Electric Charges and Fields

1) Mention the fundamental/basic properties electric charges.

• Charges are additive
• Charges are conserved
• Charges are quantised
2) Mention the methods of charging.
• Charging by contact
• Charging by induction
3) State and explain Coulomb’s law.
The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; and the force acts along the
line joining the two charges.
That is,
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝ 𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
 𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2
where, ‘𝑘′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, which is given
1
by, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜
𝜀𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
4) Define one coulomb (1C).
1C is the charge that when placed at a distance of 1m from another identical charge in vacuum experiences an
electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 × 109 𝑁.
5) Mention any three properties of electric field lines.
• A tangent drawn to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
• Field lines always start from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
• In a region containing a single charge,
➢ If the charge is positive, then field lines starts from the positive charge and ends at infinity.
➢ If the charge is negative, then field lines starts from infinity, and ends on the negative charge.
• In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous curves without breaks.
• Field lines never intersect each other.
• Field lines do not form closed loops.
• Field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the dipole axis.
Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,
𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗+ - electric field at point P due to the charge +q
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗+ = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2 𝑝̂
𝑜

𝐸⃗⃗− - electric field at point P due to the charge –q

1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗− =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎) 2 (-𝑝̂ )

The net electric field at point P on the axis of the dipole is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( − (𝑟+𝑎)2 ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟−𝑎)2

𝑞 (𝑟+𝑎)2 −(𝑟−𝑎)2
𝐸⃗⃗ = (
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎)2 (𝑟−𝑎)2
) 𝑝̂
𝑞 (2𝑟)(2𝑎)
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2

1 (2𝑟𝑝)
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2

where, 𝑝 = 𝑞(2𝑎), is the magnitude of the electric dipole moment.

Therefore,
2𝑟𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
⃗⃗
𝟐𝒓𝒑
 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 (𝒓𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 )
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
2𝑟𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4
⃗⃗
𝟐𝒑
 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟑
𝒐
7) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial plane.

Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,

𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
The net electric field at point P on the equatorial plane of the dipole
is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
where, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is the electric field at point P due to the charge +q
and, 𝐸⃗⃗− is the electric field at point P due to the charge –q
We see that the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are the same, but their
directions are different as shown in the diagram.
1 𝑞
𝐸+ = = 𝐸−
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 + 𝑎2
2

The vertical components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel each other.
The horizontal components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− add up, that is, the net electric field is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝐸− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑂
1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 2(4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑂
𝑎 𝑎
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 1
√𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
1 𝑞 𝑎
 𝐸 = 2 (4𝜋𝜀 2 +𝑎2 1 )
𝑂 𝑟 (𝑟 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2
2
 𝑝
 𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Since the net electric field opposes the electric dipole moment, we get,
−𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
⃗⃗
−𝒑
⃗⃗ =
 𝑬 𝟑
⁄
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 (𝒓𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) 𝟐
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
−𝑝
⃗⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3⁄
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟2 ) 2

⃗⃗ = −𝒑⃗⃗ 𝟑
 𝑬 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝒐
8) What are polar and non polar molecules? Give an example for each.
Non polar molecules: In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide. In the presence of
external electric field, the centres of positive and negative charges may be separated. Hence, a dipole moment can
be induced in non polar molecules. Ex: 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝑁2 , 𝐻2 , 𝑂2
Polar molecules: In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are separated, even in the
absence of an external electric field. Ex: 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐶𝑂, 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐻𝐶𝑙
9) Derive the expression for torque acting on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
Consider a permanent electric dipole moment 𝑝⃗ placed in a uniform external electric field as shown.

The net force on the dipole is the vector sum of forces acting on the charges, +q and –q, that is,
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗+ + 𝐹⃗−
 𝐹⃗ = (+𝑞𝐸) + (−𝑞𝐸)
 𝐹⃗ = 0
But the net torque acting on the dipole is not zero.
Here, the torque is measured about the centre of the dipole
Draw AC Ʇ 𝐸⃗⃗
Torque= force × perpendicular distance between the forces
𝜏 = F × AC ---(1)
𝐴𝐶
sinθ = 𝐴𝐵
AC = AB sinθ = 2a sinθ
Equ 1 becomes, 𝜏 = (qE) × 2a sinθ
 𝜏 = pE sinθ
where 𝑞(2𝑎) = 𝑝
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒑⃗ × ⃗𝑬
𝝉 ⃗⃗

10) State and explain Gauss’ law.

1
Statement: The total electric flux over a closed, hypothetical surface in vacuum is equal to times the total charge
𝜀𝑜
enclosed by the surface.
If 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then according to Gauss’s law,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
фE=
𝜀𝑜
11) Using Gauss’ law, derive the expression for electric field due to an infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire .

Consider an infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire, whose linear

charge density is 𝜆.
Let Δ𝑞 be the charge contained in a finite length ′𝐿′ of the wire. Therefore,
Δq
𝜆=
L
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜆𝐿
To find the electric field at a point ′𝑃′ at a distance ′𝑟′ due the charged wire,
we consider a Gaussian cylinder of length ′𝐿′ passing through the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field due
to the charged wire is radially outwards, and always perpendicular to the
Gaussian cylinder.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
Δ𝜑𝐸 = Δ𝜑1 + Δ𝜑2 + Δ𝜑3
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
Therefore, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ Δ𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
The magnitude of the electric field at all points on the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder is the same.
Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(Δ𝑆3 )
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
𝜆𝐿
 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = 𝜀𝑜
𝜆
 𝐸 = 2𝜋𝜀
𝑜𝑟
Note:
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝝀
⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
 12) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

Consider a uniformly charged, infinite plane sheet whose

surface charge density is ′𝜎′.
If ∆𝑞 is the charge on a small area element ∆𝑆 on the sheet,
then,
∆𝑞
𝜎=
∆𝑆
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜎(∆𝑆)
To find the electric field at a point very close to the sheet,
imagine a Gaussian pillbox (a small cylinder) at that point,
piercing through the sheet.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
electric field due to the uniformly charged sheet will be perpendicular and outwards to the sheet.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 + 𝜑3
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 ) + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )
Since ∆𝑆1 = ∆𝑆2 = ∆𝑆 (say), we get,
𝜑𝐸 = 2𝐸(∆𝑆)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
𝜎(∆𝑆)
 2𝐸(∆𝑆) =
𝜀𝑜
𝜎
 𝐸 = 2𝜀
𝑜
Note:
If 𝑛̂ is the unit vector directed perpendicular and outwards the plane of sheet, then,
𝝈
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
𝒏
𝟐𝜺𝒐

13) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell.
Case (i): Electric field outside the spherical shell:
Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point ‘P’ outside the sphere at a distance ′𝑟′ from the centre of the shell:Imagine a
Gaussian sphere of radius ′𝑟′ passing through the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field is directed radially outwards, perpendicular to all the
points on the sphere.
The total electric flux through the Gaussian sphere is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ ∆𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(∆𝑆)𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
where, ∆𝑆 is a small patch of area on the Gaussian sphere. The magnitude of the electric field is a constant at all points on
the Gaussian sphere. Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆)
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
where, ∑(∆𝑆) = 4𝜋𝑟 2 is the surface area of the Gaussian sphere.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑄
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀
𝑜
2) 𝑄
 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 =𝜀
𝑜
𝑄
 𝐸=
𝜀𝑜 (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝟏 𝑸
 𝑬 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 (𝒓𝟐 )
𝒐
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝟏 𝑸
⃗𝑬⃗ = ( 𝟐 ) 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
Thus, for points outside the uniformly charged, thin spherical shell, the electric field is as if the entire charge was
concentrated at the centre of the shell.

Case (ii): Electric field inside the spherical shell:

Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point P’ inside the sphere at a distance 𝑟′ from the centre of the shell:
Imagine a Gaussian sphere of radius 𝑟′ passing through the point P’.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
 𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
Here, since the Gaussian sphere does not enclose any charge, that is, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0.
Therefore, 𝜑𝐸 = 0
Since, 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆), we get,
𝑬=𝟎
Therefore, electric field inside a uniformly, charged thin spherical shell is zero.
Case (iii): Electric field just outside the spherical shell
If ′𝜎′ is the surface charge density of the uniformly charged spherical shell, then,
𝑄
𝜎=
4𝜋𝑅 2
2
where, (4𝜋𝑅 ) is the area of the spherical shell.
Using case (i) we get the electric field just outside the spherical shell, that is,
1 𝑄
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑅2 )
𝑜
𝝈
 𝑬=𝜺
𝒐
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
 ⃗⃗ = 𝝈 𝒓̂
 𝑬 𝜺 𝒐

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1) The colour code of a carbon resistor is brown -red-brown-gold. What is its resistance?
R=(12 × 101 ± 5%) Ω

2) State and explain ohm’s law.

The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
𝐼∝𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Where, I is the current in the conductor, V is the potential difference and R
is the resistance of the conductor.

3) Define 1 ohm.
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if 1A of current flows through it when a potential
difference of 1V is applied across its ends.

4) Write limitations of ohm’s law.

➢ Ohm’s law is not applicable to superconductors.
➢ It is not applicable to semiconductors.
➢ It is not applicable for metallic conductors at very low and high temperatures.

5) What is ohmic and non-ohmic devices? Give examples.

The device which obeys Ohm’s law is called Ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus voltage for
the device should be linear.
Example: Metallic conductors.
The device which do not obey Ohm’s law is called a non-ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus
voltage for the device should be non - linear.
Example: Semiconductors.

6) How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length and its area of cross section?
The resistance of a conductor is
➢ Directly proportional to length of the conductor.
➢ Inversely proportional to area of cross- section of the conductor.
7) Represents graphically the variations of resistivity with absolute temperature for
a) copper b) nichrome metals and c) silicon(semiconductor)

8) Derive the relation J= σE

In the figure, l is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire,
A is the area of cross -section of the wire, V is the potential difference applied across the wire, E is the
electric field set up in the wire , 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the electrons, I is the current in the wire,

Ohm’s law can be written as V = I R

𝑙
V= I ------(1)
𝐴
Where,  is the constant of proportionality is called the resistivity (or specific resistance).
If E is the magnitude of the uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l and V is the potential
difference across its ends, then
𝑉
E=
𝑙
V = E 𝑙 -----(2)
From 1 & 2,
𝑙
E𝑙= I
𝐴
I
E= 
A
I
E=j (j = )
A
1
j= E

j=E
Since the directions of E and j are same, above equation can be written in vector form as
⃗𝐣 =  ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗
9) Derive an expression for conductivity of a material in terms of relaxation time.
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
Or σ= 𝒎

In the figure,
L is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, A is the area of cross-section of the wire, V is the potential
difference applied across the wire, E is the electric field set up in the wire, 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the
electrons, I is the current in the wire.
The current through the wire is given by I = n A e vd
𝑒𝐸
Drift velocity, vd = 𝜏
𝑚
𝑒𝐸
I = n Ae ( 𝜏)
𝑚

Current density j is the current through unit area normal to direction of current

I n𝑒 2 τ
=( )E
A 𝑚

n𝑒 2 τ
j=( ) E --------(1)
𝑚

j =  E -----(2)

𝐧𝒆𝟐 𝛕
comparing equ1 and equ2,  =
𝒎

where  is the conductivity of the material.

(J is the current density, n is the number of electrons per unit volume, τ is the relaxation time, e is the
charge on the electron, m is the mass of an electron).

10) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor.

Let m be the mass of an electron, -e be the charge of the electron ,u be the average initial velocity of all
the free electrons, E be the field in the conductor, v be the average final velocity of all the free electrons,
a be the acceleration of the electrons ,τ be the relaxation time of the electrons.
We have 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝜏 -------------(1)
In the absence of electric field, u=0
 In the presence of electric field, v=drift velocity= 𝑣𝑑
From equation (1) 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 ------(2)
But F= ma
𝐹
a=𝑚
−𝑒𝐸
a= ( F=-eE)
𝑚
−𝑒𝐸𝜏
From equation (2) 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
Where negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝑣𝑑 and E are opposite as shown in figure.

11) Derive an expression of equivalent resistance when two resistors are in series

Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series as shown in figure.

Let V be the potential difference across the combination and I be the current through the resistors.

If V1 , V2 and V3 are the potential difference across R1 , R2 and R3 respectively.

V = V1 + V2 + V3……………..(1)

From ohm’s law, V1 = I R1 , V2 = I R2 and V3 = I R3

 V = IR1 + IR2 + I R3

V = I (R1 + R2+ R3)………(2)

If the combination of resistors is replaced by an equivalent resistance RS that produces the same effect as that of
the combination,

then V = I Rs --------------(3)

From equations (2) & (3) we get

 IRs = I (R1 + R2 + R3 )

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
12) Derive an expression of equivalent resistance when two resistors are in parallel

Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in parallel as shown in figure.

Let V be the potential difference across the combination and I be the main current. I1 , I2 and I3 are the
currents through R1 , R2 and R3 respectively.
Then I = I1 + I2 + I3 -----------(1)
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕
From Ohm’s law, I1 = , I2 = and I3 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

Substitute I1 , I2 and I3 in equ 1,

𝐕 𝐕 𝐕
I= + +
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
I=V 𝐑 + + ---------(2)
𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

If the combination of resistors is replaced by equivalent resistance Rp that produces the same effect as
𝐕
that of the combination, then I = -------(3)
𝐑𝐩
From equations (2) & (3) we get
V 1 1 1
=V + +
Rp R1 R2 R3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + -------(4)
𝐑𝐩 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

In general, for n number of resistors,

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + --------+
Rp R1 R2 R3 Rn
13) Distinguish between series and parallel combination of resistors.
Series combination Parallel combination
1 It is the end to end connection It is the connection between two
common points
2 The current is same in all the resistors The potential difference is same across all
the resistors
3 It is a potential divider circuit It is a current divider circuit
 4 V=𝑉1+𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + − − +𝑉𝑛 I=𝐼1 +𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + − − +𝐼𝑛
5 𝑹𝒔 =𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑 + − − +𝑹𝒏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑹 +𝑹 + − − − + 𝑹
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏

6 This combination increases the effective This combination decreases the effective
resistance resistance

14) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in series. Derive the expression for
the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.

The cells are said to be connected in series between two points, negative terminal of one cell connected to the positive
terminal of the other.

Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in figure(a) .

Let 1 and 2 be the emfs of the two cells and r1 and r2 be their internal resistances respectively. When
cells are in series, current remains the same whereas the potential difference are different. Let V 1 and V2
be the potentials across the cells.

Potential difference across the first cell is VAB = 1 – I r1

Potential difference across the second cell is VBC = 2 – Ir2

Potential difference between A and C of the series combination of the two cells is

VAC = VA - VC

= (VA – VB) + ( VB - VC)

= 1 – I r1 + 2 – Ir2

VAC = (1 + 2) – I(r1 + r2) -------(1)

The series combination of two cells can be replaced by a single cell of emf eq and internal resistance req as
shown in figure (b) There VAC = eq - I eq ……………(2)

Comparing eq. (1) and (2),

we get eq = 1 + 2 ………….(3)

And req = r1 + r2 ……………(4)

In general, for n cells connected in series, eq =1 + 2 +-----+n

req = r1 + r2 +……………+ rn
 15) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in parallel. Derive the expression for
the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.
Consider two cells connected in parallel as shown in figure (a).

Let 1 and 2 be the emfs of the two cells and r1 and r2 be their internal resistances respectively. When cells are connected in
parallel, potential difference remains the same whereas the current is different.

Let VAC be the potential difference across the cells.

Let I1 and I2 be the currents drawn from the individual cells. If I is the current drawn from the grouping, then
I = I1 + I2 ------(1)
Since the potential difference of across each cell is same,
𝟏−𝑽
VAC = V = 1 – I1 r1  I1 =
𝒓𝟏

𝟐−𝐕
VAC = V = 2 – I2 r2  I2 =
𝐫𝟐

Substituting for I1 & I2 in equation (1) we get

I = I1 + I2
𝟏 −𝑽 𝟐 −𝑽
I= +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
I= + −V +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

𝑟1 +𝑟2 1 𝑟2 +2 𝑟1
V = –I
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

1 𝑟2 +2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
V= -I --------(2)
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
If the parallel combination of cells is replaced by a single cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req ,

then VAC = V = eq - I req ----(3)

Comparing eq (2) and (3)

𝟏 𝒓𝟐 +𝟐𝒓𝟏
eq = ----(4)
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 1 1 1
req = or = + ----(5)
𝒓 𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 req r1 r2

Note:
➢ For ‘n’ cells in series,
s = 1+2+3+-----+n
𝒓𝒔 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑 +…….+𝒓𝒏
➢ For ‘n’ cells in parallel,
𝑝 1 2 𝑛
= + + -------+ and
𝑟𝑝 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝐫 +------ +𝐫
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝟐 𝐧

16) State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule of electrical network

The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

In the figure, I1 and I2 are the currents enetering the junction O and I3 and I4 are the currents leaving the
junction O from kirchhoff’s junction rule, I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

17) State and explain kirchhoff’s loop rule of electrical network.

“The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the
loop is zero.”

Applying loop rule, BEDCB,

-I2R2 – I3R3 + 2 = 0
I2R2 + I3R3 = 2
Applying loop rule ABEFA,
-I2R2 – I1R1 + 1 = 0
I1R1 + I2R2 = 1

18) what is the significance of Kirchhoff’s junction rule?

Law of conservation of charge

19) what is the significance of Kirchhoff’s loop rule?

Law of conservation of energy.
20) Deduce the condition for balance of a wheatstone bridge using kirchhoff’s rules

Wheatstone’s network is used to find the ratio of two resistance values or to determine the value of an
unknown resistance. It consists of four resistors P, Q, S and R connected in cyclic order in the form of a
quadrilateral as shown in figure
Using Kirchoff’s first law

at node B, I1 = I3 + Ig

I3 = I1 - Ig

And at node D, I4 = I2 + Ig

Applying Kirchoff’s second law to the mesh ABDA,

-I1P - Ig G + I2 R = 0 ---(1)

Applying Kirchoff’s second law to the mesh BCDB,

-I3 Q + I4 S + Ig G = 0

Or - ( I1 - Ig) Q + ( I2 + Ig ) S + Ig G = 0 -----(2)

When the network is balanced the current through the galvanometer is zero i.e., Ig = 0

Equ 1 reduces to, -I1P + I2 R = 0

I1P = I2 R ------(3)

Equ 2 reduces to , - I1 Q + I2 S = 0

I1 Q = I2 S -----(4)

Divide equ 3 by 4,

𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒

This is the condition for balanced Wheatstone’s network. Thus, if two resistances are known, the ratio
of the other two can be found.
 21) What is the principle of metre bridge?
It works on the principle of balanced wheat stone bridge.
22) what is the principle and application of potentiometer ?
Principle: Potential difference across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion
provided cross sectional area of wire and current flowing through the wire is constant.
Vα l
Application:
➢ It is used to find the internal resistance of a cell
➢ It is used to compare the emfs of two cells.

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

1. With a neat labelled diagram, explain the construction and working of a cyclotron.

Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged particles

like protons, deuterons,  - particles, etc. It works on the
basis of the principle that a charged particle can be
accelerated to very high energies by making it pass through
a moderate electric field a number of times and applying a
strong magnetic field at the same time.

2. State Biot-Savarts law.

The magnetic field dB at a point due to a current element I dl is
1) Directly proportional to the strength of the electric current I.
2) Directly proportional to the length dl of the current element.
3) Directly proportional to the sine of the angle θ between the current element and the line joining the point of
observation with the current element.
4) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the current element.

dB I
dB dl
dB  sin
1
dB 
r2
Combining all the above conditions, we
i dl sin
get dB 
r2
0 i dl sin
dB =
4π r2

where, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑚−1

3. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular current loop.

Consider a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is placed in the y-z plane with its centre at the origin O and has a
radius R. The x-axis is the axis of the loop. Let x be the distance of P from the centre O of the loop. Consider a conducting
element dl of the loop. The magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to dl is given by the Biot-Savart law

0 I dl sin
dB = ……………(1)
4π r2

Now r2 = x2 + R2. Further, any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector from the element to the
axial point therefore sin = sin 90 = 1
Eq(1) becomes

0 I dl
dB = ……………(2)
4π x2 + R2

dB has an x-component dBx and a component perpendicular to x-axis, dB⊥. When the components perpendicular to the x-axis
are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result.
The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by integrating dBx = dB sinα over the loop.
R
sinα = 1
(x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

0 I dl R
Therefore, dBx = dB sinα = . 1
4π x2 + R2 (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

0 I dl R
dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

The Magnetic field due to entire element is given by

0 I ∑ dl R
∑dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus
0 I (2πR) R
B= . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
By solving we get
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2
 Note :
• Magnetic field at the centre of the circular loop is given by substituting x = 0, and we obtain,
0 i
B0 =
2R
• If there are ‘N’ turns of the circular loops, then the magnetic flux is given by,
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝑁𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2

4. State Ampere’s circuital law

⃗⃗⃗⃗ for a closed curve enclosing an area is equal to  times the net current I through the area
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
The line integral ∮ 𝐵 0
bounded by the curve.
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
i.e., ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
5. What is a solenoid? Derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a solenoid?
A solenoid consists of a long-insulated wire wound in the form of a helix where neighbouring turns are closely
spaced.

Consider an ideal solenoid where the magnetic field outside the solenoid approaches zero. The magnetic field inside, at the centre
of the solenoid becomes almost parallel to the axis.

To find the magnetic field (B) at point ‘P’ inside the solenoid:
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero. Along transverse sections bc and da, the field component is
zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along ab be ‘B’.
Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number of turns in the length ab is nL.
The current enclosed is, Ienc = nLI, where I is the current in the solenoid.
From Ampere’s circuital law, we know that,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∫𝐵
 ∫ 𝐵 (𝑑𝑙) cos 0𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝐿𝐼)
 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼

6. What is a toroid? Derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a toroid?

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a solenoid
which has been bent into a circular shape to close on itself.
 Consider a toroid as shown in the figure. Three circular Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines. By symmetry, the
magnetic field should be tangential to each of them and are constant in magnitude for a given loop.

Magnetic field along Amperian loops 1 and 3 is zero because current enclosed by them is zero. That is,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0
∫𝐵
 𝐵=0
Whereas the magnetic field within the turns of the toroid is not zero. Consider an Amperian loop 2 passing through a point ‘S’ inside
the toroid. Using the Ampere’s circuital law, we get,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∫𝐵
 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟2 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
where, ‘N’ is the number of turns in the toroid, ‘I’ is the current in the toroid, and 𝑟2 is the radius of the loop 2. Hence we get,
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
(2𝜋𝑟2 )
𝑁
But, (2𝜋𝑟 ) = 𝑛, where ‘n’ is the number of turns per unit length of the toroid. Hence we get,
2
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼

7. Derive the expression for the force between two long straight parallel conductors carrying currents and hence define
ampere, the S.I. unit of current

Consider two long parallel conductors 1 and 2 separated by a distance d and carrying (parallel) currents I 1 and I2, respectively.

The magnetic force acting on conductor ‘2’ of length ‘L’ due to the current in conductor ‘1’ is given by,
𝐹21 = 𝐵1 𝐼2 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝑜
 𝐹21 = ( ) 𝐼2 𝐿 sin 90
2𝜋𝑑
0 I1 I2 L
 F21 =
2πd
 where, 𝐵1 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘1’ at the conductor ‘2’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹21 0 I1 I2
𝑓21 = = …………….(1)
𝐿 2πd
Similarly, the magnetic force acting on conductor ‘1’ of length ‘L’ due to the current in conductor ‘2’ is given by,
F12 = B2 I1 L sin

𝜇𝑜 𝐼2 𝑜
 𝐹12 = ( ) 𝐼1 𝐿 sin 90
2𝜋𝑑
0 I1 I2 L
 F12 =
2πd
where, 𝐵𝑏 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘b’ at the conductor ‘a’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹12 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑓12 = = …………….(2)
𝐿 2𝜋𝑑
From equations (1) and (2), we see that the magnetic force exerted by one conductor on the other has the same magnitude, but are in
opposite direction to each other.
Note:
Parallel conductors attract and anti-parallel conductors repel
One Ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two very long, straight, parallel conductors of
negligible cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7
newtons per metre of length.

7. With neat labeled diagram, explain the working of a moving coil galvanometer.{OR} Give the theory of moving coil galvanometer?

A galvanometer is a device to check the presence of current.

The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis in a
⃗⃗ such that the angle between
uniform radial magnetic field. The coil will be aligned with B
⃗⃗ and the field is always 900
the area vector A

When a current flows through the coil, a torque act on it. This torque is  = N I A B

(Because,  = N I A B sin ,  = 90o   = N I A B)

This magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil.

A spring Sp provides an equal and opposite torque (counter torque) given by r = k 

where k is the torsional constant of the spring (the restoring torque per unit twist).

In equilibrium, NIAB = k 

NAB
=( )I
k

Note:

➢ Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the deflection per unit current.

 NAB
➢ Current sensitivity is given by, =
I k

8. Mention the SI unit of magnetic moment.

Am2
9. Write the value of Bohr Magneton.
9.27  10-24 Am2
10. Write the expression for force acting on an electric charge moving in a uniform magnetic field.
⃗⃗  ⃗𝑩
⃗𝑭⃗ = q (𝒗 ⃗⃗)

11. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current using ampere
circuit law.
Consider a straight conductor of infinite length in the plane of the paper. Let I be the current through
it.
⃗⃗⃗ at point P due to the current in the wire is
The magnetic field 𝑩
along the tangent to the circle. Hence the magnetic field ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ is
parallel to the line element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 at P.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law to the circular loop of radius r,
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 =  I
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
0
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B (2r) = 0 I
0 I
B = 2r

12. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into an ammeter.

A galvanometer can be converted to an

ammeter by connecting a suitable low
resistance in parallel with its coil. The low
resistance in parallel is called the Shunt
resistance.

Let Ig be the current required to produce full scale deflection in a galvanometer having coil resistance G.
A maximum current of I is desired to be measured by the instrument.
Let S be the shunt resistance which is connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
When current I is passed through this set-up, current Ig passes through the galvanometer and the remaining current
(I-Ig) passes through the shunt resistance.

The potential difference across the galvanometer = potential difference across S

(I- Ig) S = Ig G
Ig G
S=
(I−Ig )
This gives the value of shunt resistance to be connected across the galvanometer to make it to read a maximum
current I.
NOTE: The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.

13. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into a voltmeter.

A galvanometer is converted to a voltmeter by connecting a suitable high resistance in series with it.
Let Ig be the current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometer having coil resistance G.
A suitable high resistance R is to be connected in series with the galvanometer so that the maximum current which
passes through the galvanometer is Ig only.
Since R and G are in series,
V = Ig R + Ig G
V = Ig (R + G)
V
=R+G
Ig
V
R= −G
Ig
This gives the value of resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer to make it to read a maximum
potential difference of V.

Note: The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.

Magnetsim And Matter

1. Mention the properties of magnetic field lines
Properties of magnetic field lines are:
➢ The magnetic field lines of a magnet or a solenoid form continuous closed loops.
➢ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field ‘B’ at that point.
➢ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger the magnetic field B. Hence, the magnetic field is
strongest at the poles.
➢ Magnetic field lines do not intersect. For if they did intersect, the direction of the field would not be uniquely specified at
the point of intersection
2. Define magnetic meridian.
Magnetic meridian at a place is a vertical plane passing through the magnetic North & South Poles of the earth. A bar magnet always
comes to rest along the magnetic meridian

3. Define geographic meridian.

Geographic meridian at any place is a vertical plane passing through the geographic North and south poles of the earth.
 4. Define magnetic declination.
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a place is called inclination at that place.

5. Define inclination or magnetic dip.

The angle between the earth’s total magnetic field and the horizontal at the place is called magnetic dip or inclination.

6. Define Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a given place

The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at a place is the component of earth’s total magnetic field at the place
along the horizontal drawn in the magnetic meridian.

7. Define the terms: (1) magnetization of a magnetic material, (2) magnetic intensity and (3) magnetic susceptibility.
mnet
➢ Magnetisation ‘M’ of a sample is its net magnetic moment per unit volume: M =
V
➢ The magnetic intensity (H) is defined,
𝐵
𝐻= −𝑀
𝜇𝑂
where, ‘B’ is the magnetic field, ‘M’ is the magnetization, and 𝜇𝑜 is absolute permeability.
➢ Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒) is defined as the ratio of magnetization M of the substance to the magnetic intensity H of the
magnetizing field in which it is placed.
M
χ=
H

8. Define magnetic permeability and relative magnetic permeability. Write a relation between them.
➢ MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍)
It is the ability of the material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
B
𝛍=
H
➢ RELATIVE MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍r)
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the material to the magnetic permeability of free space.
μ
𝛍r =
μ0

9. Derive the relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

The net magnetic field B in the interior of a solenoid is expressed as B = Bo + Bm
B = 0 H + 0 M
B = 0 (H + H)
B = 0 (1 + ) H
B = 0r H
B=H i.e.,  = 0r
Where r = 1 +  is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic permeability of the substance. → magnetic
permeability of the substance
 = 0r = 0 (1 + )
 10. What is hysteresis, hysteresis loss, retentivity and coercivity?
• The magnetic field B in the sample lag behind the magnetic intensity H when a sample of ferromagnetic material is taken through
a cycle of magnetization. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
• The loss of energy per unit volume per cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loss
• The property of a ferromagnetic material to retain some magnetization even when the applied magnetic field becomes zero is
called as retentivity or remanence.
The property of a ferromagnetic material where a reverse magnetic intensity is applied so as to make the magnetic field inside the
material zero is called coercivity

6. Mention the differences between diamagnetic, paramagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
The substances which have tendency to The substances which get weakly The substances which gets strongly
move from stronger to the weaker part of magnetized when placed in an external magnetized when placed in an external
the external magnetic field are called magnetic field and have tendency to move magnetic field and have strong tendency
to move from a region of weak magnetic
diamagnetic. from weak to strong magnetic field, i.e
field to strong magnetic field are called
they get weakly attracted to a magnet are Ferromagnetic substances.
called paramagnetic substances
When the diamagnetic material placed in When a bar of paramagnetic material When a bar of ferromagnetic material
an external magnetic field. The field lines placed in an external field, the field lines placed in an external field, the field lines
are repelled (or) expelled gets concentrated in the material and as gets concentrated in the material as
shown below. shown below.

The magnetic field inside the material is The magnetic field inside material slightly The magnetic field inside material is highly
reduced is enhanced. enhanced
Susceptibility is negative Susceptibility is positive and low Susceptibility is positive and high
Relative permeability is slightly less than Relative permeability is slightly more than Relative permeability is very large.
one. (0 ≤ 𝜇𝑟 < 1) one. (1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜀) (𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1)

Susceptibility (𝜒) does not change with Susceptibility (𝜒) inversely proportional to Susceptibility (𝜒) inversely proportional to
temperature. temperature temperature above the curie temperature

7. State Gauss’s Law in magnetism

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.