as sovereign
entities would not submit to any higher authority under an international
organisation. They argue that even when states enter into the formation of
international organisations, the international organisations become
instruments for the pursuit of the national interests of states. They argue
that states have not shed off their concerns for their national interest and
as a result their self-interested pursuit would fuel their involvement in
international organisation.
Major contributors to the theory of realism include Thucydides who used
to explain the relationship between the actors in the Peloponnesian Wars
between Athens and Sparta in 431-404 BC, and Hans J. Morgenthau who
is considered the father of modern realism with his work, Politics Among
Nations first published shortly after World War II. Though realism
dominated the Twentieth Century thinking about international politics,
other theories have emerged to differ with its specific propositions.

2.2.2 Liberalism
Liberalism is a theoretical perspective that emphasises interdependence
among states and other non-state actors as the key characteristic of the
international system. Due to a complex interdependence of states and
other transnational actors, there is the tendency for states to cooperate in
international politics. Unlike realism that sees states as the only
significant actors, liberalism maintains that there are other equally
important non-state transnational actors including Multinational
Corporations (MNCs), nongovernmental organisations. Also, the
proponents of liberalism maintain that humanity is now faced a
multiplicity of issues outside security concerns that were emphasised by
the realists. These issues include economic, environmental, ideological,
religious, and cultural factors which states cannot confront without
reasonable cooperation. These issues and more do not lend themselves to
military solutions and even the most powerful state cannot claim to have
all that it takes to tackle them. Even the absence of any central
government, states cooperate because it is in their best interest. This
tendency for increased cooperation among international actors accounts
for the proliferation of international organisations since the end of World
War II.

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2.2.3 Idealism
Idealism focuses on the importance of morality and values in
international relations. The idealists argue that foreign policy should be
and is sometimes formulated according to cooperative and ethical
standards. According to the idealist, there are rules, laws, conventions
and protocols that states and other international actors observe as they
interact in the international system. Idealist on the other hand argue that
humanity is defined by a ‘harmony of interest’ and it is this common
interest that make states enter into jointed efforts to manage challenges.
For idealist, the overly emphasis on competition and self interest
attributed to the realist theory is grossly amiss. A great deal of inter-state
relations is borne-out of genuine concern for others, and the desire to
cooperate to solve common problems. Idealists advocate for international
organisations.

2.2.4 Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism is a theoretical perspective which sees international system
as a system of capitalist system of exploitation and global competition
among economic classes. To the neo-Marxist, economic considerations
are the primary concern of actors in the international system. Economic
interests are at the root of global politics. To the neo-Marxist,
international politics reflects class struggle on the world stage. They take
a historical view of global politics and see the international as reflecting
the internationalisation of the capitalist mode of production. They use the
concept of imperialism and the dependency theory to explain the historic
interactions between the developed world and the underdeveloped world.
According them, states are there are also class relations among states of
the world. These states are grouped into core and periphery states. The
core states are the developed capitalist states which control global capital
and technology, while the periphery states are the less developed states
that only have their raw materials. The neo-Marxists see international
organisation as instruments of domination in the hands of powerful states
against the weaker ones.

2.3 Theories of Integration

Integration is both a process and an end. As a process, it refers to
attempts to build or develop a political community, as an end it refers to a
political community. The process of integration must be undertaken
through consensus, or by consent. Where it is done otherwise particularly
through coercive means, it is no longer integration but rather imperialism
(Dougherty & Pfalzgraff, 1997; Evans & Newnham, 1997). Whereas
prior integrative efforts have been channelled towards the creation of
modern states, the emphasis in the literatures on integration is the
creation of a political community which transcends state or national
borders. More specifically, the emphasis is on regional integration or
international integration. An integrated political community must possess
certain structural characteristics such as collective decision-making
mechanism. Since integration must proceed through consent rather than
compulsion, it must be premised on areas where cooperation are desirable
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 Study Session 2 Theoretical Issues in International Relations

– problem areas where nation states cannot unilaterally find solutions to

and are thus inclined to act cooperatively e.g. international trade,
environment, communication, migration, health, investment, transportation,
ecology and so on. There are two types of integration theory that will be
explored shortly:
1. Functionalism
2. Neofunctionalism

2.3.1 Functionalism
Theory of functionalism was a development of the need to not only foster
peace among nation-states but to pave way for cooperation among them
after the ugly experience of the two world wars. It was based on an
understanding that the problem was not haw to keep nations peacefully
apart but how to bring them actively together. Thus, sustainable peace
would be maintained by focusing on issues of human welfare and how to
attain it rather than human warfare and how it was conducted. According
to this variant of the integration theory, there are common needs that can
unite people across state boundary. As David Mitrany argued, the world
of the twentieth century was characterized by growing numbers of
technical issues that could be resolved only by cooperation across state
boundaries (see Dougherty & Pfalzgraff 1997). Such issues, whether
within or among states, could best be addressed by highly trained
specialists or technicians rather than by politicians. Mitrany believed that
the emergence of technical issues would lead first to the felt or perceived
need for collaborative action devoid of a political or conflictual content
therefore assignable to technical experts.
Theory of functionalism is based on three interrelated propositions. The
first proposition is that war is a product of the objective conditions of
human beings like poverty, ill health, illiteracy and social injustice. The
second proposition is that war is also a product of the nation-state system,
the artificial division of people into territorial states. Nation-state cannot
effectively address global economic and political problems. Thus, there is
need for international institutions which can solve the numerous non-
political problems horizontally across state boundaries. The third
proposition is that the division of humanity into nation-state creates
feelings and allegiance to the states and prevents international
cooperation.
For functionalist, integration should precede based on areas that are non-
political and non-contentious, and that is by steering the integration
process along this line that integration can be successful. This would
imply assigning task on a sector basis i.e. health, investment etc., where
cooperation in one area proves successful, it would encourage
cooperation in others. This is what Mitrany calls ‘Ramification’. By
ramification, he means success in cooperation in one task could create a
change in attitudes in favour of greater integration.

2.3.2 Neo-Functionalism
Neo functionalism is a descendant of functionalism. Basically, unlike
functionalism that evades political issues in the integration process. Neo-
functionalism is distinctly orientated towards the political aspects and

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implications of integration. Central to this argument is the view that

sector integration will lead to a spill-over effect into related areas of
activity. As interest groups within member states begin to see the positive
benefits of the process, they will initiate moves for further integration.
Similarities between Functionalism and Neofunctionalism

a) They both agree that integration proceeds by working in areas of mutual

overlapping interest.
b) They agree that people’s loyalties to their existing nation states will be
steadily eroded as they see that integration has many positive benefits.

Differences between Functionalism and Neofunctionalism

a) Whereas functionalism stresses international or world integration,

Neofunctionalism is a theory of regional integration.
b) Neofunctionalism is much more concerned with institution-building. For
example, see the lesson on the European Union.
c) Neo-functionalism is orientated towards political integration while
functionalism is concerned with non-political aspect of integration.
d) Functionalism is interested in International integration or world
integration while Neofunctionalism is concerned with regional integration.

2.4 Contemporary Theories in International Relations

2.4.1 Theory of Pacific Settlement
Theory of pacific settlement is a set of propositions on alternative ways
of resolving international disputes peacefully instead of resorting to war.
The theory consists of a number of assumptions or hypotheses concerning
why men and states resort to war with one another. The first hypothesis is
that war is a product of heated passion. It arises from uncontrolled
emotion from anger and fear. War is the manifestation of national
tantrums. As a result, the theory proposes that parties in a dispute can be
held to settle their by providing them a cooling-off period during which
their temper will be lowered. This is the basis of the practice of cease fire
and the mechanism of good offices, especially under the framework of
international organisations.
The second assumption of the theory of pacific settlement is that war is a
result of diverging and conflicting interpretations or misconceptions or
even misrepresentation of facts of situations. The theory proposes a
solution to this problem through the use of the instrumentality of
commission of inquiry to ascertain the facts of the situations. The third
assumption is that conflict situations escalate into more deadly wars
because of pride and egoistic considerations on the part of the parties to
the dispute which hinder them from coming together to negotiate directly
and resolve their differences. Thus, the theory sees the need for a neutral
mediator, an interposing third party preferably acting under the auspices
of an international organisation to initiate contact between the parties in
dispute.

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 Study Session 2 Theoretical Issues in International Relations

The theory of pacific settlement maintains that issues in contention

should be debated at international organisations where there will be direct
representatives of states. It proposes the replacement of bilateral
diplomacy with multilateral diplomacy under international organisations
such that the force of public opinion can be used to check the excesses of
nation-states.

2.4.2 Theory of Collective Security

Collective Security is a security arrangement among states based on the
principle that an act of aggression by any state will be met by a collective
response from the rest (Kegley, 2009:35). It is based on the logic that
attack on one is attack on all, and the principle of ‘one for all and all for
one’. Collective Security is a security system formed by states which sign
a treaty and make an explicit commitment to do two things: (1) renounce
the use of force to settle disputes with each other; and (2) promise to use
force against any state that breaks the rule (Ziegler, 1977). The aim is
provide reasonable deterrence for potential aggressor by the prospects of
an overwhelming coalition. If deterrence fails, then the aggressor will be
defeated by military action undertaken by this coalition.
Collective Security system involves the establishment of a complex
scheme of national commitments and international mechanisms designed
to prevent or suppress aggression by any state against any other state by
presenting a potential aggressor with a credible threat and a potential
victim of aggression with a reliable promise of effective collective
measures (ranging from diplomatic boycott, economic measures and
military actions) to enforce peace (Claude, 1971). In the words of Ziegler
‘collective security applies only to what goes on inside the system; its
purpose is to keep peace among its members, not to protect them against
outsiders’. For this reason such security organisations as NATO, Warsaw
pact and similar organisations cannot be said to be collective security
systems, properly so called; they might go collective defence
organisations or simply alliances to protect members from threats posed
by non-members of the defence system. Two significant historical
attempts to put the theory of collective security into practice can be seen
in the formation of the League of Nations and the United Nations. Their
founders hoped to prevent wars among states by organising a system of
collective security that would mobilise the entire international community
against possible aggressors. However, Inis Claude after examining its
performance between 1920 and 1939 concluded that the League of
Nations as an instrument of collective security was a failure. The Acid
test for the League in this respect was the invasion of Abyssinia (now
Ethiopia) by Italy in 1935. The League failed to prevent the aggression
and when it occurred it could not raise a counterforce against the
aggressor. Nevertheless, it was not an unqualified failure because the
feeble attempt made by the League to protect Abyssinia demonstrated
that member states had begun to subscribe to the basic principle of ‘one
for all and all for one which is integral to the collective security system.
After the World War II, there was a rethinking of the practice of the
theory of collective security in the establishment of the United Nations.
The League of Nations had operated the principle of unanimity among
the Great Powers in the League Council. The founders of the United
Nations saw the principle of unanimity as a major weakness in the

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institutional mechanism for the enforcement of collective security. They

replaced it with majoritarian principle qualified by Great Power veto.
However, this change appeared to have turned out to be even more
problematic than the old principle of unanimity. Consequently, up to the
1970s, the only successful example of collective security under the UN
was the defence of South Korea against an aggressive attack by North
Korea in 1950. Even this was a qualified success for several reasons.
First, the action was not carried out under the auspices of the UN Security
Council as was envisaged under Chapter Seven of the charter. Rather, it
was authorized by the General Assembly which creatively introduced
what came to be known as the ‘Uniting for Peace Resolution’. Moreover,
the action in Korea was made possible y the temporary absence of the
Soviet Union from the Security Council.
During the Cold War, there was a practical rejection of collective security
by the leaders of the two opposing ideological camps, the United States
and the Soviet Union. They went ahead to establish rival security
organisations, namely the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
under the leadership of the US and the Warsaw Treaty Organisation also
known as the Warsaw Pact under the leadership of the Soviet Union.
Even among less powerful states under the umbrella of the non-allied
movement, there was also reluctance to embrace collective security in
practice.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you learnt that a theory is a set of interrelated
statements that proposes an explanation to events in reality. The
foundational theories of international relations (idealism and realism)
Summary have different orientation towards international relations. Realist theory
sees the international system as mosaic of power-driven and self-
interested states. On the other hand, idealism sees the international
system as a community of interdependence which necessitates
international collaboration and international organisations.
Functionalism and Neofunctionalism are theories of integration with
common features but differ in their emphasis. Functionalism stresses the
need for integration to proceed from non-political issues while neo-
functionalism stresses political issues. Collective Security system
involves the establishment of a complex scheme of national
commitments and international mechanisms designed to prevent or
suppress aggression by any state against any other state by presenting a
potential aggressor with a credible threat and a potential victim of
aggression with a reliable promise of effective collective measures.
Collective security is the theory behind the formation of the League of
Nations and the United Nations

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 Study Session 2 Theoretical Issues in International Relations

Assessment

1. What are theories?

2. What are the main propositions of realism?
3. Explain liberalism.
Assignment
4. Differentiate between idealism and realism.
5. Explain the theory of collective security.

Bibliography
Kegley C. (2009) World Politics: Trends and Transformation. Belmont:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
http://www.londoninternational.ac.uk/sites/default/files/programme_res
Re ources/lse/lse_pdf/subject_guides/ir2085_ch1-3.pdf retrieved August,
ading 2013.
http://works.bepress.com/sungjoon_cho/36/ retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.studymode.com/essays/Theories-International-Organization-
124458.html retrieved August, 2013.

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POS453 International Organizations

Study Session 3
United Nation
Introduction
The United Nations is undoubtedly the most important international
organisation today. It has grown steadily over the years to command great
respect from member-states and other international organisations. But in
several respect, the United Nations is child of history. In this Study
Session, we will explore how the united nation is formed; the structure of
the united nation; and appraise the organisation.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 outline the series of conventions that led to the formation of
the United Nations.
3.2 explain the philosophy, broad purposes and objectives of the United
Nations.
3.3 describe the Structure and agencies of the United Nations.
3.4 describe the budget of the United Nation.
3.5 appraise the United Nations.
3.6 point out the challenges facing the United Nations.

3.1 Background to the Establishment of United Nation

After the First World War, President Woodrow Wilson expressed the
need in his post-war agenda – The Fourteen Points – for an international
organisation to be formed. What was foremost on his mind was the need
to set up a ‘League of Nations’ embracing all independent states which
would settle problems peacefully and democratically before they got out
of hand, preferably by public negotiation. The weakness in the process of
international negotiation before the war had become characterized by
secret diplomacy and for President Wilson this was one of the reasons
that had caused the war (Hobsbawm, 1994). The aim of the League of
Nations was to provide a system of collective security and to deter the
aggressor states from pursuing their national interest at the expense of
smaller and weaker neighbours. The basic idea which underpinned the
collective security system was that if any one member state fell victim to
the aggression of powerful neighbour, all members of the League would
collectively join together to stop the aggressor (Steans & Pettiford, 2005).
The League of Nations was formed in 1919 with the specific aim of
establishing procedures for peaceful resolution of international disputes
and conflicts. The immediate catalyst for its promotion was the First
World War and the treaty of Versailles which followed it but its origins

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 Study Session 3 United Nation

go back to idealist dissatisfaction with international anarchy, balance of

power and self help (Evans & Newnham, 1997).
However, as time passed the League of Nations became weighed down
by certain realities. First, the United States which had been the primary
driver for its establishment could not join. Secondly, Soviet Union was
isolated from the League having fallen into the hands of the communist –
people whom the founders of the League were not willing to associate
with. In any case, Wilson’s plan for the international system was one that
was to be based on democratic states of which the soviet union was not
one, this view has come to be known as the democratic peace theory.
Aside this, Britain and France gave weak support to the League of
Nations and Italy and Japan operated outside the principles established in
the covenant (Evans & Newnham, 1997). Not long after the League of
Nations was formed, it started to expose the weakness or fragility of the
post-war peace settlement of 1919. The road to ruin for the league started
in 1931 with the attack on Manchuria by Japan. By 1939, Germany’s
attack on Poland plunged the world into another world war. The failure of
the League to act to halt the descent into war was responsible for the
outbreak of the Second World War (Hobsbawm, 1994). Clearly the score
cards of the League are alarmingly negative with respect to its capacity to
manage the post world war one international order. As Eric Hobsbawm
has argued, the League of Nations proved an almost total failure except as
an institution for collecting statistical data.

3.1.1 Structure of The League

The league consisted of three main organs: the Council, the Assembly
and the Secretariat. The Council was dominated by the great powers but
had other non-permanent members.
The Council: The Council had a total of fifteen members including
France, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union as permanent
members. The Council met three times a year and had the important duty
of resolving international disputes. It had the power to advise the member
states to institute sanctions against any state committing aggression.
The Assembly: The Assembly consisted of delegates from all the
member states. Its main duties involved the election of new members to
the organisation, debate and discussion of political and economic
questions of international interest, and preparation of the annual budget.
The Assembly met annually.

The Secretariat: The Secretariat functioned as an international civil

service. It handled administrative details for the league and compiled
information relevant to the various problems and issues with which the
League was confronted. All decisions in the League had to be arrived at
by unanimous vote. There was also a permanent court of international
justice although separate from the League it worked in tandem with it.
Under Article 10 of the League’s covenant, members pledged ‘to respect
and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity and
existing political independence of all members of the League’. Although

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the League provided for potential effective economic and military

sanctions against aggressors, it allowed each member the latitude to
decide whether aggression had been committed, and if so, what sanctions
that would be applied. This loophole was there by deliberate design of the
member states, which were not ready to grant the organisation real
powers to function.

3.1.2 Failures of the League of Nations

Failure of the League of Nations to up hold the principles of collective
security in the Ethiopian crisis exposed it structural weaknesses. The
Great powers clung unto the idea of balance of power and paid lip service
to the idea of collective security. Britain and France could not press Italy
too hard because they calculated the usefulness of an alliance with Italy
against Germany. Thus, preparing a defence against Germany in Europe
was more important to France and Britain than the abstract principle of
opposing aggression no matter where it occurred.
The argument that the League failed to achieve what it was meant to do
must be balanced against the fact that the League of Nations was never
really tried. The member states were locked in a relentless pursuit of the
national interest and by-passed the league on such matters. The great
powers were not committed to the idea of collective security which
informed the formation of the League. The absence of the United States
was a big flaw in the structure of the league. The rift between President
Wilson and the US Senate coupled with the popular isolationist sentiment
among a significant number of Americans were reasons believed to be
behind US non-membership of the League of Nations. It is believed that
refusal of the US to join the League of Nations was a crucial cause of its
failure.
The argument that the League failed to achieve what it was meant to do
must be balanced against the fact that the League of Nations was never
really tried. The member states were locked in a relentless pursuit of the
national interest and by-passed the league on such matters. The great
powers were not committed to the idea of collective security, which
informed the formation of the League. The League might be famous for
its failures and remembered for disputes it did not settle; it was not a
complete failure. It at least was instrumental to the resolution of the
conflict between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925.

3.2 United Nation as a Universal Organization

As the Second World War wore on, leaders of the Allied Powers such as
President Roosevelt of the United States and Woodrow Wilson, the Prime
Minister of Britain. Through a series of war time conferences the United
Nations came into being. In this section, we shall look at the various
conventions that were signed during the war leading to the formation of
United Nations as well as the Charter of the United Nations which is the
foundational document of the United Nations specifying the broad
purpose of the United Nations.

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3.2.1 Convention that Led to Formation of the United

Nation
The name ‘United Nations’, coined by former US President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, was first used in the ‘Declaration by United Nations’ of 1
January 1942, during the World War II. Then in 1945, representatives of
50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
International Organisation to draw up to the United Nations Charter.
Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the
representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United States at
Dumbarton Oaks, United States, in August – October 1944. The Charter
was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries.
Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and
became the 51 member states. The United Nations official came into
existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by
China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States
and a majority of other signatories.
The UN was established primarily for the maintenance of international
peace and security. However, it also interested in the promotion of
international cooperation and development and protection of human
rights. With respect to the maintenance of peace and international
security, the UN adopts pacific settlement of disputes and deals with
threats to peace and acts of aggression. Chapter 6 and 7 of the UN
Charter makes provision for procedures for peaceful settlement of
disputes as well as enforcement action. Concerning the protection of
human rights it is the Universal Declaration of human rights that provides
for the human right and how they are to be protected.
The Charter of the United Nations
The Charter is the constitutive instrument of the United Nations. It sets
out the rights and obligations of member states and establishes the organs
and procedures of the organisation. As a universal international treaty, the
Charter codifies the major principles of international relations from the
sovereign equality of states to prohibition of the use of force in a manner
that is inconsistent with the purposes of the UN.

3.2.2 Purposes and Principles of the United Nations

Purposes of the United Nation
The preamble of the Charter highlights the following as the purposes for
which the United Nations is established upon.
1) To maintain international peace and security;
2) To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for
the principle of equal rights and self-determination of people;
3) To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and
humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights
and fundamental freedom;
4) To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining
these common ends.

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Principles of the United Nations

According the Charter, the United Nations acts in accordance with the
following principles:
1) Sovereign equality of all members;
2) All members are to fulfil in good faith their Charter obligations;
3) All member states are to settle their international disputes by
peaceful means and without endangering international peace and
security and justice;
4) They are to refrain from the treat or use of force against any other
state;
5) They are to give the United Nations every assistance in any action
it takes it takes in accordance with the Charter;
6) Nothing in the Charter is to authorize the United Nation to
intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic
jurisdiction of any state.
Major Objectives of the United Nations
Chapters nine (9) and ten (10) of the Charter outline the major objectives
of the UN and they include the following:
1) promoting high standard of living for all peoples;
2) pursuing the policy of full employment;
3) promoting the social and economic development of all peoples; and
4) generally advancing the health and education of people of all
nations.

3.2.3 Membership of The United Nations

Membership of the United Nations is open to all peace-loving nations
which accept the obligations of the Charter and are willing and able to
carry out these obligations. The General Assembly has the power to
admit new members on the recommendation of the Security Council. The
Charter provides for the suspension or expulsion of a member for
violation of the principles of the Charter.

3.2.4 Benefits of the UN to States

1) The United Nations tries to safeguard international stability,
especially in security affairs. This stability allows state to realise
gains from trade and other forms of exchange.
2) The UN is a symbol of international order and of global identity
3) The UN provides a forum where states can promote their views and
bring their disputes for peaceful settlement
4) It is a mechanism for conflict resolution for international security
5) It promotes and coordinates development assistance and other
programmes of economic and social development (especially in
developing countries)
6) The UN is a coordinating system for information and planning by
hundred of internal and external agencies and programmes and for
the collection and publication of international data
7) It provides concrete tangible institutional framework for collective
action of states under the collective security arrangement.

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3.3 Organisation of the United Nations

The Charter established six principal organs of the United Nations. These
include: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and
Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of
Justice, and the Secretariat. However, there are up to 15 agencies and
several programmes and bodies under the United Nation system.

3.3.1 The General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the UN. It is
made up of representatives of all member states, each of which has one
vote. Decisions on important issues, such as those on peace and security,
admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-third
majority. Decisions on other issues are by simple majority. Functions and
powers of the General Assembly are as follows:
1) to consider and make recommendations on the principles of
cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security,
including the principles governing disarmament and arms
regulation;
2) to discuss any question relating to international peace and security
and, except where a dispute or situation is being discussed by the
Security Council, it make recommendations on it;
3) to discuss and, with the same except, make recommendations on
any question within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers
and functions of any organ of the UN;
4) to receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other
organs of the UN;
5) to consider and approve the UN budget and to apportion the
contributions among members;
6) to elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the
members of the Economic and Social Council and additional
members of the Trusteeship Council; to elect jointly with the
Security Council the Judges of the International Court of Justice
and on the recommendation of the Security Council, appoint the
Secretary-General.

3.3.2 The Security Council

The Security Council is the organ that is primarily responsible for the
maintenance of international peace and security. The Council is made up
of 15 members: five permanent (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom
and the United States); and 10 non-permanent members elected by the
General Assembly for two-year terms. Each member of the Council has
one vote while each of the five permanent members has veto power.
Decisions on procedural matters are made by an affirmative vote of at
least 9 of the 15 members. Decisions on substantive matters require nine
and the absence of a negative vote by any of the five permanent
members.
Functions and powers of the Security Council are as follows:
1) to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the
principles and purposes of the UN;

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2) to formulate plans for establishing a system to regulate armaments;

3) to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to
international friction, and to recommend methods of adjusting such
disputes or the terms of settlement;
4) to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of
aggression and to recommend what action should be taken;
5) to call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional
measures as it deems necessary or desirable tom prevent an
aggravation of the situation;
6) to call on members of the UN to take measures not involving the
use of armed force (such as sanction) to give effect to the Council’s
decision;
7) to resort to or authorize the use of force to maintain or restore
international peace and security;
8) to encourage the peaceful settlement of local disputes through
regional arrangements and to use such regional arrangements for
enforcement action under its authority;
9) to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the
Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly, elect the
judges of the International Court of Justice.
10) To recommend to the General Assembly the admission of new
members to the organisation.

3.3.3 The Economic and Social Council

This is the organ that is responsible for the coordination of economic,
social and related works of the United Nations and the special agencies. It
is made up of 54 members, who serve for three-year terms. Functions of
the Economic and Social Council are as follows:
1. To serve as the central forum for discussing international
economic and social issues, and for formulating policy
recommendations addressed to members states and the United
Nations system;
2. To make or initiate studies and reports and make
recommendations on international economic, social, cultural,
educational, health and related matters;
3. To promote respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms;
4. To assist in preparing and organising major international
conference in the economic, social and related fields and promote
a coordinated follow-up to these conferences;
5. To coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies, through
consultations with and recommendations to them, and through
recommendations to the General Assembly.

3.3.4 Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established under Chapter XIII of the
Charter to to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories
placed under the administration of 7 member-states, and ensure that
adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government
or independence. By 1994 all Trusteeship Council had attained self-
government or independence, either as separate States or by joining
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neighbouring independent countries. The last of them being the Trust

Territory of the Pacific Island (Palau), administered by the United States
which became the 185th member state of the UN. The Trusteeship
Council, by amending its rules of procedure, now meets as and where
occasion may require.

3.3.5 International Court of Justice:

This is the principal judicial organ of the UN. It settles legal disputes
between states and gives advisory opinion to the UN and its specialized
agencies. The Court is open to all members of the UN. Only states may
be parties in contentious cases before the Court and submit disputes to it.
The Court is not open to private persons and entities or international
organisations. The Court has jurisdiction over all questions that states
refer to it, and all matters provided for in the United Nations Charter, or
in international treaties and conventions. States accepts jurisdiction of the
Court, either by signing a treaty or convention that provides for referral to
the Court or by making a declaration to that effect. The Court is
composed of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security
Council, acting independently. The judges serve a nine-year term and
may be re-elected.

3.3.6 Secretariat
The Secretariat is the administrative organ of the UN. It carries out the
day to day activities of the UN. It administers the programmes and
policies of laid down by various principal organs of the UN. The duties of
the Secretariat include administering peacekeeping operations, mediating
international disputes surveying economic and social trends and
preparing studies on human rights and sustainable development. The
administrative headquarters of the Secretariat is in New York. It is
headed by the Secretary General.
Partly a diplomat and an advocate, civil servant and CEO, the Secretary-
General is a symbol of United Nations ideals and a spokesman for the
interests of the world's peoples.
The Charter describes the Secretary-General as "chief administrative
officer" of the Organisation, who shall act in that capacity. Although the
Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, on the
recommendation of the Security Council and the Secretary-General's
selection is therefore subject to the veto of any of the five permanent
members of the Security Council, he/she performs "such other functions
as are entrusted" to him or her by the Security Council, General
Assembly, Economic and Social Council and other United Nations
organs. The Charter also empowers the Secretary-General to "bring to the
attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may
threaten the maintenance of international peace and security". These
guidelines both define the powers of the office and grant it considerable
scope for action. The Secretary-General would fail if he did not take
account of the concerns of Member States, whilst upholding the values
and moral authority of the United Nations, and speak and act for peace,
even at the risk, from time to time, of challenging or disagreeing with
those same Member States.

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The first Secretary General of the UN was Trygve Lie from Norway. Mr.
Lie was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations on 1 February
1946. He was formally installed by the General Assembly at its 22nd
meeting on 2 February 1946. The General Assembly on 1 November
1950, continued Mr. Lie in office for a further three years from 1
February 1951. He resigned as Secretary-General of the United Nations
in November 1952.
The current Secretary-General, and the eighth occupant of the post, is Mr.
Ban Ki-moon of the Republic of Korea, who took office on 1 January
2007. His predecessor is Kofi A. Annan, a Ghanaian, who was in Office
from 1997-2006.Although there is technically no limit to the number of
five-year terms a Secretary-General may serve, none so far has held
office for more than two terms. Mr. Kofi Annan, the seventh Secretary-
General of the United Nations, left office on the 31st December 2006
when his second term expires.

3.3.7 The UN Agencies

The United Nations has grown into a large network of institutions and
agencies. Some of these agencies are functional in nature in that they
focus on economic, social, technical, cultural and humanitarian issues
instead of political and security. Some of these agencies shall be
considered in this section. The agencies of the united nation include the
followings:
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)
UNCTAD was established in 1964 as a principal organ of the General
Assembly in the field of trade and development. Its mandate is to
accelerate trade and economic development, particularly in developing
countries. The central concern of UNCTAD is development and related
issues in the areas of trade, finance, technology, investment and
sustainable development. Its main goals are to facilitate the integration of
developing countries and economies into the world economy and to
promote development through trade and investment. The highest policy-
making body of UNCTAD, the Conference, is composed of 192 member
states and meets every four years. Its executive body, the Trade and
Development Board, meets annually in regular session to review the work
of the secretariat.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
UNEP was founded in 1972 to provide leadership and encourage
partnerships in caring for the environment by enabling nations to improve
their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. In
order words, UNEP is aimed at fostering sustainable development and
environment friendly practices. As the UN principal body in the field of
environment, UNEP sets the global environmental agenda, promotes
implementation of the environmental dimensions of sustainable
development in the United Nations system, and serve as an authoritative
advocate of the global environment.

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The Governing Council, which is UNEP’s governing body, is made up of

58 countries and meets annually. Its programmes are financed with the
Environment Fund, made up of voluntary contributions from
governments.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The UNDP is the UN agency that is primarily concerned with the
promotion of development. It advocates for change and links countries
with knowledge, experience and resources, to help their people build a
better life. UNDP is has established presence in 166 countries, working
with them on their own solutions to global and national challenges.
Nation-states can build their local capacity by drawing on the expertise of
UNDP and its development partners. Its focus now is how to help states
to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. UNDP is governed by a
36-member Executive Board, representing both developing and
developed countries.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
UNICEF was created in 1946 to help overcome the obstacles that
poverty, violence, disease and discrimination place in path of children. It
is guided by the Convention on the Right of the Child. Its aim is to care
for the child from birth through adolescence. It ensures that all children
are immunized against common childhood diseases, and that children and
their mother are well nourished.
UNICEF is governed by an Executive Board comprising delegates from
36 countries who govern its policies, programmes and finance. The
agency is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from both
governments and from the private sector.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
UNESCO was established in 1946 to build lasting world peace based on
intellectual and moral solidarity of humankind. Its activities cover the
areas of education, natural science, social and human science, culture and
communication. Its programmes are aimed at promoting a culture of
peace and human and sustainable development; achieving education for
all; promoting environmental research through international scientific
programmes; supporting the expression of cultural identities etc.
UNESCO maintains a system of 190 National Commissions and
cooperates with various foundations and international and regional
network. UNESCO’s governing body is the General Conference and is
made up of all member states and meets every two years. The General
Council elects an Executive Board, consisting of 58 members, which is
responsible for supervising the programme adopted by the Conference.
World Health Organisation (WHO)
WHO was established in 1948 to promote technical cooperation for
health among nations, carries out programmes to control and eradicate
disease, and strives to improve the quality of life. Its objectives include:
1) Reducing excess morality, morbidity and solidarity, especially in
poor and marginalised populations;

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2) Promoting healthy lifestyles and reducing health risk that arise

from environmental, economic, social and behavioural causes;
3) Developing a health system that are more equitable and effective,
respond to people’s legitimate demands, and are financially fair;
4) Developing appropriate health policies and institutional
environments, and promoting the health dimension of social,
economic, environmental and development policies.
The governing body of WHO, the World Health Assembly is composed
of 192 member-states which meet annually. Its decisions and policies are
implemented by an Executive Board composed of 32 government-
appointed experts that meets twice a year.
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO)
UNIDO was established in 1966 by the General Assembly and became
UN specialised agency in 1985. It was established to promote industrial
development and cooperation. It helps to improve the standard of living
of people and promote global prosperity through sustainable industrial
development of developing countries. It cooperates with governments and
private industrial sector to build industrial capacity of developing
countries.
UNIDO’s highest decision-making body is the General Conference made
up of 170 member states. Its policies and programmes are implemented
by the Industrial Development Board, comprising of 53 member states.
World Trade Organisation (WTO)
WTO was established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariff
and Trade (GATT) as the only international body dealing with the global
rules of trade between nations. The purpose of WTO is to help the
smooth flow of trade, to impartially settle trade disputes between
governments and to organise trade negotiations. It ensures that nations
observe the legal ground rules for international commerce and trade
policy. WTO is not a specialised agency under UN per se, but it has
cooperative arrangements and practices with the UN. One of its major
objectives is to reduce protectionism.

3.4 UN Budget and Finances

The Charter of the United Nations gives responsibility for approving the
budget to the General Assembly (Chapter IV, Article 17) and for
preparing the budget to the Secretary-General, as “chief administrative
officer” (Chapter XV, Article 97). The Charter also addresses the non-
payment of assessed contributions (Chapter IV, Article 19).
The regular budget of the United Nations is approved by the General
Assembly for a two year period. The budget is initially submitted by the
Secretary-General and reviewed by the advisory committee on
administrative and budgetary questions. The programmatic aspects are
reviewed by the committee for programme and coordination.

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The budget of the UN has several elements. First is the core budget for
headquarters operations and the regular programmes of the major UN
organs. Second is the peacekeeping budget to meet the expenses of the
operations of the Security Council. The third element is called the
voluntary contribution budget, which funds a number of UN agencies
such as the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
The main source of funds for the budget is through contributions from
member states based on an assessment of their capability to pay. The
following are the percentage of the core budget assessment for countries:
a) United States – 22 percent
b) Japan – 19.6 percent
c) Germany – 9.6 percent
d) France – 6.5 percent
e) Great Britain – 5.6 percent
f) Italy – 5.1 percent
g) Canada – 2.6 percent
h) Spain – 2.5 percent
i) Brazil – 2.2 percent
About 70 percent of the members of the UN are assessed below 0.01
percent. Because of their special responsibilities and special privileges
like the veto power, the permanent members of the Security Council pay
a somewhat higher assessment for peacekeeping, with the US having the
largest share.
The precise mechanism by which assessments are determined is
complicated, but historically, assessments were generally allocated
according to states’ capacity to pay. Resistance to this budgetary formula
for funding the UN activities has always existed and has grown
progressively worse. This is partly because when the General Assembly
apportions expenses, it does so according to majority rule. The problem is
that those with the most votes (the less developed countries) do not have
the money and the most prosperous countries do not have the votes.

3.5 Achievements of the United Nations

With respect to meeting the purpose for which the United Nations was
established, the United Nations has not fared badly. For one, it has been
able to avert the outbreak of another world war through the traditional
sense of promoting peace and security between states.
As earlier mentioned peace and security figured prominently in the
thinking of those responsible for creating the UN; to this end, the UN has
deployed numerous international military and civilian personnel to stop
or contain hostilities and supervise the carrying out of peace agreements.
In its first forty years, the UN undertook a mere thirteen peacekeeping
operations. But since 1986 the UN has been much more active sending
peace keepers to more flash points throughout the world. Since 1989, on
average, the UN has had no less than sixteen operations underway each
year. It should be noted however that, since the UN’s structure limited its
ability to function as a collective security organisation, the UN fell short
during the Cold War of many of the ideals envisioned by its founders.

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This was because its two most powerful members in the Security
Council, the United States and the Soviet Union did not cooperate. Never
the less, during and after the Cold War, the UN found ways to contribute
to world order in the following ways:
1) Peace-Keeping: This refers to the crucial instrument at the disposal
of the international community to advance peace and security.
Peace keeping is the efforts by third parties such as the UN to
intervene in civil wars and/or interstate wars or to prevent
hostilities between potential belligerents from escalating, so that by
acting as a buffer a negotiated settlement of a dispute can be
reached. The UN Emergency Force (UNEF) authorized in 1956 by
the Uniting for Peace Resolution in the General Assembly in
response to the Suez Canal crisis was the first of many other
peacekeeping operations. The role of peacekeeping was given
special recognition in 1988 when United Nations peacekeeping
forces received the Nobel Peace Prize.
2) Preventive Diplomacy: this refers to actions taken in advance of a
predictable crisis to prevent or limit violence particularly
superpower involvement in the crisis. Under Secretary-General
Dag Hammarskjöld, 1953-1961, preventive diplomacy replaced
collective security as the organisation’s primary approach to
promoting international peace and security. Recognising that the
UN had little leverage in areas where the Superpowers were
heavily engaged, Hammarskjöld sought to involve the UN in other
regions and thus prevent Washington and Moscow from intruding
into local disputes.
3) Peace-Enforcement: this refers to measures to maintain or restore
international peace and security by military action if necessary.
That is to say, the application of military force or the threat of its
use, normally pursuant to international authorization, to compel
compliance with resolutions or sanctions designed to maintain or
restore peace and order. The UN has used these measures in
Somalia (1992), and Iraq (1991).
4) Peace-Making: it refers to the use of diplomatic means to persuade
parties in conflict. It involves the UN actively working to resolve
the underlying dispute between the belligerents. Peace keeping is
the peaceful settlement processes such as good offices, negotiation,
conciliation, and mediation designed to resolve the issues that led
to armed conflict. This mechanism was useful in ending the Iran-
Iraq war in 1988 through the intervention of the United Nations
Secretary General.
5) Peace-Building: this involves efforts to assist countries in their
transition from war to peace. It is post conflict actions and it begins
with the signing of a peace agreement by the warring parties. Peace
building is predominantly diplomatic and economic actions that
strengthens and rebuilds governmental infrastructure and
institutions in order to avoid recourse to armed conflict. Recent
examples of inter-state building are the UN mission in Eritrea and
Ethiopia (United Nations 2004).
6) Peace–Operations: This is a general category encompassing both
peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations undertaken to
establish and maintain peace between disputants. Budget
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constraints for peacekeeping operations have reduced the UN’s

capacity to fulfil its peacekeeping goals. As a result the UN has
increasingly sought to deploy its missions alongside non-UN forces
and at other times has requested regional organisations or multi
party state alliances to act as a substitute for the UN. This has
raised questions in whose interests these forces are acting and
whether they can be held accountable by the UN.
Beyond maintain global peace and security, the UN’s agenda has
grown over time. Evidently, the number of issues and problems on
the global agenda that the UN will be asked to manage will
continue to grow in variety and complexity. The new roles of the
UN are include the following areas: the human environment,
population, human settlement, basic human needs, water,
desertification, disarmament, racism and racial discrimination,
human rights, drug abuse and illicit trafficking in drugs, the
protection of children, the environment and economic development,
social development, indigenous peoples, global warming among
others.

3.6 Challenges Facing the United Nations

The UN was established in 1945 as a product of the post World War II
international politics. However, a lot has changed in the international
system since after its creation. It was created at a time when the majority
of its present members were colonies under foreign domination. Thus,
there has been argument for a restructuring of the UN to reflect the
present international realities. Some have argued for a number of reforms,
especially to enlarge permanent membership of the Security Council to
make it more democratic.
A major challenge of the UN has been how to contain the excesses of the
big powers. These big powers have often displayed their proclivity to
circumvent the UN procedures especially when they feel their core
interests are at stake. Example is the United States and her allies in their
military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan on the excuse of fighting
terrorism. The big powers have also maintained the Cold War defence
alliance NATO which was a product of the Cold War ideological contest
between the West and East. The big powers acting under the umbrella of
NATO have shown their readiness to act without consulting the United
Nations Security Council, which is primary organ for the maintenance of
international security, only to come round to secure UN approval to
legitimise their actions. Most of the military campaigns were actually
executed under NATO, not the UN. A recent example is the external
involvement in the Libyan crisis that toppled Muammar Qaddafi. This is
a big challenge to the UN in relation to its collective security principle
and the use of force in international politics.
Another challenge of the UN is financial limitations. The UN has grown
into a very large family with numerous specialised institutions and
agencies. Activities of the agencies involve a lot of money. UN major
source of finance is the contribution from member countries. A majority
of the member states of UN are poor and undeveloped countries, which
contribute a relatively insignificant amount of money as a result of
assessment of their capabilities. For example, 70 percent of the members

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of the UN are assessed below 0.01 percent. While majority of the

members are poor, the few wealthy states that contribute the major fund
are usually unwilling to sponsor programmes outside peacekeeping.
Thus, the UN is faced with a big problem of sponsoring it numerous
programmes bordering on social, cultural, health and development issues.
The UN is faced with how to tackle issues of terrorism, internal conflicts,
Middle East crisis, question of statehood for Palestine, diseases, human
security, hunger, and gender related issues. Indeed, the global values of
peace, security, sustainable development and good governance cannot be
achieved by any single country acting on its own. The UN is the only
global mechanism for effective collaboration in circumstances where
states are reluctant or unable to act alone. For the UN to succeed, the
world community must match the demands made on it with the means
given to it.

Study Session Summary

In our discussions on the historical background of the united nation, we
noted the following points:
1) The first world war led to faith in international organisation as a
Summary means of averting another large scale war
2) This believe in international organisation was expressed in
President Wilson’s Fourteen Point – a proposal for establishing
peace in the post-war era
3) The league was formed in 1920 but failed to avert another war.
The reason why it failed was not really because it was not well
conceived but because its member-states did not give it a chance to
work, they often resorted to means not contained in the covenant
to resolve their disputes.
We went further to note that the United Nations was formed as a
universal international organisation. It is an overarching institutional
framework for the maintenance of global peace and security, amidst
other. Its membership is open all nations of the world.
The structure of the UN was defined by its charter. The organisation is
made up of a number of principal organs, including the Security Council,
the General Assembly, the Secretariat, the Economic and Social Council,
the Trusteeship Council and the International Court of Justice. The UN
draws its budget from contribution from member countries based on
their assessed capabilities. We also examined a number of functional
agencies of the UN, such as: United UNCTAD, UNEP, UNDP,
UNICEF, UNESCO, WHO, UNIDO, WTO, GATT
The UN has achieved tremendously in terms of its traditional and new
roles. However, the organisation is still faced with numerous challenges
ranging from issues of terrorism, internal conflicts, question of statehood
for Palestine, diseases, human security, hunger, and gender related
issues.

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 United Nation

Assessment

1. What factors led to the fall of the League of Nations?

2. Highlight the structure and functions of the League of Nations.
3. What are the objectives of the United Nations?
Assignment
4. What are the basic principles of the UN
5. Describe the structure of the UN
6. What are the functions of the principal organs of the UN
7. How does the UN fund its programmes
8. What are the challenges of the UN
9. Mention three functional agencies of the United Nations
10. What are the functions of the functional agencies of the UN?

Bibliography
Palmer & Perkins (2007) International Relations. Delhi: AITBS
publishers
Palmer, Colton & Kramer (2007) History of the Modern World. NY:
Re McGraw Hill
ading Steans J & Pettiford L (2005) Introduction to International Relations:
Themes and Perspectives. London: Pearson
United Nations (2004) Basic Fact About the United Nations. NY: News
and Media Division (United Nations Department of Public Information)
http://www.un.org/en/un60/60ways/ retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml retrieved August,
2013.
http://www-
tc.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/socialstudies/un_sh_bac
kground.pdf retrieved August, 2013.

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Study Session 4

Bretton Woods Institutions

Introduction
In this Study Session, you will examine the establishment and functions
of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and to states their
functions. The two institutions are collectively known as Bretton Wood
institutions.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
4.1 discuss the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944.
4.2 outline the roles of IMF
4.3 present an overview on the World Bank.

4.1 Background to the Bretton Woods Institutions

In July 1944, representatives of 44 countries met in Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, to create a new international monetary order. The goal was to
create an orderly, stable and crisis-free international monetary system and
to establish an international economic system that would prevent another
economic collapse and military conflict (Spero, 1985:35). There an
international consensus that the previous monetary system that that relied
primarily on market forces had proved to be inadequate. The previous
system was based on economic nationalism marked with competitive
Mount Washington Hotel, exchange rate devaluations, formation of competing monetary blocs, and
Bretton Woods The Bretton the absence of international cooperation. It was believed that all of these
Woods Conference Meeting contributed greatly to economic breakdown, domestic political instability
Place
and international war. Thus, there was a need to have a system in which
governments acting together would assume the responsibility of
managing the international monetary system. in line with this, two public
international organisations, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD,
otherwise known as the World Bank) were created to perform the role of
central bank for the international system. When the United Nations was
created about a year later, these institutions became specialised agencies
within the UN system.

4.2 The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The IMF began operation in 1947 with 44 member countries, a number
that had grown to 184 as at 2005 (Rourke, 2006). It was to be the keeper
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of the rules and the main instrument of public international management.

Its primary function is to help maintain exchange rate stability by making
short term loans to countries with international balance of payment
problems because of trade deficits, heavy loan payments, or other factors.
In such situations, countries can use IMF loans to help meet debt
payments. IMF receives its funds from hard currency reserves totalling
327 billion dollars in 2005 made available to it by economically
developed countries; another source of fund is interest on loans it has
made to countries that borrow from its currency reserves. What the IMF
does is to lend money to a country when overspending or other problems
are endangering faith in the country’s currency. IMF approval was
necessary for any change in exchange rates, and it advised countries on
policies affecting the monetary system.

4.2.1 The IMF Structure

A major organ of the IMF is the Board of Governors. The Board of
Governors is the highest authority in the IMF. It is made up of one
official representative of each member country, usually the Governor of
the central bank of the member nations. On the face, membership of the
board of governors was meant to satisfy the principle of sovereign
equality of states. In reality, however, that equality does not exist.
Members of the IMF are hierarchically positioned within the structure of
the institution according to the quota which is assigned to them based on
each member’s share of total world trade. Decision-making procedure at
the Board of Governors is by weighted voting. The weight of each
country’s voting right is a reflection of its quota. Thus, decisions of the
board primarily reflect views of industrial countries that dominate in
world trade.
The second organ of the IMF is the Executive Board of Directors. This
body is made up of two categories of members – appointed members and
elected members. Appointments are meant to reflect the proportion of
quota allocation within the IMF structure. Elected members are
distributed according to regions but again it reflects the quota distribution
pattern within the IMF. The day to day running of the organisation is the
responsibility of the executive board made up of 24 members, the
Managing Director serves as the Chairperson of the Executive Board. The
position is currently held by Christine Lagarde. The Managing Director,
the Chief Executive Officer of the IMF is by convention appointed from
America or at least acceptable to the US.

4.2.2 Criticisms against IMF

The IMF is usually criticized by developing and less developed countries.
The IMF is seen as one of the most visible faces of neo-imperialism. This
has been the argument of several leaders who argue that IMF promotes
liberal capitalism in the developing countries as well as perpetuate
relationships of dependency between the developing countries and the
developed countries.
Another argument is that the voting pattern is in favour of developed
countries. This is so because countries vote on the basis of how much
they contribute to the organisation and their share of world trade. On the

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basis of this, the United States has a disproportionate share of 17% of the
votes. Moreover, the United States and Seven other developed countries
control a majority of the IMF vote under the wealth-weighted voting
system.
There have been criticisms over the management of the organisation. In
spite of the IMFs global membership, the governance structure is
dominated by industrialised countries. Decisions are made and policies
implemented by leading industrialised countries—the G7—because they
represent the largest donors without much consultation with poor and
developing countries. The Managing Director has always been from the
West and often times French (Mimiko 2010). This issue became
controversial as non-western countries challenged the status quo in the
events leading to the election of Christine Lagarde as Managing Director.
Agustin Carstens who contested the post against Lagarde was backed by
Latin American governments as well as by Australia, Canada and Spain.
The reaction against the candidacy of Lagarde and in favour of a non-
European is indicative of the concern and displeasure over European
dominance as the head of the organisation is generating.
The IMF often attach loan conditionalities based on what is termed the
‘Washington Consensus’, focusing on liberalisation—of trade,
investment and the financial sector—, deregulation and privatisation of
nationalised industries. On giving loans to countries, the IMF make the
loan conditional on the implementation of certain economic policies.
These policies tend to involve:
• Reducing government borrowing - Higher taxes and lower spending
• Higher interest rates to stabilise the currency.
• Allow failing firms to go bankrupt.
• Structural adjustment. Privatisation, deregulation, reducing corruption
and bureaucracy.
The problem is that these policies of structural adjustment and macro
economic intervention make the situation worse. Often the
conditionalities are attached without due regard for the borrower
countries’ individual circumstances and the prescriptive
recommendations by the World Bank and IMF fail to resolve the
economic problems within the countries. The IMF has been criticized for
imposing unfair policies and conditionalities on member countries.
IMF conditionalities may result in the loss of a state’s authority to govern
its own economy as national economic policies are predetermined under
IMF packages. Issues of representation are raised as a consequence of the
shift in the regulation of national economies from state governments to a
Washington-based financial institution in which most developing
countries hold little voting power. IMF packages have also been
associated with negative social outcomes such as reduced investment in
public health and education.
The IMF frequently argues for the same economic policies regardless of
the situation. For example, devaluation of the exchange rate may help
many countries, but, it doesn't mean that this is always the solution.
Policies of privatisation and deregulation may work better in developed
countries in the West, but, maybe more difficult to implement in the
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developing world. Also, the IMF have been criticised for imposing policy
with little or no consultation with affected countries.
But, at the same time, it must be remembered that people call on the IMF
in times of crisis. When you have a balance of payments crisis,
depreciating exchange rate, there is no easy painless fix. Whatever the
IMF recommend people would use it as a convenient point of blame. It is
hardly surprising governments do blame an external body like the IMF, it
helps to deflect criticism from the government and why the economy
ended up needing a bailout. Because the IMF deal with economic crisis,
whatever policy they offer, there is likely to be difficulties. It is not
possible to deal with a balance of payments without some painful
readjustment

4.3 The World Bank

In order to facilitate the post-war recovery of the international economy,
the planners at the Bretton Woods created another institution, the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD or the
World Bank). The World Bank is now a composite of five institutions:
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (1945); the
International Finance Corporation (1956); the International Development
Association (1960); the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
(1988); and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Dispute
(1966). Its main objectives are ‘to assist in the reconstruction and
development of territories of members by facilitating the investment of
capital for productive purposes; to promote private foreign investments
by means of guarantees or participation in loans; and to supplement
private investment by providing suitable conditions, finance for
productive purposes out of its own capital. Although, in the aftermath of
the war, the World Bank was set up to facilitate post war recovery in
Europe, the rebuild economies that had been devastated by the war. For
this purpose, the World Bank was granted an initial capitalization fund of
10 billion dollars and was expected to make loans and to issue securities
to raise new funds to make possible a speedy post war recovery. But
since its formation, the World Bank has assumed several functions.
The goal of the World Bank embraces the reduction of poverty around
the world by strengthening the economies of poor nations. Its aim is to
improve people’s living standards in line with the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), by promoting economic growth and
development. The lending activities of the World are based on two pillars
of development: building the climate for investment, jobs and sustainable
development; and investing in poor people and empowering them to
participate in development.
In 1960, the International Development Association was created to make
loans available to the poorest countries to help them provide better human
services in order to improve productivity and to create employment. The
International Finance Corporation was established in 1956 to make loans
available to companies in less developed countries and guarantees private
investments for projects supporting development. The Multilateral
Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) was set up in 1988 to promote the
flow of private development capital to less developed countries by

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providing guarantees to investors for about 20 percent of any losses they

might suffer due to non-commercial risks (Rourke, ibid).

4.3.1 Structure of the World Bank

All powers of the Bank are vested in a Board of Governors, comprising
one governor appointed by each of the 184 member states. The Board
meets at least once a year. The Governors however delegate general
operations to the Board of Executive Directors made up of 24 executive
directors who meet regularly at its headquarters with the President of the
Bank serving as Chairman of the Board. The Chairman of the Board of
Executive Directors, who must be neither a governor nor a director,
serves for five years.

4.3.2 Criticism against World Bank

The World Bank is dominated by economically developed countries too.
It also uses a wealth-based voting system (Rourke, 2007). The United
States controls 50% of the total votes. The upper echelon of the bank is
dominated by American, British, German and French citizens. The
President of the World Bank is the Chief Executive has always been an
American and always a male (Mimiko, 2010) and like IMF, less
developed countries believe that developed countries use the World Bank
to impose neo-imperialist control of the less developed countries.
With the World Bank, there are concerns about the types of development
projects funded. Many infrastructure projects financed by the World
Bank Group have social and environmental implications for the
populations in the affected areas and criticism has centred on the ethical
issues of funding such projects. For example, World Bank-funded
construction of hydroelectric dams in various countries has resulted in the
displacement of indigenous peoples of the area.
There are also concerns that the World Bank working in partnership with
the private sector may undermine the role of the state as the primary
provider of essential goods and services, such as healthcare and
education, resulting in the shortfall of such services in countries badly in
need of them. As an increasing shift from public to private funding in
development finance has been observed recently, the Bank’s private
sector lending arm – the International Finance Corporation (IFC) – has
also been criticised for its business model, the increasing use of financial
intermediaries such as private equity funds and funding of companies
associated with tax havens.
It is argued that the World Bank is deeply implicated in contemporary
modes of donor and NGO imperialism, and that its intellectual
contributions function to blame the poor for their condition. Critics argue
further that the so-called free market reform policies which the Bank
advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented
badly, too quickly in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive
economies.
One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in
which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 186 countries, it
is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These

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countries choose the leadership and senior management of the World

Bank, and so their interests dominate the bank.
The World Bank has dual roles that The World Bank has dual roles that
are contradictory: that of a political organisation and that of a practical
organisation. As a political organisation, the World Bank must meet the
demands of donor and borrowing governments, private capital markets,
and other international organisations. As an action-oriented organisation,
it must be neutral, specializing in development aid, technical assistance,
and loans. The World Bank’s obligations to donor countries and private
capital markets have caused it to adopt policies which dictate that poverty
is best alleviated by the implementation of “market” policies.
Some analysis shows that the World Bank has increased poverty and been
detrimental to the environment, public health and cultural diversity. Some
critics also claim that the World Bank has consistently pushed a
neoliberal agenda, imposing policies on developing countries which have
been damaging, destructive and anti-developmental.
The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been
one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank. The oil crisis in
the late 1970s plunged many countries into economic crises. The World
Bank responded with structural adjustment loans which distributed aid to
struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce
inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included
encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing,
changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government
resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries
with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be
implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan
Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The
alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and
the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social
spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.
It appears as though the role of the World Bank in international political
economy is misunderstood. Critics blame the bank for any or all of the
perceived problems associated with globalization—the growing
integration of economies and societies around the world resulting from
increased flows of goods, services, capital, technology, and ideas. Also,
protests drew worldwide attention to the problem of extremely high
multilateral debt levels carried by very poor countries, which high-
income countries ultimately agreed were unsustainable and stifled the
ability of poor countries to both pay those debts and combat poverty. This
led the Bank and International Monetary Fund to form the Debt Initiative
for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and to further financial
pledges by high-income countries to assist the Bank to carry out debt-
relief efforts for heavily indebted poor countries.

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Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we focussed our discussion on Bretton Woods
Institutions. These institutions - the IMF and World Bank - were
conceived to manage the new international monetary order after the
Summary Second World War. While the IMF was established to help countries to
achieve balance of payment stability, the World Bank was initially
established to fund the reconstruction of economies that had been
devastated by the second world war.The World Bank and IMF have been
summarily criticized for being undemocratic, instruments of western
imperialism, and have been actually accused of worsening the
development challenges of the less developed world.

Assessment

1. What are the Bretton Woods institutions?

2. What is the difference between the IMF and the World Bank?
Assignment

Bibliography
Kaarbo, J. And Ray, J.L. 2011. Global Politics. Wadsworth; Cengage
Learning.
Kegley, C. 2009. World Politics: Trends and Transformation. Belmont:
Re Wadsworth Cengage Learning
ading Mimiko O. M (2010) ‘Swimming against the Tide: Development
Challenge for the Long-Disadvantaged in a Fundamentally Skewed
Global System’ Inaugural Lecture Series 233 of the Obafemi Awolowo
University.
http://blogs.law.uiowa.edu/ebook/sites/default/files/Part_1_2_0.pdf
retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.globalization101.org/why-is-the-world-bank-controversial
retrieved August, 2013.
http://ebook.law.uiowa.edu/ebook/sites/default/files/Part_2_3_0.pdf
retrieved August, 2013.

46
 Study Session 5 Security Alliances: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Study Session 5
Security Alliances: North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
Introduction
In this Study Session, we will explore a security alliance in the
international community. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) is a regional defence alliance created by the North Atlantic
treaty. NATO is the single most important security alliance in the world.
Over the years it has grown in stature, intervening in some of the world’s
insoluble conflicts and in 2011 it received the mandate of the United
Nations to execute a No-Fly Zone council resolution in Libya. NATO is a
product of the Cold War international politics.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
5.1 present a brief on NATO.
5.2 analyse the roles of NATO in international security.

5.1 Emergence of NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is a military (defence)
alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries. NATO was
the first post war military alliance in Europe. It was formed as a
mechanism for deterring aggression. It can be traced to 1948 when
Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg formed a West
European Union for collective self-defence. Following this initiative, the
United States took the lead in creating a larger military alliance and
collective defence system. In June 1948, the United States Senate passed
a bipartisan resolution supporting collective defence in Western Europe.
Consequently, the United States, Canada and West European nations met
in Washington and agreed to a military arrangement for the joint defence
of Western Europe. In April 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty was signed
by which ‘the Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of
them in (Western) Europe or North America shall be considered an attack
against them all’. From this treaty developed the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO). The defining element of the treaty is contained in
article 5, it says that no NATO nation will have to fend on its own – ‘an

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attack against one or more’ was to be considered ‘an attack against all’
(Palmer, Colton & Kramer, 2007). NATO committed America to the
security of Western Europe, a situation that remains till date.
NATO was created to guarantee the security of Western Europe. This
was due to the inability of the countries that won the Second World War
– namely USA, France, and Britain among others and the Soviet Union
on the other hand to come to terms over a common post-war settlement
plan for Germany – note that Germany was the principal opponent of
these countries during the war. Because of this disagreement, Germany
became divided into two – a western Germany and an East Germany.
Since the Soviet Union had emerged as one of the super powers after the
Second World War, the presence of a large number of Soviet troop in
eastern Germany was a source of concern and it was feared that sooner or
later the Soviets would enter west Germany and eventually over-run the
whole of western Europe. It was due to this situation that in 1948, Britain,
Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg entered into a collective self-
defence. The entry of the United States to steer the military alliance was a
great relief. Through the alliance, the United States became involved in
providing security for Europe and the presence of US forces in western
Germany meant that soviet forces could not move beyond eastern Europe.

8.2 Purpose of NATO

According to the preamble of the North Atlantic Treaty, the purposes of
NATO are:
1. To safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of
their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual
liberty and the rule of law
2. To seek to promote stability and well being in the north Atlantic
area
3. It seeks to unite efforts for collective defence and for the
preservation of peace and security.
The treaty provides for the following
Article 1 call for peaceful resolution of disputes
Article 2 pledges the parties to economic and political cooperation
Article 3 calls for development of the capacity of defence
Article 4 provides for joint consultation when a member is threatened
Article 5 promises the use of the members’ armed forces for
‘collective self-defence’
Article 6 defines the areas covered by the treaty
Article 7 affirms the precedence of members’ obligations under the
United Nations Charter
Article 8 safeguards against the conflict with any other treaties of the
signatories
Article 9 creates a council to oversee implementation of treaty

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 Study Session 5 Security Alliances: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

8.3 Structure of NATO

The highest authority within NATO is the North Atlantic Council. The
council provides a means whereby fundamental issues concerning the
organisation can be discussed. All matters are represented on the council
by their ambassadors and in this way the council can remain in virtually
permanent session (Evans & Newnham 1997). Its meeting are chaired by
the secretary general. There are several temporary committees which run
specific alignments of the council. The military consists of the chiefs of
staff of the various armed forces, it meets twice a year.

8.4 NATO after the Cold War

NATO had existed as a parallel security alliance against the Warsaw Pact
in the Cold War ideological confrontations led by the US on the one side
and the USSR on the other. However, with the end of the Cold War and
the disbandment of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, there arose questions about
the continuing necessity and purpose of NATO. Defenders of the alliance
insist that NATO deserve credit for being able to preserve peace in
Europe since 1945, and that it would be a mistake to disband it even if the
Warsaw Pact was no more. Instead of disbanding it, the defender even
went ahead to argue for an expansion of its membership to embrace the
Central and Eastern European states which were formerly under the
defunct Warsaw Pact. This was not so much to guard against a possible
Russian attack but solidify the new found ‘ideological reconciliation’ and
entrench democracy in those countries.
The evolution of NATO since the end of the Cold War reflects the
shifting geopolitical landscape. Initially, many observers thought that
NATO would disappear along with the WARSAW PACT. Because the
reason for which NATO was created in the first place – to contain Soviet
expansionism- no longer existed. However, NATO did not dissolve. It
reinvented itself, changing its membership and its mission. In January
1994, NATO allowed four formerly communist bloc states (Poland, the
Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary) to join the Partnership for Peace
(PfP) plan. However, the PfP did not give them the same guarantee of aid
in the event of an attack that the existing full members were promised.
But the PfP became a pivotal step in the process of enlargement aimed at
creating a peaceful, united and democratic Europe. The Czech Republic,
Hungary, and Poland joined NATO in 1999; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia were admitted in 2004; and
Albania and Croatia acceded to the alliance in 2009. This brings the total
number of states to twenty-eight, excluding Macedonia and Bosnia-
Herzegovnia that are considered applicant states. The eastward expansion
of NATO has been at the expense of its relationship with Russia, which
seriously objects to that enlargement.
Meanwhile, Russia was invited to formerly participate in full decision-
making on NATO security policies, in order to alleviate any lingering
fears that the alliance continues to perceive Moscow as a potential
enemy. Thus, by the beginning of the 21st century, Russia and NATO
had formed a strategic relationship; no longer considered NATO's chief
enemy, Russia cemented a new cooperative bond with NATO in 2001 to

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address such common concerns as international terrorism, nuclear non-

proliferation, and arms control.
Apart from expansion in membership, the post-Cold War era has brought
new roles to NATO. NATO has been engaging in out of area operations,
which are clearly beyond the defence of an ally from an outside threat as
originally envisaged in the treaty. Examples include NATO missions in
Yugoslavia, the Balkans, Kosovo, and recently Libya. NATO has also
responded to threat from a non-state actor as demonstrated in NATO
members’ involvement in the US-led intervention in Afghanistan after the
September 11 terrorist attack on the United States. Indeed, NATO has
adjusted itself to the new challenges of the transforming global system in
which enemies and threats are no longer clearly defined.

8.5 Challenges Facing NATO

NATO is facing certain challenges, which includes:
1) It relies overwhelmingly on the United States, in the eventuality
that the United States is unable to meet its obligations to NATO,
NATO’s activities would be greatly affected
2) There is the challenge of enlargement. Certain countries in Eastern
Europe have joined and others desire to join particularly countries
that were once under the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence. The
issue is how to accommodate these countries without enraging
Russia.
3) Russia and China are spearheading a parallel military alliance
known as the Shanghai Corporation (SCO).

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we discussed that NATO was formed as a
collective defence security organisation in the Cold War international
system. The treaty was signed between the United States and Western
Summary European countries. NATO was formed as a result of the need to
guarantee the security of western European countries. It was formed on
the principle that any attack on any of its members shall be viewed as an
attack on all the members, which will mobilise against the aggressor.
However, with end of the Cold War, NATO has expanded both in
membership and in scope of operation. It increased from sixteen to
twenty-eight countries and has been involved outside its traditional
scope of defending its members.

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 Study Session 5 Security Alliances: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Assessment

1. What factors led to the formation of NATO?

2. State the purposes of NATO?
Assignment 3. What are the challenges of NATO in the 21st century?

Bibliography
Taylor P. (2005) United Nations and International Order in Baylis and
Smith (2005) The Globalisation of World Politics. Oxford University
Press.
Re http://wiki.answers.com/Q/FAQ/9832 retrieved August, 2013.
ading http://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/index.html retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/1999/04/nato-daalder
retrieved August 2013.

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Study Session 6
The European Union
Introduction
In this Study Session, we shall trace the socio-political and economic
development that led to the creation of the European Union (EU). We
shall also look at the development of the organisation.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
6.1 outline the historical development of the European Union.
6.2 discuss the roles of EU organs.
6.3 present the challenges facing EU.

6.1 Background of EU
A vision of a united Europe is as old as Europe itself. But initial visions
of a united Europe were based on creating a united Europe through
conquest. However with the end of the Second World War efforts were
made to promote European unity. This was motivated by the need to
eliminate the threat of war between European countries and possible
threat of Soviet domination in Western Europe. The French statesman
Jean Monnet was one of the advocates of a united Europe. He believed
that if the nations of Europe were to resume a dominant role in the world
affairs, they had to speak with one voice and command resources
comparable to those of the United States. The economic motive was
hinged on the belief that larger markets would promote competition and
thus lead to greater productivity and higher standards of living (Urwin,
2009). However, given the world wars, the prospect for European unity
may not have seemed bright but it was exactly the need to avoid another
world war and more specifically a war in Europe that led leaders of some
European countries to initiate the effort at European integration.
The first step towards European integration was the establishment of the
European coal and steel community (ECSC) with the treaty of Paris in
1951. The treaty came into effect in July 1952. Many countries were
invited to take part in the creation of this new body, but in the end only
six did. These countries were France, Germany, Italy and three Benelux
countries (Belgium, Netherland, and Luxemburg). By joining the ECSC
member states ceded some of their sovereignty to a supranational body,
and for this reason Britain was not willing to join the ECSC. Some other
countries particularly those with economic ties with Britain also did not
join (Gallagher, Mair & Laver, 2006). The treaty provided for the
elimination of tariff and quotas on trade on iron ore, coal, coke and steel
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 Study Session 6 The European Union

within the community; a common external tariff on imports on coal and

steel from other nations; and control on production and sales (Urwin
ibid).
With the satisfactory operation of the European Coal and Steel
Community, member states agreed to extend the range of policy areas in
which countries might agree to cooperate in similar organisations. As a
result of this, the foreign minister of the six countries met in Messina,
Sicily in Italy and decided to work towards the establishment of a custom
union that would involve the creation of a common or single market
embracing all the countries. Each of these treaties established a new
community. The most important and wide ranging in scope was the treaty
of the European economic community (EEC) which laid down policy
aims and guidelines concerning the establishment of a common market
and the creation of a common policy in areas such as agriculture and
transportation. The other treaty was the EURATOM treaty which dealt
with atomic energy and covered matters such as the pooling of resources
and research.
So far these countries were now cooperating in three areas: Coal and
steel; Economic cooperation; and Cooperation in the use of atom. The
two new communities (ECC and EURATOM) had their own set of
institutions. They had a commission, an Assembly, Council of Ministers
and Court of Justice. The three organisations continued to maintain their
own commission and council of ministers until 1965 when a merger
treaty was signed. The treaty merged the three institutions into one and
became known as the European community in1967 when the merger
treaty came into effect (Gallagher, Mair and Laver 2006). In 1993, the
body became known as the European Union. Today, there are 27 member
nations in the European Union. The European union has developed into
a huge single market with the euro as its common currency. What began
as a purely economic union has evolved into an organisation spanning all
areas, from development aid.

The European Union (EU) is the world’s most successful attempt at regional
integration. Beginning in 1951 at the European Coal and Steel Community, it
has grown into a robust regional organisation and has become a reference
point for other regions of the globe. The European Union is a union of twenty-
seven independent states based on the European Communities and founded
Tip to enhance political, economic and social co-operation.

EU Areas of Interest
Issue areas the European Union is interested in
1. a prominent concern of the European union is the creation of a
single market which allows goods and services to be marketed
and sold with equal ease all across the world – there would be no
barriers to trade within the union
2. single currency – a tangible step that was taken in 1999 towards
the goal, today there are 17 countries using the euro
3. EU makes laws on a wide variety of areas ranging from
agriculture to living and social rights. The aim of such policies
describes as building a social Europe

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6.2 Structure of the EU

Members of the European Union cooperate in three distinct areas often
called pillars. These are
-European community (this is the heart of the European Union
system)
-Common Foreign and Security Policy
-Justice and Home Affairs
The EU has four main institutions, these are:

6.2.1 The Commission

It is the highest administrative organ of the EU commission. It is like the
government of the EU. In reality it is a combination of government and
civil service (Gallagher, Mair & Laver, 2006). The European commission
consist of thirty two commissioners. Commissioners are nominated by
EU member governments and nomination must be approved by the
European parliament. It is headquartered in Brussels. The primary
function of the European commission are to propose new laws for the
EU, oversee the negotiation of EU treaties, execute European council
decrees and manage the EU’s budget (Kegley, 2009). It initiates,
implements and supervises policy. It is also responsible for general
financial management of the EU.

6.2.2 The Council of Ministers

Yhe EUs central administrative unit is the council of ministers. It consists
of cabinet ministers drawn from EU member states who participate when
important decisions that concern their ministry are being made at the
level of the European Union. For example, if the council of ministers
wants to deliberate on agriculture, member countries would be
represented by their ministers of agriculture. The council of ministers
represent the governments of the EU’s member states and retains final
authority over policy making decisions. The council sets the general
policy guidelines for the European commission

6.2.3 European Parliament

The European parliament headquartered in Strasbourg has three main
powers
a. Appointment and dismissal of the commission
b. Legislation. Parliament can block but rarely initiates legislation
c. Budget. It must be consulted on matters about EU budget

6.2.4 The European Court of Justice

This is the main judicial body of the EU. It is responsible for the law the
EU establishes for itself and its member states. It ensures that other EU
institutions and member states conform to the provision of the EU treaties
and legislation. The ECJ assertion that EU law takes precedence over
national law and the fact that there is no appeal against it have given the
ECJ a powerful role in the EU.
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6.3 Challenges Facing the EU

1. The challenge of enlargement – several countries desire to join
the European Union and this is a challenge to the EU.
2. Financial problems – the EU is bogged down financial problem.
3. Challenge to state sovereignty. Some states are not willing to
surrender their sovereignty e.g. Britain, and intends negotiating to
get back some powers from the European Union
4. The absence of a common European people. The citizens of
member countries of the EU are divided over whether they need
the European Union; these sentiments vary from Euro sceptics –
those who do not want further integration as evident in the United
Kingdom Independent Party and to those who are passionate
about a United Europe.
The political unification of Europe has been built step-by-step as the EU
has marched toward greater unity. Although moving beyond the nation-
state toward a single integrated European federation has not been smooth,
and disagreement persists over the extent to which the EU should become
a single, truly united super-state, a “United States of Europe”. However,
the EU represents a remarkable success story in the history of
international relations.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you learnt that the EU is the world’s successful
intergovernmental organisation and the most successful attempt at
regional integration. It was borne out of the need to promote economic
Summary and political cooperation in Europe. The EU is a product of institution
building that started in 1951 with the establishment of the European Coal
and Steel Community. These three bodies became collectively known as
European Community in1967 and culminated into the European Union
in 1993. The EU has three pillars – European Community, Common
Foreign and Security Policy and Justice and Home Affairs. It has four
organs –council of ministers, European parliament, European
commission, and European court of justice.

Assessment

1. What is the European Union?

2. How significant is European Union in world politics?

Assignment

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Bibliography
Gallagher, Laver & Mair (2006) Representative Government in Modern
Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments. Singapore: McGraw
Hill.
Re NATO. (1949) North Atlantic Treaty. 81st Congress, First Session,
ading Executive Document.
Urwin, Derek W. "European Union." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009
[DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/policy_en.htm retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.aueb.gr/statistical-institute/european-citizens/history_en.pdf
retrieved August, 2013.

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 Study Session 7 The African Union

Study Session 7
The African Union
Introduction
In this Study Session we shall be looking at the establishment, objectives,
function of African Union (AU).

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
7.1 compile reasons for the establishment of the African Union.
7.2 List the structures of the African Union and the function they perform.
7.3 Highlight the objectives of the African Union.
7.4 Identify the challenges the African Union is facing.

7.1 Historical Background of AU

In 1963 the Organisation of African Unity was established. According to
the preamble of the OAU charter, the OAU was committed to a larger
unity transcending ethnic and national differences. Its guiding principle
was the sovereign equality of states and non interference in the internal
affairs of states (Umozurike 1979). The founding principles of the OAU
made it incapable to act in protect the rights of citizens within their
countries even when their rights were being trampled upon by African
rulers since the OAU was bound to treat such issues as the internal affairs
of its member states. This attracted to it the appellation of a union of
tyrants (Walvaren 2004). Moreover, the OAU’s regard for inherited
borders meant that it could not act decisively on issues that bothered on
secession notably Biafra, Eritrea or Somaliland (Moller, ibid).
The OAU was mainly renowned for setting norms and standards many of
which it could not enforce (Moller 2009). On the eve of the 21st century
new concerns were expressed in three separate visions some of which
were not really new but were now vigorously pursued.
The first of this is the pet project of Gaddafi of Libya who right from the
inception of the OAU has been advocating a United States of Africa – a
larger community of peoples transcending cultural, ideological, ethnic
and national differences (Moller, ibid).
The second idea was suggested by Nigeria through the conference on
security, stability, development and cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA).
Though originally formulated in the 1991 Kampala Document which
among other things, suggested a modification of the principle of
sovereignty in favour of a shared responsibility to protect human rights
(Deng & Zartman, 2002), the initiative remained dormant until 1999. The

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CSSDCA was based on a broad concept of security including human

security as well as good governance as a prerequisite to stable peace. It
envisaged a collective continental architecture for promoting security and
inter-African relations and recommended the signing of non-aggression
pacts, a common defence policy for Africa, stand-by arrangement for
peace support operations, police collaboration, the establishment of an
early warning mechanism as well as a strengthening of confidence-
building measures. Most of these recommendations were formally
confirmed at the inaugural AU summit in Durban in 2002 (Moller, ibid).
The third idea was suggested by South Africa which has become known
as the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). It actually
started as the New African Initiative suggested at OAU summit in 1999 at
which President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa and President Bouteflika
Abdelaziz of Algeria were mandated negotiate debt cancellation for
Africa. President Obasanjo later joined in support of the idea after which
NAI became known as the Millennium Partnership for the African
Recovery programme (MAP) and was endorsed by the OAU in 2001.
MAP became merged with President Abdoulaye Wade’s OMEGA plan
for Africa and became known as NEPAD. The main objectives are
poverty eradication and sustainable development, but as a precondition
for such development it also featured a ‘Peace, Security, Democracy and
Political Governance Initiative’ (Moller ibid)
The African Union is a fusion of these three plans. Following a rigorous
drafting process 53 African heads of state signed the constitutive act of
the African union (CAAU) in March 2001, and its solemn inauguration at
a summit in Durban, 9-10 July 2002.

7.2 Advent of AU
The advent of the AUcan be described as an event of great magnitude in
the institutional evolution of the continent. On 9th September.1999, the
Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity
issued a Declaration (the Sirte Declaration) calling for the establishment
of an African Union, with a view to accelerating the process of
integration in the continent to enable it play its rightful role in the global
economy while addressing multifaceted social, economic and political
problems compounded as they are by certain negative aspects of
globalisation.
The AU is the institutional manifestation of the historical evolution of
pan-Africanism. The AU was established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to
the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and since then has become the
only pan-African organisation, with all African states as members except
Morocco, which left the OAU in 1984, after the organisation granted
membership to the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic set up by the
independence movement in the disputed territory of Western Sahara.
However, Membership of the organisation, which currently consists of
54 African states (including Southern Sudan), is open to all independent
African states. Among the objectives of the AU's leading institutions are
to accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the
continent; to promote and defend African common positions on issues of

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interest to the continent and its peoples; to achieve peace and security in
Africa; and to promote democratic institutions, good governance and
human rights. The goal of the AU is to propel a united continent towards
peace and prosperity. It supports political and economic integration
among its 53 member nations and aims to boost development, eradicate
poverty and bring Africa into the global economy.
The AU has adopted a number of important new documents establishing
norms at the continental level, to supplement those already in force when
it was created. These include the African Union Convention on
Preventing and Combating Corruption (2003) and the African Charter on
Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), as well as NEPAD and its
associated Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate
Governance. NEPAD is an AU anti-poverty blueprint which offers a
bargain with the West: the promotion of good political and economic
practice in return for more aid and investment. The African Peer Review
Mechanism (APRM) is a voluntary "peer review" scheme, in which AU
members are expected to ensure that each other's governments adhere to
democratic principles and sound economic practice. But their political
will to do so has been questioned by sceptics, who point out that, while
promoting pan-African democracy, some AU nations are run by
autocrats, who even run the AU as a “dictator” club.
The reason for the creation of the African union has already been
sketched above. The African Union unlike the OAU now have the right to
intervene in the domestic affairs of other states in cases of ‘war crimes,
genocide and crimes against humanity’ based merely on a decision taken
by the Assembly with a two-thirds majority (Murithi 2007). The list of
events that could cause the assembly to decide to intervene in cases of
serious threats to legitimate order probably referring to military coups or
other forms of illegitimate overthrow of a legitimate government (see
Kuwali 2008; Moller, ibid)
The constitutive Act of the African Union also envisaged the
establishment of a common defence policy for the African continent to
defend the sovereign territorial integrity and independence of member
states.

7.3 Organs of the AU

7.3.1 The Assembly
The highest decision-making organ of the African Union is the Assembly,
made up of all the heads of state or government of member states of the
AU who initially meet once a year, but are now more frequent, in
addition to which several extraordinary summits have taken place. The
Assembly has a chairperson that holds office for 12 months. The
Assembly is currently the supreme governing body of the African Union.
It is gradually devolving some of its decision-making powers to the Pan
African Parliament. It makes its decisions by consensus or by a two-
thirds majority.

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7.3.2 The Pan-African Parliament

The pan-African Parliament is the AU’s representative body, which
consists of 265 members elected by the national parliaments of the AU
member states and is intended to provide popular and civil-society
participation in the processes of democratic governance. The
establishment of the pan-African Parliament in March 2004 enlarged the
space for dialogue to ensure that actors beyond the executive arms of
government participate in shaping continental development and
influencing processes of regional integration and cooperation in Africa. It
is to become the highest legislative body of the African Union. However,
its powers are still largely advisory and consultative. It has the capacity to
promote unity on the African parliament and should give concrete
meaning to the principle of participation of the African peoples or
presumably their elected representatives in the activities of the Union.
The seat of the PAP is at Midrand, South Africa.

7.3.3 The Executive Council

The Executive Council is made up of foreign ministers, who advice and
prepare decisions for the Assembly. The Executive Council is in charge
of preparing the summits. Article 13 of the Constitutive Act contains a
list of common interests that demand the council to make decisions over

7.3.4 The Permanent Representatives Committee

This is made up of the ambassadors of AU member states. The Permanent
Representatives Committee deals with day-to-day matters. It serves as the
secretariat of the executive committee particularly if the council needs
assistance that requires special knowledge.

7.3.5 The Economic, Social, and Cultural Council

(ECOSOCC)
This is a civil society consultative body. The Commission is the
administrative branch and is comprised of 10 commissioners, who hold
individual portfolios. The commission elects its chairperson to a four-
year term, and implements AU policies and coordinates the body's
activities and meetings.

7.3.6 The Secretariat

This is the administrative body of the African Union. It is based in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, where the AU’s secretariat is headquartered.

7.3.7 The African Court of Justice

The Constitutive Act provides for a Court of Justice to rule on disputes
over interpretation of AU treaties. A protocol to set up the Court of
Justice was adopted in 2003, but has not yet entered into force: it is likely
to be superseded by a protocol creating a Court of Justice and Human
Rights, which will incorporate the already established African Court of
Justice and Human and Peoples' Rights and have two chambers—one for

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general legal matters and one for rulings on the human rights treaties. The
draft protocol has been under discussion for several years, however it has
not been adopted as of yet.

7.3.8 The Peace and Security Council

The Protocol Relating to the Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the
African Union entered into force on 26 December 2003, after being
ratified by the required majority of Member States of the AU. It is made
up of fifteen Member States, of which five are elected to three-year
terms, and ten to two-year terms. Countries are immediately re-eligible
upon the expiration of their terms.
In order to fully assume its responsibilities for the deployment of peace
keeping and quick intervention missions to assist in cases of genocide,
war crimes and crimes against humanity, the Peace and Security Council
could consult a Panel of the Wise comprising of five African personalities
so as to take action on the distribution of the military on the field.
Functions of the PSC include:
1) Preventive diplomacy and the maintenance of peace;
2) Management of catastrophes and humanitarian actions; and
3) It is intended to replace the Central Organ of the Mechanism for the
prevention, management and regulation of conflicts in Africa,
created in 1993 by Heads of States during the Summit in Tunis.

7.3.9 The Specialized and Technical Committees

The Specialised Technical Committees are bodies in the African Union
responsible to the Executive Council. The various Committees cover
issues ranging from; rural economy and agricultural matters, monetary
and financial matters; industry, Science and Technology, Energy, Natural
Resources and Environment, to labour, health, Labour, social affairs ,
transport, Communication and tourism , Education, Culture and Human
Resources.

7.4 AU Financial Institutions

7.4.1 The African Central Bank
The African Central Bank was created following the 1991 Abuja Treaty
and reiterated by the 1999 Sirte Declaration that called for the speeding
up of the implementation process. The African Central Bank, just like
the other African financial institutions, is aimed at building a common
monetary policy. It creates the African currency as a way for accelerating
economic integration in Africa

7.4.2 The African Monetary Fund

The African Monetary Fund (AMF) is stipulated in the Abuja Treaty in
the Constitutive Act of the African Union, Article 19, , in a bid to
facilitate the integration of African economies, through the elimination
of trade restrictions and enhance greater monetary integration.

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7.4.3 The African Investment Bank

The African Investment Bank is one of the three financial institutions
planned for in the Constitutive Act of the African Union. The mandate of
the African Investment Bank was envisioned to aid in fostering economic
growth and accelerating economic integration in Africa in line with the
broad objective of the African Union.
Eventually, the AU aims to have a single currency (the Afro). Other AU
structures are hosted by different member states: for example, the African
Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights is based in Banjul, The
Gambia; and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
and African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) Secretariats as well as the
Pan-African Parliament are in Midrand, South Africa.

7.5 Principles and Objectives of AU

Articles 3 and 4 state the objectives and principles of the African Union
The principles of the AU as contained in the charter are:
Defence of sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of
member states as well as the principle of non-interference by any
member states in the internal affairs of another but the
Constitutive Act does not preclude intervention by the African
Union (Parker & Rukare, 2002). The AU is empowered to act
upon a decision of the assembly to intervene in war crimes,
genocide and crimes against humanity.
The other principles are:
1) Peaceful resolution of disputes between member states
2) Prohibition of the use of force among member states of the union.
3) Peaceful coexistence of member states and right to live in peace
and security
4) Respect for democratic principles, human rights, the rule of law
and good governance
5) Respect for sanctity of human life, and condemnation and rejection
of impunity, political assassination, acts of terrorism and
subversive activities
However laudable these provisions are in comparison to the erstwhile
OAU, possibilities for intervention may be obstructed by the provision of
the Constitutive Act which requires a decision by the Union’s Assembly
of Heads of State and Government (Parker & Rukare, ibid). This scenario
was particularly evident in the Libyan crisis where the African Union
could not take any action other than the condemnation of NATO’s
activity in Libya.

Security Approach
The AU believes that conflicts must be settled before there can be a
chance of achieving prosperity. To this end, it set up a Peace and Security
Council in 2004. The council may intervene in conflicts, replacing the old

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OAU principle of non-interference with one of "non-indifference". The

council can deploy military forces in situations which include genocide
and crimes against humanity. It can authorize peacekeeping missions and
plans to have a stand-by rapid-reaction force in place by 2010. The AU's
first military intervention in a member state was the May 2003
deployment of a peacekeeping force of soldiers from South Africa,
Ethiopia, and Mozambique to Burundi to oversee the implementation of
the various agreements. AU troops were also deployed in Sudan for
peacekeeping in the Darfur conflict, before the mission was handed over
to the United Nations on 1 January 2008. The AU has also sent a
peacekeeping mission to Somalia, of which the peacekeeping troops are
from Uganda and Burundi.
Human Rights
The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, in existence
since 1986, is established under the African Charter on Human and
Peoples' Rights (the African Charter) rather than the Constitutive Act of
the African Union. It is the premier African human rights body, with
responsibility for monitoring and promoting compliance with the African
Charter. The African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights was
established in 2006 to supplement the work of the Commission, following
the entry into force of a protocol to the African Charter providing for its
creation. It is planned that the African Court on Human and Peoples'
Rights will be merged with the African Court of Justice.
Finances
Originally, the sum of $1.7-billion was proposed for strategic plan for the
53-nation bloc based on the premise that the AU needs a lot of money in
order to carry out its functions. This, proposal was later reviewed by the
officials in acknowledgement that they need to be realistic and not
depending on begging bowl to run the organisation. In 2004, the AU runs
an annual budget of $43 million. In 2009, the AU executive council
approved a budget of $164.2 million, which shows a 17.3 % increase over
the 2008 budget. The 2010 budget has been put at $ 200 million, a 20%
rise over the 2009 estimate. AU budgets are usually expected to be
financed from membership contributions and assistance from
development partners. There are, however, doubts about whether the AU
- many of whose member nations are struggling to tackle domestic
poverty - can afford to fund some of its ambitious schemes. The union,
keen that its activities should be bankrolled by member countries, appears
to be eschewing the "begging bowl" principle. But in 2004 the
commission chairman warned that the AU needed the kind of financial
lifeline that the US gave to post-war Europe.

7.6 Sub-Regional Affiliations

The AU recognizes eight Regional Economic Communities, (RECs),
each established under a separate regional treaty. They are:
• The Community of Sahel-Saharan States CEN-SAD
• Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)
• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)

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• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

• Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD)
• Southern African Development Community (SADC)
• Union du Maghreb Arabe (UMA)
• The East African Community (EAC)
Memberships of many of these communities overlap, and their
rationalization has been under discussion for several years – and formed
the theme of the 2006 Banjul summit. At the July 2007 Accra summit the
Assembly finally decided to adopt a Protocol on Relations between the
African Union and the Regional Economic Communities. This protocol is
intended to facilitate the harmonization of policies and ensure compliance
with the Abuja Treaty and Lagos Plan of Action time frames, which
proposed the creation of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) as the
basis for African integration, with a timetable for regional and then
continental integration to follow.

7.7 Achievements of AU
The AU has made a number of commitments in the area of governance.
This include among others: the Durban Declaration on Elections,
Governance and Democracy; the NEPAD Declaration on Democracy,
Political, Economic and Corporate Governance; the Convention on the
Prevention and Combating of Corruption; and the Protocol to the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights Relating to the Rights of Women,
just to name but these.
Also, the AU has also adopted two processes that have at their core the
promotion of governance, through more efficient, more responsive and
more accountable government, so as to hold African governments
accountable for their actions, and for their declarations. One of these
processes is the NEPAD African Peer Review Mechanism, (APRM) in
terms of which participating governments are assessed against a set of
universal principles. The other process is the CSSDCA Monitoring and
Evaluation Mechanism, in which member states’ implementation of the
decisions they have voluntarily entered into, is monitored.
Another noteworthy change in the continent’s governance agenda relates
to the recognition that political power should be acquired through
constitutional means and democratic processes. In this regard,
unconstitutional changes of government are no longer condoned nor
tolerated by the continent, and particularly by the AU. The Lomé
Declaration and the AU Constitutive Act have unequivocally rejected and
condemned any attempt to seize power in violation of constitutions in
member states.

7.8 Challenges Facing AU

The AU faces many challenges, including health issues such as
combating malaria and the AIDS/HIV epidemic; political issues such as
confronting undemocratic regimes and mediating in the many civil wars;
economic issues such as improving the standard of living of millions of

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impoverished, uneducated Africans; ecological issues such as dealing

with recurring famines, desertification, and lack of ecological
sustainability; as well as the legal issues regarding Western Sahara.
Another challenge has been that of coping with Africa’s complex
political environment defined in terms especially of the large number of
states in the continent that differ both in their historical experiences and
inheritances and also in the realities they face. This has resulted in
marked differences in the ways in which individual or groups of African
countries have tended to interpret and perceive the continental
governance agenda as defined by the AU-OAU and their related
programmes such as the NEPAD-APRM processes. Some still perceive
the agenda as being very invasive.
A third challenge facing the AU’s governance agenda relates particularly
to the difficulties of actualising its democracy and human rights agenda in
the backdrop of the problems associated with the burden of democracy.
The rules of the game are yet to be clearly defined and internalised, such
that the outcomes of major democratic processes, such as elections, could
become both predictable and readily acceptable. What prevails at the
moment is that some of those who wield political power are disposed to
‘bending’ the rules of the game in their favour, while those who perceive
themselves as outsiders, have constantly challenged democratic
processes.
Fourthly, this has created problems in terms of the growth and
development of AU governance instruments. The Lomé Declaration on
Unconstitutional Changes of Government, for instance, has tended to
focus on taking strong action against military interventions. The
OAU/AU has applied this framework with remarkable success in
Comoros, Togo, Madagascar, etc. However, there is a new threat of
incumbent governments seeking to alter constitutions to extend their
mandates. There is also the case of Mauritania where a military coup
appeared to have drawn much popular support creating a dilemma for the
sustainment of democratic ethos. Implicitly therefore, policy frameworks
that have been evolved to address some of the continent’s governance
challenges, including ensuing conflicts, have at times been overtaken by
new dynamics that were not foreseen at the time of the crafting of these
frameworks.
Also, some conflicts have persisted as in Cote d’Ivoire while others have
been aggravated, as is the case with the Sudan. The conflict in Sudan has
created further problems in Chad and Central Africa Republic, thus
raising the sceptre of wider regional instability.
The sixth challenge is that while the AU has recognised the need to
collaborate with non-state actors, both continental and international, in
the advancement of the continental governance agenda, resistance persists
in some quarters, against fully incorporating these non-state actors in the
activities of the Union. The rigid mindset of many state actors towards
non-state actors such as civil society organisations and the private sector
has to change.

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Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we discussed that African has evolved as the
institutional expression of pan-Africanism. It is the pan-African
organisation that is open to all African countries. The organisation has
Summary undergone a lot of restructuring especially in its transformation from the
Organisation of African Unity. It has made some progress over the years.
However, its major challenges include how to handle numerous
development and security problems besetting its members, in relation to
interventions from outside the continent.

Assessment

1. What led to the establishment of the African Union?

2. What are the objectives of the African Union?
3. What functions do the structures of the African Union perform?
Assignment

Bibliography
Moller B. (2009) The African Union as Security Actor: African Solution
to African Problems. Working Paper No 57 (Regional and Global Axes
of Conflict) Crisis States Working Paper Series No.2 published by
Crisis State Research Centre
Re
ading Murithi T. (2007) ‘The Responsibility to Protect as Enshrined in Article
4 in the Constitutive Act of the African Union’, Africa Security Review
16 (3).
http://www.issafrica.org/publications/monographs/the-african-union-
peace-and-security-council-a-five-year-appraisal retrieved August,
2013.
http://nai.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:622198 retrieved
August, 2013.
http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/111/445/662.extract retrieved
August, 2013.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Union retrieved August, 2013.

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 Study Session 8 Economic Community of West African States

Study Session 8
Economic Community of West African
States
Introduction
The Economic Community of West African States was established in
1975 to engender political but more importantly economic cooperation
amongst African states. We shall be looking at the background,
principles, structure and functions of ECOWAS.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
8.1 outline the historical background of ECOWAS.
8.2 describe the structure of ECOWAS.
8.3 state the principles of ECOWAS.
8.4 discuss the challenges facing ECOWAS.

8.1 Historical Background of ECOWAS

The need for an economic union in West Africa has been pursued with
vigour since the 1970s. In 1972, Gen Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria and
Gnassigbe Eyadema of Togo sought to actualize the vision of an
economic community in Africa. Although since the independence of
countries in the West African sub region, they have experimented
unsuccessfully with integrative efforts such as the Organisation of
Senegal River Basin States made up of Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and
Senegal. The OERS was a product of a convention signed in 1968
(Yansane, 1977). This decision was as a result of events that were taking
place within and outside Africa. Outside Africa, the relative success of
European integration through the European community was an
inspiration and there was a desire to build an institution along that line.
But apart from the need to pursue economic integration, the floating of
ECOWAS was both strategic and political. Due to the unfortunate civil
war in Nigeria, and the realization that some West African countries were
working with the secessionist Biafra republic, the reality dawned on
Nigeria that it was really not secure and that some of its neighbours were
willing to see it disintegrate. Notable among these countries that
supported the secessionist Biafra was Cote D’Ivoire (Kufuor, 2006). The
path to security it seemed was to pursue national security through sub
regional integration. To achieve this goal, the Nigerian government
displayed its willingness to use its financial muscle to muster support for
the project by generously giving money to some West African states.

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Moreover, the bitterness sparked by Cote d’Ivoire’s support for Biafra

meant that after the war, efforts to reconcile Nigeria and the Ivorian
government were needed. To achieve this, the Nigerian government
under General Yakubu Gowon saw ECOWAS as a means of bring
together dissenting state under a single umbrella body (Kufuor, ibid)

8.1.1 The Main Features of 1975 Treaty

According to Article three of the ECOWAS Treaty, the aims of the
Community are to promote co-operation and integration, leading to the
establishment of an economic union in West Africa in order to raise the
living standards of its peoples, and to maintain and enhance economic
stability, foster relations among Member States and contribute to the
progress and development of the African Continent. In order to achieve
its aim and objectives, the treaty called for harmonisation and
coordination of national policies and the promotion of integration
programmes, projects and activities, particularly in food, agriculture and
natural resources, industry, transport and communications, energy, trade,
money and finance, taxation, economic reform policies, human resources,
education, information, culture, science, technology, services, health,
tourism, legal matters; as well as in environmental issues; the
establishment of joint enterprises and the establishment of common
market through:
a) The liberalisation of trade by the abolition, among Member States,
of customs duties levied on imports and exports, and the abolition
among Member States, of non-tariff barriers in order to establish a
free trade area at the Community level;
b) The adoption of a common external tariff and a common trade
policy vis-à-vis third countries;
c) The removal, between Member States, of obstacles to the free
movement of persons, goods, service and capital, and to the right of
residence and establishment;
It also suggested the establishment of an economic union through the
adoption of common policies in the economic, financial social and
cultural sectors, and the creation of a monetary union.
Article 4 stipulates the general principles of the organisation and these
are:
a) Equality and inter-dependence of Member States;
b) Solidarity and collective self-reliance;
c) Inter-State co-operation, harmonisation of policies and integration
of programmes;
d) Non-aggression between Member States;
e) Maintenance of regional peace, stability and security through the
promotion and strengthening of good neighbourliness;
a. Peaceful settlement of disputes among Member States, active Co-
operation between neighbouring countries and promotion of a
peaceful environment as a prerequisite for economic
development;

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b. recognition promotion and protection of human and peoples'

rights in accordance with the provisions of the African Charter on
Human and Peoples' Rights;
c. Accountability, economic and social justice and popular
participation in development;
d. Recognition and observance of the rules and principles of the
Community;
e. promotion and consolidation of a democratic system of
governance in each Member State as envisaged by the
Declaration of Political Principles adopted in Abuja on 6 July,
1991; and k) Equitable and just distribution of the costs and
benefits of economic co-operation and integration.
All of these principles are dedicated to the pursuit of the organisations
objectives.

8.2 Organs of ECOWAS

8.2.1 Authority of Heads of State and Government
The Authority of Heads of State and Government, according to Art. 7 of
the ECOWAS Treaty, referred to as “The Authority”, is the principal
governing Institution of the Community, having the role of general
direction and control over the performance of the executive functions of
the Community. It is responsible for the general direction and control of
the Community; and it takes all measures to ensure its progressive
development and the realisation of its objectives.

8.2.2 Council of Ministers

The Authority is assisted by the Council of Ministers, made up of two
representatives of each Member State. This is responsible for the
functioning and development of the community. Some of its functions
are:
1) Making recommendations to the Authority on any action aimed at
attaining the objectives of the Community;
2) Appointing all statutory appointees other than the Executive
Secretary;
3) By the powers delegated to it by the Authority, issue directives on
matters concerning co-ordination and harmonisation of economic
integration policies
4) The treaty also made provision for a Community Parliament but
stated that the functions shall be stipulated in a protocol relating to
it.

8.2.3 The ECOWAS Parliament

Also known as the Community Parliament, the ECOWAS Parliament is a
forum for dialogue, consultation and consensus for representatives of the
peoples of West Africa with the aim of promoting integration. It was
established under Article 6 and 13 of the ECOWAS Revised Treaty of
19938.

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8.2.4 Executive Secretariat

The Executive Secretariat of the Community is the machinery of
execution. It is headed by an Executive Secretary, directly responsible to
the Authority and who can be removed by it. The Secretariat is solely
supervised by the Council of Ministers and is responsible for the day-to-
day running of the Community and its Institutions. It headed by an
executive secretary who is the chief executive officer of the commission
and all its institutions. The functions of the Executive Secretary among
others include:
a. Execution of decisions taken by the Authority and application of
the regulations of the Council;
b. Promotion of Community development programmes and projects
as well as multinational enterprises of the region;
c. Convening as and when necessary meetings of sectoral Ministers
to examine sectoral issues which promote the achievement of the
objectives of the Community;
The Secretariat exists side by side with the Institutions of the
Community:
- Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payments Commission
- Industry, Agriculture and Natural Resources Commission
- Transport, Telecommunications and Energy Commission
- Social and Cultural Affairs Commission assisting and servicing
these institutions.
The Treaty also provides for a Court of Justice charged with ensuring the
observance of law and justice in the interpretation of the Treaty9, and for
the creation of an Economic and Social Council with an advisory role and
whose composition shall include representatives of the various categories
of economic and social activity.
According to the Treaty, there is a hierarchy of authorities where “the
Authority” of the Community is not only the live-wire of the
organisation, but of the Community itself. Each Member State has a veto,
but there is no provision in the Treaty setting any limitation to such a
power. No mention as well is made if the principle of unanimity is the
basis of decision-making.
There is also a series of Financial Institutions and Specialized Agencies
of ECOWAS: ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID),
ECOWAS Regional Development Fund (ERDF), ECOWAS Regional
Investment Bank (ERIB), West African Health Organisation (WAHO),
West African Monetary Agency (WAMA), West African Monetary
Institute (WAMI), Specialized Technical Commission. There are other
institutions such as the court of justice and the arbitration tribunal.
In recognition of the place of security and political stability in economic
development and in reaction to numerous security challenges facing the
sub-region, ECOWAS came up with the ECOWAS Monitoring Group
(ECOMOG). The Liberian crisis provided the immediate reason for the
creation of ECOMOG as a peacekeeping force under the leadership of

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Nigeria. ECOWAS peacekeeping efforts and interventions in Sierra

Leone, Guinea Bissau and Cote d’Ivoire have been executed.
The terms of reference of ECOMOG include the following:
1) To bring about a cease-fire between the warring factions.
2) To set up an interim government
3) To rehabilitate destroyed essential services like hospitals,
electricity, water and food supplies
4) To provide a solution to the menace of decomposing dead bodies
5) To organise a national conference that would set up an interim
government that would rule for a year before a national general
election. (Echezona, 1993:96)

8.3 Principles of ECOWAS

The basic principles of ECOWAS, according to the Treaty, are:
- equality and interdependence of Member States;
- cooperation between Member States;
- solidarity and collective autonomy;
- policies and programmes harmonisation
- nonaggression between Member States;
- peace keeping, stability and security at the regional level;
- peaceful settlement of conflicts;
- respect, promotion and protection of human rights;
- promotion and consolidation of democracy; and
- transparency, economic and social justice.

8.4 Challenges Facing ECOWAS

Since its establishment in May 1975, the Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS) has consistently struggled to integrate West
African economies towards rapid growth and development in order to
enhance the living standards of its citizenry. These efforts were originally
premised on an assumption of a stable and secure environment for
economic integration. The economic goals have, however, proved
extremely difficult to realize as a result of continuous instability and the
recurrent outbreak of intrastate conflicts in response to bad governance
among other issues.
Following the end of the cold war; the Mano River basin experienced
unprecedented violent domestic conflicts that threatened the entire West
African sub-region. The civil conflicts which broke out in Liberia sent
ripples across the region. The unstable nature of the sub-region compelled
ECOWAS to move beyond its economic aims and objective, to include
stability and security as a priority for the community and to
institutionalize conflict prevention, management and resolution as a core
activity.
Corruption and bad governance are major hindrances to political stability
in the sub region. Also, undefined and porous borders degenerate into

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serious security problems whilst the reluctance of political leaders to give

consent in area of mutual interest poses another challenge.
Beyond lack of adequate political cooperation and will which are
constraints to ECOWAS, there are also challenges of poverty, diseases,
unemployment and insecurity. The economic obstacles are problems of
recession, the gap between rapid population growth and technological
advancement and promoting education at all levels. Similarly, the
political constraints include achieving national cohesion and leadership
problems.
Sadly, while a sizeable part of the world is making the transitions from
the industrial era of knowledge, information and computerization, the
region is not following suit. Economic and political obstacles to
ECOWAS ought to be overcome to achieve effective integration.
Other challenges are:
1) It has not been able to deepen integration within the sub-region due
to fact that the economies of West African countries are basic
similar, making meaningful exchange difficult.
2) It has not been able the organisation to achieve the free movement
of people and of goods among member countries.
3) Governments of these countries take actions that are at cross
purposes to the core aims of the organisation
4) Trade between or among countries in the sub-region is still
disproportionately low when compared to trade with other parts of
the world.
5) There is a challenge of how to manage differences among the
Anglophone and the francophone countries.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we discussed the background of Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and we noted that it was
established out of a desire for closer economic relations and integration
Summary among countries of the West African sub-region. However, the structure
of the economies of the member countries, and schisms among the
francophone and the Anglophone countries make it difficult for the
organisation to integrate economically.

Assessment

1. What factors led to the formation of ECOWAS?

2. Highlight the structure and functions of ECOWAS
Assignment

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 Study Session 8 Economic Community of West African States

Bibliography
Kufuor, K.O (2006) The Institutional Transformation of the Economic
Community of West African States. Ashgate Publishing Limited
http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-
Re Operations/MN-2004-105-EN-ADF-BD-WP-MULTINATIONAL-AR-
ading ECOWAS-PEACE-DEVLPT.PDF retrieved August, 2013.
http://www.modernghana.com/news/391065/1/from-the-archives-thirty-
years-of-ecowas-an-apprai.html retrieved August, 2013.

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Study Session 9
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries
Introduction
Oil is one of the world’s most utilized energy resources. Yet, only few
countries have it in commercial quantity. Since 1960 some of the world’s
leading oil producing countries have come together under one banner to
speak with one voice with regard to the price of crude oil market through
the establishment of Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) in the 1960. We will therefore devote our discussion on the
formation, purpose and challenges of OPEC in this Study Session.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
9.1 outline the rationale behind the formation of OPEC.
9.2 state the broad purposes of OPEC.
9.3 describe the organs of OPEC.
9.4 explain the challenges facing OPEC.

9.1 Formation of OPEC

The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a cartel
organisation formed by developing countries whose economies rely on oil
export revenue. OPEC has become a formidable force in the international
terrain since its formation. Realizing the leverage determination of price
of oil through regulation of supply would give them in international
politics, some oil producing countries came together in 1960 to form
OPEC. Its formation started with the convening of an Arab petroleum
congress in April 1959 in Cairo. As contained in the second resolution,
the congress suggested that:
The governments of the oil producing states should from
time to time exchange views on measures for the
conservation of oil resources and their proper exploitation
and other such matters, for the purpose of coordinating the
measures taken by the individual countries and ensuring the
regular flow to world markets. (cited in Azzam, 1963).
Further consultation between Venezuela and some of the Middle East
countries led to the invitation issued by the government of Iraq to Iran,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to attend a conference in Baghdad
in September 1960. Following the discussions of various mutual
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petroleum problems, the conference reached an agreement to form a

permanent body for common petroleum policy.
According to the preamble of the Baghdad Agreement, the participants
considering the importance of petroleum as a vital source of income for
their development programs and for the balancing of their budgets, that
oil was an expendable source of income which needed replacement, that
it was an important source of energy for the world and that the stability of
prices was necessary and found it advisable to form a permanent
institution to be called OPEC (cited in Azzam, ibid).
OPEC has four-fifths of the world’s proven crude oil reserves — nearly
850 billion barrels. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the
Organization will supply most of the crude to the market in the years
ahead, a market in which oil is expected to remain the leading energy
source

9.2 Aims of OPEC

1. Unification of petroleum policies for member countries
individually and collectively
2. Consultation among its members with a view to coordinating and
unifying the policies and determining among other matters the
attitude which members should adopt whatever circumstances
such as those referred to (reduction of the posted price of crude
oil in the middle east by major oil companies) have arisen.
In 1968, in a move that was meant to assert itself in the oil market, OPEC
issued a ’Declaratory statement on Petroleum policy.’ First, OPEC
wanted more control over pricing policy. Its members wanted to be price
makers not price takers. Second, its members decried their roles as tax
collectors who allowed oil companies explore their oil resources (Evans
& Newnham, 1997).
Since the 1970s OPEC’s capacity for action has improved from a
situation where it negotiated prices with oil companies to a situation
where it can improve prices unilaterally. Another tactic it employs is to
set production limits that specify how much oil may be produced by each
member. Throughout the 1970s, countries of OPEC cooperated to control
the price of oil by agreeing on production limits and succeeded in
changing the structure of the international economy. In 1973, for
example, OPEC successfully quadrupled the price of oil, causing a
significant economic transformation that shook the foundations of the
global economy (Kaarbo and Ray, 2011:72). Through the use of
commodity power, huge sums of money were passing from the hands of
the economically developed countries to the less developed countries.
This occasioned a lot of changes in international trade and finance as well
in international security thinking, due to the economic and security
importance of oil. Activities of OPEC affected the industrial capacities of
developed countries and created a deeper sense of interdependence in the
global community.

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9.3 Organs of OPEC

According to the OPEC Statute (2008), the following are the organs of
OPEC.
1. The conference. It is the supreme authority of the organisation
2. Board of Governors. It is responsible for the affairs of the
organisation and the implementation of the decisions of the
conference as well as consider and decide upon any report
submitted by the Secretary General, Draw up budget for the
organisation, it is presided upon by a chairman
The secretariat shall carry out the executive functions of the organisation
under the direction of the board of governor. It is headed by the secretary
general who is the legally authorised representative of the organisation.

9.4 Challenges Facing OPEC

Continued advances in technology, together with price defence policies,
have encouraged the rapid development of non-OPEC oil and have
helped perpetuate this longstanding imbalance. In the short-term, non-
OPEC producers are taking the lion’s share of the market – to the extent
that even the IEA has observed that OPEC has a problem with the loss in
its market share – but there is a limit to this process, and this is provided
by the absolute quantity of non-OPEC reserves. In the not-too-distant
future, non-OPEC output will reach a plateau. But this imbalance is the
reason why the Organization strives so hard to achieve concrete co-
operation with its non-OPEC counterparts.
Over the past decade or so, oil’s traditional dominance has been put under
pressure on environmental grounds, particularly in the context of the UN-
sponsored climate change negotiations. There have also been longer-
standing efforts among some consuming nations to diversify energy
sources away from oil, on so-called “strategic grounds”. The chief
beneficiary of all of this has been gas
Also, OPEC as cartel organisation has to find ways to effectively ensure
that member states abide by the quota allotted to them in order for them
to be able to control the price, based on the economic principle that price
falls when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded, and vice versa.
Most of the oil exporting countries depends on the sale of oil for foreign
exchange earnings; they tend to sell as much as they can to be able to
finance projects at home. Also, governments of most of the member
countries of OPEC are not in control of oil production due to their poor
technological capacity. Most of these governments only collect rent from
multinational corporations that are directly in charge of production. This
predisposes them to excessive controls from the multinational
corporations and renders the government incapable of regulating the oil
sector.
Furthermore, some members of OPEC are among the Heavily Indebted
Countries (HIC). This leaves them at the mercy of their creditors whom
they may not be ready to offend with their activities as members of
OPEC, given the fact they were also asking for debt forgiveness or debt
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relieve. Moreover, OPEC does not enjoy membership of all counties that
are producing and exporting oil in the world. Thus, there tend to be
competition between OPEC official policies and activities of non-OPEC
oil exporting countries.
Finally, one of the difficulties facing oil producers is that their rich
endowment of heavily demanded natural resources means that the
international spotlight will always be focused on them, and very often in
a negative manner

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session... we discussed that OPEC is an international oil
cartel formed by world oil exporting countries to regulate price of
petroleum products through the regulation of supply. OPEC has over the
Summary years become an important organisation to reckon with because the
importance of petroleum in the economies of developed countries. The
organisation became a channel for redistribution of capital from the
developed countries to developing ones. However, inability of the
organisation to strictly enforce quota allotted to each member country
has at one point or the other led to over production and oil glut, thereby
making it difficult for the organisation to be in control of the price of
petroleum in the international market

Assessment

1. State reasons for the formation of OPEC?

2. What are the challenges of OPEC?

Assignment

Bibliography
OPEC (2008) OPEC Statute. Public Relations & Information
Department.
http://www.eppo.go.th/inter/opec/RoleOfOPEC.html retrieved August,
Re 2013.
ading http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=h
ein.journals/tilj13&div=8&id=&page= retrieved August, 2013.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/sais_review/summary/v002/2.3.askari.html
retrieved August, 2013.

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Study Session 10
Translational Actors
Introduction
Important developments in the contemporary global system have widened
the international space for non-state actors to participate and shape events
in the international system. The era of globalisation has witnessed
increased trans-national movements, transactions and cooperation among
business organisations, private persons, socio-cultural groups, religious
bodies etc. Thus, it is not only states that form international organisations.
There are a variety of non-state transnational actors that liberalists see as
sharing the world stage with nation-states. Transnational actors include
both business and non-profit actors that operate across borders. The
business actors are referred to as Multinational Corporations (MNC)
while the non-profit actors are the Nongovernmental organisations
(NGOs). This Study will be focusing on multinational corporations and other
nongovernmental organisations. We shall be examining the importance and
role of multinational corporations and some other nongovernmental
organisations in international politics.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
10.1 highlight the roles of MNC.
10.2 describe NGOs

10.1 Multinational Corporations

10.1.1 What are Multinational Corporations?
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are large companies or firms that are
doing business globally. They may have plants or factories in more than
one state, pay tax in more than one state, or have investments in more
than one state (Kaarbo and Ray, 2011:9). A multinational Corporation is
an oligopolistic firm that is headquartered in a particular state but has
several subsidiaries located in different states of the world. Thus, the
operations of a multinational corporation transcend national boundaries.
Multinational corporations have become important international actors
due to their influence in international politics in the past two or three
decades as a result their growth in numbers and in strength. There are
more than 78,000 multinational corporations with about 780,000 affiliates
operating in the world stage (Spero and Hart, 2010:129). Some of these
Multinational corporations are command more finance capital and

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influence than some poor and weak states in the less developed part of the
world. Some MNCs actually command a lot of influence in the politics of
their host countries. MNCs are no longer mere firms in international
commerce; at least a third of world trade now occurs within these firms
(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2008). Much of
international trade now takes the form of multinational production and
marketing. MNCs now open subsidiary firms in different countries where
they produce those goods that were hitherto directly exported and
imported across territorial boundaries. In recent times sales of these
subsidiary firms have exceeded world total exports. The importance of
MNCs in world politics can be better appreciated when we consider the
politics of foreign direct investment in the relationship between the global
South and the global North. MNCs have become the repository of finance
capital which developing countries are scrambling for in the politics of
attracting foreign investors. Examples of multinational corporations are:
Exxon Mobil, Shell BP, Unilever, General Motors, Nestle, Ford Motor,
Mitsubishi, Philip Morris etc.

10.1.2 Growing Importance of MNC in Global Politics

MNCs have become important international organisations in world
politics for a number of reasons. First, they operate in much more
extensive geographical areas on the globe than many countries of the
world. Second, they command enormous economic resources which
make significant impact on the lives of peoples of the world. Activities of
MNCs have more or less improved the living standard of people by
enabling them to enjoy products of foreign technology. Third, MNCs
play a key role in economic globalisation and integration process. Fourth,
economic resources of MNCs make them very influential in determining
political events at both national and international levels.

10.1.3 Criticisms against MNCs

There has been a rising wave of controversy surrounding the rise in
importance and visibility of MNCs in global politics. One source of that
controversy is the observation that most of the MNCs are from America.
In the 1970s, seven out of the ten largest corporations in the world were
American. However, by 1994, out of the ten corporations in the world
with the largest annual revenues, only three were American. Though the
number of MNCs from other developed countries is increasing, the
United States is still largely the primary source of foreign investment.
There also has been a debate about the relationship between MNCs and
the state. The neo-Marxists have argued that MNCs are a tool and source
of power for developed states. The argument is that the developed
capitalist states use MNCs to dominate and control the economies of the
less developed countries. A related argument is that the transnational
activities of MNCs undermine the sovereignty of their host countries.
Also, MNCs have been accused of worsening the development prospects
of the underdeveloped countries. The MNCs have become so trans-
nationally influential that they are no longer amenable to control form
both their home and host countries.

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10.2 Nongovernmental Organisations

10.2.1 What are Nongovernmental Organisations?
Nongovernmental organisations are private international organisations
that operate across territorial borders and have transactions in different
countries. These include multinational organisations, Red Cross,
Amnesty International etc. They are private non-business transnational
organisations that have members and activities across state borders. The
Yearbook International Organisations specifies that for an organisation
to qualify as an international NGO, it must have aims that are genuinely
international in character, with the intension to cover operations in at
least three countries, must contain members from at least three countries,
and must have a constitution giving members the right periodically to
elect a governing body and officers. Unlike MNCs that are profit
oriented, NGOs attempt to influence policies, help people or connect
people across borders. They are mainly non-profit oriented bodies that
under a wide range of humanitarian, religious, and socio-cultural activities.
They may include religious bodies, Green Peace, the International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Amnesty International,
International Basketball Federation, Save the Child, and the Rainforest
Alliance.
Several NGOs are springing up in various parts of the world in response
to socio-cultural issues of interest to the members. The United Nations
has so far recognised more than 3,000 groups as consultative groups to
cooperate formally with the UN Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC). The rapid developments in communication and
transportation have enabled social groups to operate and mobilise
membership in several countries. This has enhanced the impacts of NGOs
on the international system.
There is now a growing recognition of the importance of
nongovernmental organisations in relation to their effect on state policies
and global politics through the creation of international norms and values.
Their positions and contributions to world issues also help in shaping
world public opinion. NGOs play important roles in maintaining
international best practices on issues of humanitarian relief/assistance
(Red Cross), environmental politics (Greenpeace), and human rights
(Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch). In addition, NGOs also
perform a variety of functions in international and state governance (MO
Ibrahim Foundation). They often carry out policy research, monitor state
commitments to various international agreements, and participate in
international negotiations etc.
NGOs also serve as channels for the deliver official development
assistance to needy countries. In the words of Kaarbo and Ray
(2011:129), ‘NGOs today delivers more official development assistance
than does the entire UN system (excluding the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund).’ States often use NGOs as intermediaries
in foreign aid and assistance perhaps because donor governments tend to

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see NGOs as being more accountable and more efficient than some
developing countries (Cusimano, et al 2000:262)

10.2.2 Criticisms against NGOs

There have been some criticisms against NGOs. There have been doubts
about the altruism of some NGOs. The persistence of issues and problem
for which NGOs mobilise funds from donors raise questions about where
they are putting all those money. NGOs are also accused of deliberate
denigration of local development efforts in a bid to promote their
programmes. They are accused of being undemocratic in nature. Despite
their posture of speaking for powerless and the voiceless in society,
NGOs are largely unaccountable to anyone and are no effective
mechanisms to regulate their activities and check their excesses.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session , we focussed on Transnational actors in the
international system and we noted that they include the Multinational
Corporations (MNCs) and the Nongovernmental Organisations (NGOs).
Summary • The MNCs are business firms that have extended their scope of
business across several territorial boundaries. The enormous
economic powers which MNCs control have made them very
influential actors in international politics.
• NGOs are non-profit oriented private organisations which operate
and draw membership from different countries of the world. They
render some humanitarian services and help in building public opinion
on important international issues.

Assessment

1. What is a Multinational Corporation (MNC)?

2. Why have MNCs become important actors in the international system?
3. What is a Nongovernmental Organisation?
Assignment
4. What are the roles of NGOs in international politics?

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http://oro.open.ac.uk/15726/2/ retrieved August, 2013.
http://kubanni.abu.edu.ng:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1572/1/AN
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ENCES%20OF%20TRANSNATIONAL%20CORPORATION%20FR
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