Instrument Notation

A quick guide to all instruments

1
Table of Contents
String Instruments 03

Violin 04

Viola 08

Cello 12

Double Bass 16

Harp 20

Woodwind Instruments 22

Flute 23

Oboe 26

Clarinet in Bb 28

Bassoon 30

Brass Instruments 32

Trumpet 33

French Horn 36

Trombone 40

Tuba 42

Percussion Instruments 44

Drum-kit Notation 45

Timpani 46

Snare Drum 47

Xylophone 49

The Voice 51

The Guitar 53

The Keyboard 56p

2
Strings

Violin Viola Cello Double Bass Harp

3
Violin - Brief description
German: Violine
French: violon
Italian: violino

The violin is the soprano instrument of the violin family (violin, viola,
cello).

It consists of three main parts, the body, the neck and the head, which are
composed of a total of 80 separate components.

The body not only gives the violin its characteristic appearance but also determines the sound quality as it is the
instrument’s resonator.
The neck plays an important role in playing technique and is about 13 cm long and angled slightly back from the
body. The circumference is the same along its entire length which makes it easier for the left hand to slide up
and down to different positions).
The head, with the pegbox and scroll, is a continuation of the neck. The pegs, which are used to adjust the
tension of the strings, are found in the four peg holes in the pegbox: the instrument is tuned by turning the pegs.
The head is rounded off by the scroll.
The fingerboard extends beyond the neck over the body and is important for intonation. The length of the
fingerboard determines how far the range extends upward. The strings are stretched above and parallel to the
fingerboard.

Classification Strings
Chordophone, necked lute, stringed instrument Length of the vibrating strings: 32.8 cm, 4 strings,
tuned to intervals of a fifth: G3, D4, A4, E5. Material:
Head
gut, silver, copper, aluminum, steel, nylon.
Scroll, pegbox, 4 side-mounted pegs
Bow
Neck
Length: 74 cm; rod, point, adjustable frog
Length: approx. 13 cm, top nut, fretless fingerboard
Mute
Body
Comb-shaped device made of metal or maple which
Length: approx. 35.5 cm, box form
damps the vibration of the bridge.
Belly with F-shaped sound holes, back, ribs.

Violin - Range
Range of the violin: G3 – A7 (harmonic D8)

G string (G3 – C5, G5) D string (D4 – G5, D6)

A string (A4 – D6, A6) E string (E5 – A7, D8)

Violin - Notation
The violin is a non-transposing instrument notated in treble clef. The variety of playing techniques used on
stringed instruments means there are a number of features peculiar to violin notation.
4
Bowing notation (right hand)
As a rule many bowstrokes which come under staccato are not notated but played in the appropriate manner by
the violinist. If the composer desires a particular kind of bowstroke he writes it into the score.

Melodic phrases which are to be played with a single stroke are linked by a phrasing slur. The change of bowing
can occur on a single note.

Détaché / Detached
Non–legato technique, strokes alternately up and down without the bow being lifted from the string.

1. Détaché or detached is often written explicitly into the score.

2. Strong détaché is indicated by a dot above the note.
3. The strongest détaché consists solely of downstrokes. The bow is lifted from the string after every stroke.

Martelé
Hammered stroke (in Italian martellato = hammered).
Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the bow remaining on the string.

Sul tasto and sul ponticello

Because of the effect it has on timbre the place where the bow should make contact with the string is often
written into the score. Sulla tastiera (or sul tasto, sur la touche meaning on the fingerboard, sul ponticello on the
bridge. Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Col legno (with the wood, French: avec le bois)

Hitting or bowing the string with the wood of the bow. The first technique produces a hammer effect and is used
for repeated figures. The latter sounds cracked, rough and dry and is of indeterminate pitch.

Pizzicato
Plucked.

Changing from pizzicato to arco

The change from bowed (arco) to plucked (pizzicato) and back is always written in full. (The part is to
played pizzicato until arco is written).

“Bartók pizzicato” (“snap” pizzicato)

The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This
5
produces a very resounding sound which is used for percussive effects. Notation: a circle with a tail pointing
either upward or downward above each note.

Measured bowed tremolo

The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point. The
impression given is of a “trembling” sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal intensification.

Double s tops
can also be played tremolo. The bow tremolo is usually measured, i.e. the number of strokes corresponds
exactly to the notated division of the whole note value which determines the length of the tremolo. This kind of
tremolo must be played in absolute synchronization by all the violinists. Freely playable tremolo also exists.
Unmeasured bowed tremolo

Behind the bridge

The string is bowed between the bridge and the string tuner.
An X is written on the staff at the pitch levels corresponding to the open strings which are to be played. The pitch
heard is indeterminate, the different strings produce various pitches.

Notation for fingering (left hand)

Natural harmonic
There are three types of notation:

Pitch notation
A note with a small circle above it
indicates where the string were to be
fingered if the “normal” note were being
played. It is in this way that the fingering is
notated that corresponds to the actual
harmonic sounded. It is left to the
musician’s discretion which node he or
she chooses. (Harmonics can be fingered
at any one of their nodes.) The string is
often indicated under the note too (e.g., sul G).

Finger notation
One of the possible fingerings (vibration nodes) is represented by a note in the form of a diamond. The fingering
given is always the one that is easiest to perform (i.e. is nearest the nut). The sounding pitch of the harmonic
cannot be ascertained from this notation.

Fingering and pitch

Some composers add the sounding pitch in brackets above the finger notation.

Artificial harmonics
The finger that firmly presses the string is notated as a pitch with the desired note value. The finger that lies
lightly on the string – generally a fourth above the stopping finger – is notated as an empty, “white” diamond, that
is, they always look like whole notes, regardless of the real note value.

6
Portamento
An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of position. The effect is of two notes
being joined together in a suggestion of a glissando.

Con sordino
Con sordino (with mute) calls for the use of the mute, which is not to be removed until instructed to do so by the
term senza sordino.
Triple and quadruple stops
Triple stops (three-part chords) and quadruple stops (four-part chords) are notated as chords and played
as arpeggiated chords (each note in quick succession, from the lowest to the highest note). When playing four-
part chords, the two lowest notes are played first, then the two highest.

Pizzicato
Pizzicato with the left hand is indicated by a + above the note. Alban Berg: Violin Concerto.

Finger tremolo
Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the
string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note.
In contrast to the bow tremolo, when rapid up and downstrokes produce the tremolo effect, bowing here is
smooth and even over the string. The result is a kind of trill.

Su una corda
The instruction to play a cantilena on a particular string (e.g., sul G). Su una corda means “on one string”.

Violin - Sound characteristics

Full, lively, singing, eloquent, introspective, supernatural, sensuous, lustrous, bright, metallic, vibrant,
clear, glassy, flute-like, shrill, brilliant, sparkling, calm, thin, whistling, round, pure, muffled, solemn,
austere, dark, muted, open, sustaining, rough, wafting, soft, sweet, merry, dancing, veiled.

7
Viola - Brief description
German: Viola
French, italian : viola

The viola is the alto instrument of the violin family (violin, viola, cello).

It is constructed using the same components as the violin, the only

difference being the larger size. Its stately and dark timbre contrasts
sharply with that of the violin and makes the viola perfectly suited as the
violin family’s middle voice.

Its bow is a little heavier than the violin bow and the horsehair a little broader.

The characteristic sound of the viola is a result of the following factors:

The viola is tuned to a fifth lower than the violin (C3 = 4th string, G3 = 3rd string, D4 = 2nd string, A4 = 1st
string). This means that the frequencies of the two instruments are in a ratio of 2:3. If this ratio were applied to
the actual size of the instruments the viola’s body would have to be 12 cm longer (i.e. around 54 cm) than it
actually is (around 42 cm). In other words, the viola is too small in proportion to its tuning and this is the reason
for its distinctive timbre. The ratio of the natural resonance of the body to the tuning is different on the two
instruments: on the violin the natural resonance is about six half notes above the lowest note, on the viola eleven
half notes.
20th century composers helped the viola to escape from the shadow of the brighter-sounding violin by writing
solo works for it.

Classification Strings
Chordophone, necked lute, stringed instrument Length of the vibrating strings: approx. 37–38.9 cm,
4 strings, tuned to intervals of a fifth: C3, G3, D4,
Head
A4. Material: gut, silver or aluminum-wound, often
Scroll, pegbox, 4 side-mounted pegs
steel.
Neck
Bow
Top nut, fretless fingerboard
Length: 74 cm; rod, point, adjustable frog
Body
Mute
Length: approx. 39–42 cm, box form. Belly with F-
Comb-shaped device made of metal or maple which
shaped sound holes, back, ribs.
damps the vibration of the bridge.

Viola - Notation
The viola is a non-transposing instrument notated in alto clef, and in treble clef from the second octave above
middle C.

The viola’s range lies mainly between C3 and G5, that is, within the alto clef’s domain. To avoid excessive use of
ledger lines both alto and treble clef are used, although a change of clef only occurs where it is justified by the
length of the passage. If the clefs are changed too often the score becomes hard to read. Alto clef has middle C
on the middle line of the staff.

Notation for viola contains the same distinctive features as violin notation. These refer to the fingering and
bowing techniques.
Bowing notation (right hand)
As a rule many bowstrokes which come under staccato are not notated but played in the appropriate manner by
the violinist. If the composer desires a particular kind of bowstroke he writes it into the score.

Melodic phrases which are to be played with a single stroke are linked by a phrasing slur. The change of bowing
can occur on a single note.

8
Détaché / Detached
Non–legato technique, strokes alternately up and down without the bow being lifted from the string.

1. Détaché or detached is often written explicitly into the score.

2. Strong détaché, a firm bowstroke that allows the note to resonate briefly, is indicated by a dot above the
note.
3. The strongest détaché consists solely of downstrokes. The bow is lifted from the string after every
stroke.

Martelé
Hammered stroke (in Italian martellato = hammered).
Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the
bow remaining on the string.

Sul tasto and sul ponticello

Because of the effect it has on timbre the place where the bow should make contact with the string is often
written into the score. Sulla tastiera (or sul tasto, sur la touche meaning on the fingerboard), sul ponticello (on
the bridge). Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Col legno (with the wood, French: avec le bois)

Hitting or bowing the string with the wood of the bow. The first technique produces a hammer effect and is used
for repeated figures. The latter sounds cracked, rough and dry and is of indeterminate pitch.

Pizzicato
Plucked.

Changing from pizzicato to arco

The change from bowed (arco) to plucked (pizzicato) and back is always written in full. (The part is to
played pizzicato until arco is written).

“Bartók pizzicato” (“snap” pizzicato)

The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This
produces a very resounding sound which is used for percussive effects. Notation: a circle with a tail pointing
either upward or downward above each note.

9
Measured bowed tremolo
The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point. The
impression given is of a “trembling” sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal intensification.
Double stops can also be played tremolo. The bow tremolo is usually measured, i.e. the number of strokes
corresponds exactly to the notated division of the whole note value which determines the length of the tremolo.
This kind of tremolo must be played in absolute synchronization by all the violinists. Freely playable tremolo also
exists. Tremolos have been part of the strings’ standard repertoire of effects since the beginning of the 19th
century.

Unmeasured bowed tremolo

Behind the bridge

The string is bowed between the bridge and the string tuner.
An X is written on the staff at the pitch levels corresponding to the open strings which are to be played. The pitch
heard is indeterminate, the different strings produce various pitches.
Notation for fingering (left hand)
Natural harmonic
There are three types of notation:

Pitch notation
A note with a small circle above it
indicates where the string were to be
fingered if the “normal” note were being
played. It is in this way that the fingering is
notated that corresponds to the actual
harmonic sounded. It is left to the
musician’s discretion which node he or
she chooses. (Harmonics can be fingered
at any one of their nodes.) The string is often indicated under the note too (e.g., sul G).
Finger notation
One of the possible fingerings (vibration nodes) is represented by a note in the form of a diamond. The fingering
given is always the one that is easiest to perform (i.e. is nearest the nut). The sounding pitch of the harmonic
cannot be ascertained from this notation.

Fingering and pitch

Some composers add the sounding pitch in brackets above the finger notation.

Artificial harmonics
The finger that firmly presses the string is notated as a pitch with the
desired note value. The finger that lies lightly on the string – generally
a fourth above the stopping finger – is notated as an empty, “white”
diamond, that is, they always look like whole notes, regardless of the
real note value.

Portamento
An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of
position. The effect is of two notes being joined together in a suggestion of a
glissando.

10
Con sordino
Con sordino (with mute) calls for the use of the mute, which is not to be removed until instructed to do so by the
term senza sordino.

Triple and quadruple stops

Triple stops (three-part chords) and quadruple stops (four-part chords) are notated as chords and played
as arpeggiated chords (each note in quick succession, from the lowest to the highest note). When playing four-
part chords, the two lowest notes are played first, then the two highest.

Pizzicato
Pizzicato with the left hand is indicated by a + above the note. Alban Berg: Violin Concerto.

Finger tremolo
Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the
string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note.
In contrast to the bow tremolo, when rapid up and downstrokes produce the tremolo effect, bowing here is
smooth and even over the string. The result is a kind of trill.

Su una corda
The instruction to play a cantilena on a particular string (e.g., sul G). Su una corda means “on one string”.

Viola - Range
Range of the viola: C3 – A6 (harmonic E7).

C string (C3–D4) G string (G3–A4)

D string (D4–E5) A string (A4–E6, A6)

Viola - Sound characteristics

Dark, stately, reedy, warm, distinctive, full, lively, singing, eloquent, introspective, sensuous, round,
muffled, solemn, austere, muted, rough, wafting, veiled, sonorous, powerful, robust.

11
Cello - Brief Description
German: (Violon)Cello
French: violoncelle
Italian: violoncello

The cello (violoncello) is the tenor and bass instrument of the violin
family (violin, viola, cello).

In the 19th century the cello advanced along with the violin to become
the most important bowed instrument for solo works. In the 20th century
cellists began to specialize more, concentrating more on solo, chamber
or orchestral playing.

It is constructed using the same components as the violin, the only difference being the larger size. The bow is
about 2 cm shorter and a quarter as heavy again as the violin bow. Horsehair is stretched between the two ends
of the bow, with rosin ensuring that the bow remains in contact with the string.

In terms of its history, construction and sound the cello belongs to the violin family. Nevertheless if differs from
the violin and viola in two points: the playing position and fingering.
1. Playing position: because of its size the cello is played in the upright position (like the viola da gamba).
Nowadays the cellist places the instrument between his legs, where it rests on the floor on a tail-pin
(spike). In the past the cellist would hold the instrument between his legs and pressed against his body,
or rest it on a chair and play standing up. His left hand grasped the neck. This method of playing meant
that only very simple bass figures could be played.
2. Fingering: this changed in around 1740 when the thumb was “discovered” as a playing finger. The thumb
position made it possible to reach the high positions, especially on the top string.

Proportions
The proportions on a stringed instrument refer to its length, namely the ration between the distances from the top
nut to the top edge of the belly (distance 1) and from the edge of the belly to the bridge (distance 2). The
proportions are expressed in terms of the ratio of these two distances to one another. The sum of these two
distances equals the length of the vibrating string. On the cello the distance from the top nut to the top edge of
the belly is 28 cm, from the edge of the belly to the bridge 40–42 cm (string length = between 68–70 cm). The
ratio (proportion) is therefore 7:10.

Classification tuned to intervals of a fifth. C2, G2, D3, A3. Material:

Chordophone, necked lute, stringed instrument. gut, silver, copper, aluminum, steel, nylon.
Tenor and bass instrument of the violin family
Bow
(violin, viola, cello)
Length: 71–73 cm. Bow stick made of Pernambuco
Head wood; point, adjustable frog. Shorter and heavier
Scroll and pegbox maple, 4 side-mounted pegs than the violin bow.
(ebony)
Tail-pin
Neck Steel
Length: 28 cm, fretless fingerboard made of ebony
Total length
Body Approx. 125 cm
Length: approx. 75.5 cm, box form
Mute
Belly with F-shaped sound holes, back, ribs.
Comb-shaped device made of metal or maple which
Strings damps the vibration of the bridge.
Length of the vibrating strings: 68–70 cm, 4 strings,

Cello - Notation
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The cello is a non-transposing instrument notated mainly in bass clef. Because of its huge range tenor and treble
clef are also used.
There are instances in 19th century orchestra
literature (e.g., in Anton Bruckner) of
transposing notation, the “treble clef at the
octave”: in such cases the instrument sounds
an octave lower than written.
Bowing notation (right hand)
As a rule many bowstrokes which come
under staccato are not notated but played in
the appropriate manner by the violinist. If the composer desires a particular kind of bowstroke he writes it into the
score. Melodic phrases which are to be played with a single stroke are linked by a phrasing slur. The change of
bowing can occur on a single note.

Détaché / Detached
Non-legato technique, strokes alternately up and down without the bow being lifted from the string.
1. Détaché or detached is often written explicitly into the score.
2. Strong détaché is indicated by a dot above the note.
3. The strongest détaché consists solely of downstrokes. The bow is lifted from the string after every
stroke.

Martelé
Hammered stroke (in Italian martellato = hammered). Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the
bow remaining on the string.

Sul tasto and sul ponticello

Because of the effect it has on timbre the place where the bow should make contact with the string is often
written into the score. Sulla tastiera (or sul tasto, sur la touche meaning on the fingerboard), sul ponticello (on
the bridge). Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Col legno (with the wood, French: avec le bois)

Hitting or bowing the string with the wood of the bow. The first technique produces a hammer effect and is used
for repeated figures. The latter sounds cracked, rough and dry and is of indeterminate pitch.

Pizzicato
Plucked.

Changing from pizzicato to arco

The change from bowed (arco) to plucked (pizzicato) and back is always written in full. (The part is to
played pizzicato until arco is written).

“Bartók pizzicato” (“snap” pizzicato)

The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This
13
produces a very resounding sound which is used for percussive effects.
Notation: a circle with a tail pointing either upward or downward above
each note.

Measured bowed tremolo

The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point. The
impression given is of a “trembling” sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal intensification.
Double stops can also be played tremolo. The bow tremolo is usually measured, i.e. the number of strokes
corresponds exactly to the notated division of the whole note value which determines the length of the tremolo.
This kind of tremolo must be played in absolute synchronization by all the violinists. Freely playable tremolo also
exists. Tremolos have been part of the strings’ standard repertoire of effects since the beginning of the 19th
century.

Unmeasured bowed tremolo

Behind the bridge

The string is bowed between the bridge and the string tuner.

An X is written on the staff at the pitch levels corresponding to the open strings which are to be played. The pitch
heard is indeterminate, the different strings produce various pitches.
Notation for fingering (left hand)
Natural harmonic
There are three types of notation:

Pitch notation
A note with a small circle above it indicates where the
string were to be fingered if the “normal” note were being
played. It is in this way that the fingering is notated that
corresponds to the actual harmonic sounded. It is left to the
musician’s discretion which node he or she chooses.
(Harmonics can be fingered at any one of their nodes.) The string is often indicated under the note too (e.g., sul
G).

Finger notation
One of the possible fingerings (vibration nodes) is represented by a note in the form of a diamond. The fingering
given is always the one that is easiest to perform (i.e. is nearest the nut). The sounding pitch of the harmonic
cannot be ascertained from this notation.

Fingering and pitch

Some composers add the sounding pitch in brackets above the finger notation.

Artificial harmonics
The finger that firmly presses the string is notated as a pitch with the desired note value. The finger that lies
lightly on the string – generally a fourth above the stopping finger – is notated as an empty, “white” diamond, that
is, they always look like whole notes, regardless of the real note value.

14
 Portamento
An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of position. The
effect is of two notes being joined together in a suggestion of a glissando.

Con sordino
Con sordino (with mute) calls for the use of the mute, which is not to be removed until instructed to do so by the
term senza sordino.

Triple and quadruple stops

Triple stops (three-part chords) and quadruple
stops (four-part chords) are notated as chords and
played as arpeggiated chords (each note in quick
succession, from the lowest to the highest note).
When playing four-part chords, the two lowest notes are played first, then the two highest.

Pizzicato
Pizzicato with the left hand is indicated by a + above the note.

Finger tremolo
Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the
string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note.
In contrast to the bow tremolo, when rapid up and downstrokes produce the tremolo effect, bowing here is
smooth and even over the string. The result is a kind of trill.

Su una corda
The instruction to play a cantilena on a particular string (e.g., sul G). Su una corda means “on one string”.

Cello - Range
The range of the cello: C2 – A5 (harmonic A7).

C string (C2–F3) G string (G2–C4)

D string (D3–G4) A string (A3–A5, A7)

Cello - Sound characteristics

Mellow, warm, sonorous, full, clear, brilliant, vibrant, singing, bright, lustrous, stately, lyrical, cantabile,
thick, weighty, powerful, silky, lively, incisive, eloquent, transcendental, supernatural, sensuous, calm,
round, pure, muffled, dark, open, sustaining, solemn, wafting, gentle, sweet, veiled.

15
Double Bass - Brief description
German: Kontrabass
French: Contrebasse
Italian: Contrabbasso

The double-bass is the contrabass instrument of the string

section and is not strictly speaking a member of the violin family
(violin, viola, cello).

The double-bass differs in several ways from the instruments of the

violin family. In its modern form it is a hybrid, combining elements of
both the viola da gamba and the violin families. From the gamba it
retains the sloping shoulders, the generally relatively flat back and the string tunings to fourths (older instruments
also retain the frets and the five to six strings). The F-shaped sound holes, the scroll, the often rounded back
and the ribs with corners come from the violin. Inside the body a wide cross bar reinforces the sound post.
Historically and in terms of its original construction the double-bass belongs to the gamba family, but the
developments it underwent made it increasingly similar to the instruments of the violin family.

The ribs are very high in relation to the other stringed instruments, which is necessary to achieve the required
resonance. They give the double-bass a rather box-like appearance, which has earned it the affectionate
nickname “doghouse” among jazz musicians. The ribs become flatter toward the neck so they do not hinder
access to the higher positions on the fingerboard. For solo performance the strings are generally tuned a
whole note higher to produce a brighter timbre (scordatura).

The bow is shorter and thicker than the cello bow. Horsehair is stretched between the two ends of the bow, with
rosin ensuring it remains in contact with the string. Two types of bow are used: the French bow, which is similar
to the cello bow but shorter and thicker. It is bowed overhand, the back of the hand facing the listener; and the
German bow, slimmer, with thinner horsehair and a wider frog which is bowed underarm , the thumb facing
upward.

The playing position has more to do with personal taste than the size of the instrument: some soloists play
standing while others prefer to sit on a long-legged stool. The question why one should prefer to stand and the
other to sit is a philosophical one

Classification Strings
Chordophone, necked lute, stringed instrument. Length of the vibrating strings: 95–115 cm,
Contrabass instrument of the violin family 4 strings, tuned to intervals of a fourth: E1, A1, D2,
G2. Material: gut, copper, silver, aluminum, steel,
Head
steel-wound nylon. On five-stringed instruments:
Scroll and pegbox with tuning mechanism. 4 rear
B0 (C1), E1, A1, D2, G2.
pegs
Tail-pin
Neck
Steel
Material: maple. Fretless fingerboard made of
ebony. Total length
Approx. 180–200 cm
Body
Length: approx. 100–140 cm, box form. 115 cm Bow
usual for orchestral instruments. Length: 68–70 cm. Bow stick made of Pernambuco
Belly with F-shaped sound holes, back, ribs 23 cm wood; point, adjustable frog (mother-of-pearl).
high (twice as high as the cello’s). Somewhat shorter and heavier than the cello bow.

Double bass - Notation

16
The double-bass is a transposing stringed instrument. Because of its deep pitch, notation for it is written an
octave higher than it sounds in bass clef.

Until Beethoven the double-bass and cello played their parts from a shared “bass” part. The double-bass played
the same part as the cello, automatically doubling it an octave below. On older or four-stringed double-basses
(lowest note E1) the cello’s lowest notes (to C2) could not be played an octave lower (C1). The double-bass
usually played these notes an octave higher, in unison with the cello.
Historical notation variations
In Viennese Classicism (from Joseph Haydn) until the second half of the 19th century, passages in which the
double-bass came to the fore and was distinctly audible were written in treble clef – Anton Bruckner also used
tenor clef. Such passages, which amounted to solo passages, sounded two octaves lower than written. The
same practice also applied to the cello (which sounded one octave lower than written). In most cases, the
following detail applies to this historical notation: If a phrase began in treble clef or came immediately after one in
bass clef, the double-bass sounded two octaves lower. If, however, the treble clef phrase was a direct
continuation of one in tenor clef the sound was only one octave lower than written, as with bass clef. The
widespread use of treble clef for solo passages had the advantage of rendering frequent changes of clef or the
use of many ledger lines unnecessary. The score was therefore easier to read, since the profile of the melody
line was recognizable at a glance. In Italy solo passages were written as they sounded.
Bowing notation (right hand)
As a rule many bowstrokes which come under staccato are not notated but played in the appropriate manner by
the violinist. If the composer desires a particular kind of bowstroke he writes it into the score.

Melodic phrases which are to be played with a single stroke are linked by a phrasing slur. The change of bowing
can occur on a single note.

Détaché / Detached
Non–legato technique, strokes alternately up and down without the bow being lifted from the string.
1. Détaché or detached is often written explicitly into the score.
2. Strong détaché is indicated by a dot above the note.
3. The strongest détaché consists solely of downstrokes. The bow is lifted from the string after every
stroke.

Martelé
Hammered stroke (in Italian martellato = hammered). Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the
bow remaining on the string.

Sul tasto and sul ponticello

Because of the effect it has on timbre the place where the bow should make contact with the string is often

17
written into the score. Sulla tastiera (or sul tasto, sur la touche meaning on the fingerboard), sul ponticello (on
the bridge). Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Pizzicato
Plucked.

Changing from pizzicato to arco

The change from bowed (arco) to plucked (pizzicato) and back is always written in full. (The part is to
played pizzicato until arco is written).

“Bartók pizzicato” (“snap” pizzicato)

The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This
produces a very resounding sound which is used for percussive effects. Notation: a circle with a tail pointing
either upward or downward above each note.

Measured bowed tremolo

The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point.
The impression given is of a “trembling” sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal
intensification. Double stops can also be played tremolo. The bow tremolo is usually measured, i.e. the number
of strokes corresponds exactly to the notated division of the whole note value which determines the length of the
tremolo. This kind of tremolo must be played in absolute synchronization by all the violinists. Freely playable
tremolo also exists. Tremolos have been part of the strings’ standard repertoire of effects since the beginning of
the 19th century.

Unmeasured bowed tremolo

Col legno (with the wood, French: avec le bois)

Hitting or bowing the string with the wood of the bow. The first technique produces a hammer effect and is used
for repeated figures. The latter sounds cracked, rough and dry and is of indeterminate pitch.

Behind the bridge

The string is bowed between the bridge and the string tuner.

An X is written on the staff at the pitch levels corresponding to the open strings which are to be played. The pitch
heard is indeterminate, the different strings produce various pitches.
Notation for fingering (left hand)
Harmonics
Harmonics can be notated in one of two
ways:
1. Either in treble clef at the actual pitch
(not an octave higher than it sounds
as with fingered pitches in bass clef).
Often the words “actual pitch” or
“sounding” are added in the score.
This type of notation, which avoids ledger lines, is generally preferred by composers.
2. Or in bass clef, the sound then being an octave lower than written (as with fingered pitches).

18
 Portamento
An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of
position. The effect is of two notes being joined together in a suggestion of a
glissando.

Con sordino
Con sordino (with mute) calls for the use of the mute, which is not to be removed until instructed to do so by the
term senza sordino.

Double stops
Are hard to play and rarely called for.

Pizzicato
Pizzicato with the left hand is indicated by a “+” above the note.

Finger tremolo
Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the
string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note.
In contrast to the bow tremolo, when rapid up and downstrokes produce the tremolo effect, bowing here is
smooth and even over the string. The result is a kind of trill.

Su una corda
The instruction to play a cantilena on a particular string (e.g. sul G). Su una corda means “on one string”.

Double bass - Range

Range of the double-bass: B0 – G4 (harmonic G6).

B string (B0 – F#2) E string (E1 – B2)

A string (A1 – E3) D string (D2 – D4)
G string (G2 – G4)

Double bass - Sound characteristics

Heavy, weighty, dark, weightless, wafting, somber, earthy, resonant, rasping, broad, hollow, dull, mighty,
menacing, violent, mellow, sustaining, aspirate.

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Harp - Brief description
German: Harfe
French: harpe
Italian: arpa

Thanks to its “universal character”, the harp is one of the oldest and most
widespread musical instruments known to man.
Harps may come in a variety of shapes and sizes but they all have three
components in common: the soundbox (body), the neck and
the strings. In 1914 the Berlin musicologists Ernst Moritz von Hornbostel
and Curt Sachs defined harps as follows: a harp is any stringed instrument whose string plane is vertical to the
soundbox. This is true of both triangular and rectangular instruments as well as those with a simple mechanism
or a complex one.

Defining the harp’s role in culture is not so easy: it is by nature diatonic and was used in many cultures to
accompany poets and singers. In the ebb and flow of its development it has had its place in all classes of
society, fulfilling a multitude of functions: as a folk instrument and instrument of worship, to accompany dancers
or singers and minstrels and last but not least as a sculpture laden with symbolic meaning in the salons of 19th
century aristocrats. The name of one of the harp’s typical playing techniques, the broken playing of chords, was
derived from the name of the instrument itself: arpeggio . Broken chords are now called arpeggio even if they are
played on, say, a clarinet.

In recent years composers have begun making far more effective use of the harp, which has resulted in the
development of a great many new playing techniques and sound effects. In modern orchestral and concert
playing the double-action pedal harp has established itself, a model first developed in around 1820 by
Sébastien Erard in Paris.

Classification rod mechanism (connecting wires for altering string

Composite chordophone (stringed instrument), pitch)
plucked instrument
Strings
Soundbox 47 strings made of gut, steel, copper, nylon; tuned
Approx. 145 cm long, maple; flat soundboard, five diatonically in Cb major. Cb strings are colored red,
sound holes on the underside. Fb strings blue. Longest string: 150 cm, shortest:
7 cm; string tension 700–1400 kgf
Neck
Curved, made of maple Foot and pedal box
Maple, contains 7 pedals
Head with crown
Material: Wood or metal; joins the pillar to the neck Weight
Approx. 35 kg
Pillar
Approx. 183 cm high, maple, hollow, contains the Tuning
Approx. equal temperament

Harp - Notation
As with the piano harp notation is written on two staves and is non-transposing. The lower staff is in bass clef,
the upper in treble clef. If required by the register both staves can be in the same clef, either bass or treble.

Harmonics are indicated by a small circle over the note and sound an octave higher than written.

Changes in pedal position should also be written into the score and are most conveniently effected during rests,
so that the musician has sufficient time to prepare them.

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Harp - Range
Range of the harp: Cb1 – G#7

Harp - Sound characteristics

Gentle, metallic, blurring, resonant, short, hard, drifting, full-sounding, rushing, clear, brilliant, glittering,
flowing, dull, mellow, sharp, crystal clear, reverberating, splashing, cascading.

21
Woodwind

22
 Flute - Brief description
 German: Große Flöte, Querflöte
 French: flute (traversière)
 Italian: flauto (traverso)

The modern orchestra or concert flute features the Boehm key mechanism
and possesses either open or closed keys. On models with closed keys, all
the keys have cups fitted with pads of felt and gut. These pads are the
instrument's Achilles' heel; they are extremely sensitive to changes in
temperature and dryness and are quick to shrink, which means they no
longer make the tone holes entirely airtight.

The open-keyed flute is also known as the French model or ring keyed flute. Five of the keys on this flute are
perforated. The corresponding tone holes are therefore not covered by cups but by the flutist's fingertips, which
enables more effective control of timbre. Many flutists prefer to perform contemporary works on the open flute
because it is better suited to modern playing techniques such as glissandi and quarter tones.

In keeping with the trend for using original instrumentation for the performance of historical pieces, wooden
flutes in the baroque and classical styles are once again being made in larger numbers. When it comes to the
influence of the material - wood or metal - on the timbre and response, opinions differ widely. Scientific studies
have shown that it is of little significance; a wooden flute can sound just as “bright" as a sterling silver one.

Today there is a very clear movement toward international standardization of flute-playing style. Since the 1940s
the French school with its ideal of a full and brilliant sound with vibrato has, quite literally, set the tone.

Flute - Notation
Single Tonguing
The flutist articulates the syllable da (also de, di, du), moving only the tongue; the lips and cheeks remain
immobile. The harder, more accentuated version is ta (te, ti, tu), the softer uses the letter K or G. Slow to
medium fast tempo.
Alternating articulation between ta and da is also used.

Vibrato
Microtonal fluctuations in pitch and/or volume which are produced by movements of the diaphragm, larynx and
lips. Opinions in the various schools differ as to which of these three factors is the most important for the
production of an ideal vibrato.

Double tonguing
The flutist articulates the syllables ta-ka, te-ke, tu-ku or similar. For softly articulated passages the syllables da-
ga, du-gu or similar are used.
The articulation of the syllables ta-ra, (te-re or similar) produces an effect which seems to simulate the bowing of
a violin and is used for greater clarity of accentuated notes.

23
Triple tonguing
The flutist articulates the syllables te-ke-te, ta-ka-ta, tu-ku-tu or similar. Softer version: de-ge-de, da-ga-da or du-
gu-du.

Flutter tonguing
Can be performed in two ways:
1. By articulating a rolled R, which produces a rapid tremolo.
2. By articulating a guttural R (as when gargling). This method is better suited for quiet and soft passages,
since the noise level is lower.

Trills
The flute is especially well suited for the performance of trills. Every minor and major trill from D4 to B6 can be
played with ease. Lower trills are difficult, being played with the little finger.

Tonguing effects
Tongue ram (tongue slap, tongue stop): The abrupt closing of the embouchure hole with the tongue achieves an
effect similar to key-slaps with a closed embouchure hole. The resulting resonances sound a major seventh
above the fingered note.
Notation: T above the note.

Tongue pizzicato: The tongue is darted out from between the lips and quickly withdrawn again through the
tightly pressed lips. Notation: “pizz." above the note.
Tongue click: The tongue click is a percussive effect which is used either alone or in combination with a key-
slap.
If the embouchure hole is open when the tongue click is performed there is an audible residual tone. Notation: a
K above the note. If the flutist has the embouchure hole between his lips, the click is accompanied by
resonances which range from a major third to an octave below the fingered note. The tongue click in the
embouchure hole is indicated by a K above the note.

Pitch bending
Turning the flute while playing changes the angle of the embouchure. If the flutist turns the instrument toward his
mouth the pitch of a note is lowered by ¼ to ¾ of a tone. Turning it away from the mouth results in an increase of
about ¼ of a tone.

24
Whisper tones
If a (skilled!) flutist blows very gently through lips that are only very slightly parted, the individual partials of a note
sound. By altering the angle of the embouchure as when overblowing, several partials can be played as whisper
tones.
Low notes have the highest number of whisper tones because of the long air column: 14 whisper tones can be
produced, starting from B3; the highest whisper tone - C8 - is also the highest of all notes playable on the flute.
Notation: “ws." below the note.

Further modern techniques

Further modern techniques are the breathing of notes, without really attacking them; changes of volume and
tone color on a long note; jet whistles, which are produced by closing the embouchure hole completely with the
lips; singing and playing simultaneously; circular breathing.
Modern composers often require the piccolo to perform the same playing techniques as the flute. Because of the
instrument's small dimensions (resonance chamber, keys, embouchure) the effect of these is reduced, however.
The key slap (key click) sounds much quieter than on the flute.
In the same way percussive tongue effects like the tongue ram (tongue stop) or tongue click over the
embouchure is reduced.
Pitch bending (altering pitch within a note by changing the angle of embouchure): only slight increases and
decreases of pitch within a note (up to about a quarter tone) are possible owing to the narrow embouchure.

Flute - Range
The concert flute's standard range is from B3 - D7 (forced up to F7).

Flute - Sound characteristics

Airy, light, poetic, mellow, bright, wafting, ethereal, rich, soft, graceful, penetrating,
brilliant, clear, shrill, silvery, wind-like, whistling, whispering, humming, filigree, sighing,
aspirate.
The timbre of the concert flute is homogeneous in all registers with only the very lowest and
highest notes exhibiting any different qualities.

25
 Oboe - Brief description
The double reed is placed between the lips and blown which causes both
reeds to vibrate against each other. They open and close very rapidly,
sending bursts of energy into the air column inside the instrument and
causing it to vibrate in sympathy.
A good oboist is one who can do this in a controlled and sensitive way.
As on all woodwind instruments it is primarily the keys which are used to
produce the various pitches. The oboe overblows to the octave. The
speaker keys make overblowing largely redundant. Six of the tone holes
are closed directly by the fingers, all the others by keys.
The French oboe has a very assertive sound which can be heard distinctly
in the orchestra, whereas the Viennese oboe tends to blend more with the overall sound. Vibrato, one of the
desirable techniques on the French oboe, is not usual in the Viennese style.
The French oboe has a slower response in the lower register than the Viennese oboe. The sound of the French
oboe from Bb5-C6 is found by many oboists to be slightly unsatisfactory.

Oboe - Notation
Single Tonguing
Can be played up to about MM 140 (4 sixteenths per quarter note 140).

Tooth Embouchure
The teeth lightly touch the reed. The resulting timbre is shrill and piercing. Such notes played with
the teeth cannot be included in legato passages, leaps, repetitions etc. because these require a
different embouchure. They can be played mezzopiano to fortissimo.

Flutter tonguing
On the oboe a rolled (guttural) R is generally used, since the lingual R (produced with the tip of the
tongue) is made more difficult by the reed and hampers the embouchure.
The slower the articulation, the softer the sound. This technique can be performed over the entire
range but is harder to play in the lower register.

26
Oboe - Range
The oboe's range is from Bb3 - G6 (A6).

Oboe - Sound characteristics

Clear, bright, penetrating, acerbic, keen, biting, rasping, reedy, powerful, robust, full,
insistent.
The sound quality of the oboe is very versatile and ranges from the thick notes in the low register
to the thin and piercing high notes. The break between one register and the next covers roughly a
minor third.
The middle register is the region most often used.
The oboe's acerbic timbre can lend even a tutti passage special color. The French oboe has a
sound which is more conspicuously audible in the overall orchestral sound, whereas the Viennese
oboe tends to blend in more easily.

27
 Clarinet in Bb - Brief description
 German: Klarinette in B
 Italian: clarinetto in si bemolle
 French: clarinette en si bémol

The clarinet is the most recent addition to the woodwind family (flute, oboe,
bassoon, clarinet) and was the last woodwind to be integrated into the
symphony orchestra (during the period of "Viennese Classicism" in the 2nd half
of the 18th century).
The clarinet in Bb, a soprano woodwind instrument, is the most commonly used in the clarinet family. In the
orchestra clarinets in A and C are used, as are the small clarinet (in Eb or D), the basset horn in F and the bass
clarinet in Bb.
In marching bands and wind bands, in which the clarinet is the most important woodwind, high clarinets in F and
Ab are also played. In the USA there are clarinet-only orchestras, in which the more common instruments are
joined by the alto clarinet (in Eb) and the contrabass clarinet (in Bb).
The clarinet is composed of five parts: the beak-shaped mouthpiece with a single reed, the barrel (or socket), a
piece of tube that bulges like a barrel, the upper joint (left-hand joint), the lower joint (right-hand joint) and the
funnel-shaped bell. Slight alterations to the overall tuning can be made by using barrels of varying length.
The keywork is particularly complicated because the clarinet overblows to a twelfth which extends its
fundamental compass to nineteen half tones. The other woodwinds overblow to the octave (twelve half tones).
All clarinets have the same fingering. The written pitches refer to the fingering that the clarinetist is to use on his
or her instrument. In other words, if a particular written pitch is to be played by two clarinets in different tunings,
both instruments use the same fingering. Because the fundamental pitch of each instrument is different, the
same fingering produces a different sounded pitch.
The clarinet is unique among the woodwinds in that it has a cylindrical tube, whereas the tubing of the oboe,
bassoon and saxophone is conical. The cylindrical form, which is closed at one end and open at the other, lends
the instrument the acoustic properties of a stopped organ pipe: it sounds an octave below a conical instrument of
the same length and when sound is produced only the odd harmonics speak which means the first overblown
harmonic is the twelfth (not the octave).
To play, the reed is placed on the lower lip, which is pressed against the lower teeth while the upper teeth grip
the mouthpiece on the closed side. When blowing the clarinet, the reed is controlled and set in motion by means
of lip pressure, air pressure and the points of contact between the reed and the lower lip. The vibrating reed
sends little puffs of air into the air column inside the instrument, thus causing the air column to vibrate.
When attacking strongly in the low register the reed hits the mouthpiece; in piano it swings freely and does not
touch the tip of the mouthpiece - beside producing a soft and clear sound this also makes it possible to play a
pianissimo that can fade to complete silence.

Clarinet in Bb - Notation
Single Tonguing
Very fast sequences of notes played staccato are also possible in longer passages. Using single tonguing
sixteenth notes can be played up to about MM 150.

Double/Triple tonguing
Double and triple tonguing are hard to perform because the articulation is hindered by the reed. For this reason
these techniques are rarely used.

Flutter tonguing

28
The clarinetist articulates a lingual R (produced with the tip of the tongue) or a rolled (guttural) R against the
palate. The slower the articulation, the softer the sound. In principle this technique can be performed over the
entire range but is seldom required of the clarinet.

Trills
A good and substantial effect on the clarinet and for this reason a typical playing technique, although the
fingering of some trills makes them difficult to play. Certain trills are made easier by trill keys. Whole tone and
half tone trills can be played on the Bb clarinet from the lowest note to around F6. The higher the trill, the more
penetrating the sound.

Pitch Bending
Pitch bending describes a fluctuation of intonation or a pitch alteration in a single note which is produced by
altering the embouchure. During pitch bending the tongue's position moves from an articulated "e" to an "oo".
On the clarinet, which is better suited for playing this technique than the double-reed instruments, relatively large
pitch alterations are possible downward: low notes can be lowered by up to a quarter tone; notes in the middle
register (from G4-D5) up to a minor second and higher notes from a major second to an octave.
In contrast, bending the pitch upward is possible over only a small interval.

Clarinet in Bb - Range

Clarinet in Bb - Sound characteristics

Rich, mellow, warm, gentle, melodic, vocal, round, lustrous, brilliant, bright, throaty, penetrating, dark,
menacing, dramatic, explosive, incisive, expressive, shrill, reedy, caressing, pale, lively.
The clarinet's ability to play smooth and expressive legatos makes it the ideal instrument for the performance of
evocative cantilenas.
If one compares clarinets of different pitches one finds that there are subtle differences in timbre:
 Bb clarinet: lustrous, brilliant, rich, transparent.
 A clarinet: softer and less forceful than the Bb clarinet.
 C clarinet: brighter, colder and harder, more "pert" than the other two clarinets. It was used in the
orchestra to evoke pastoral moods.

29
 Bassoon - Brief description
 German: Fagott
 French: basson
 Italian: fagotto
The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the tenor and bass register.
Like the oboe, the bassoon is a double-reed instrument, because the mouthpiece
has two reeds that lie very close together. Unlike the oboe the shawm-like sound
that this mouthpiece produces is tempered by the U-shaped bend of its wind
duct, so that bassoon notes are not a homogeneous continuation of the lowest
notes of the oboe's compass
The bassoon's conical tube consists of the following five components: Crook or bocal: A narrow, curved metal
tube connecting the double-reed mouthpiece to the wood body; the bocal has an aperture for the so-called piano
mechanism; the bassoon's overall intonation can be altered by the use of bocals of differing length. Wing joint:
the bocal joins the straight, wood wing joint or tenor joint, which is shorter and narrower than the long joint that
runs parallel to it. Double or butt joint, boot: the boot is a U-shaped hollow piece of tube which is attached to the
wing and long joints. The hand rest for the right hand is screwed onto the boot, which ends at the bottom with a
metal U-bend. Long joint: This is the longest piece of tubing, and is parallel to the wing joint. Bell: is often
finished with an ornamental rim of ivory or plastic. If an A bell is fitted to the customary Bb bell the instrument's
range is increased by a half tone downward to A1.
To play, the bassoon is held diagonally across the body with the left hand at the top and the right hand at the
bottom. The left hand covers the five fingerholes and sixteen or so keys on the wing joint and long joint, the right
hand the approximately eleven keys on the boot.
The size and weight of the bassoon means that it must be supported while it is being played. Bassoonists hold
the instrument with the aid of a strap which goes round the neck or shoulders and is hooked into a ring on the
instrument's boot. For playing in the sitting position the belt is used as an alternative - the musician sits on a
leather strap with a pouch at the end which holds the U-bend.

Bassoon - Notation
Embouchure
The double reed is placed between the lips and blown, which sets the two reeds vibrating against each other.
They open and close very quickly, thereby sending little puffs of air into the air column inside the instrument,
which is stimulated to move in sympathy.
As on all woodwinds it is primarily the keywork that is used to produce the various pitches. The technique of
overblowing - the bassoon overblows to the octave - is largely replaced by the use of speaker keys. Five of the
tone holes are closed directly by the fingers, the rest by keys.

Single tonguing
For an instrument of its size the bassoon is amazingly agile. Rapid passages - except with the very lowest notes
- are possible as are large leaps.

Double/Triple tonguing
Asked for in more modern literature. Double and triple tonguing are hard to perform on the bassoon because the
articulation is hindered by the reeds in the mouth. From tempo MM 150.
Young musicians often play passages like those shown in the example with double-tonguing, whereas
bassoonists of the old school play them with single-tonguing.

30
Flutter tonguing
A rolled (guttural) R against the palate is generally used, since the lingual R (produced with the tip of the tongue)
is made more difficult by the reed and hampers the embouchure. The slower the articulation, the softer the
sound. This technique can be performed over the entire range but is harder to play piano and in the upper
register.

Mute
Mutes give the bassoon a more mellow sound.
Pieces of cloth are often placed in the bell as a mute (required by György Ligeti, for example). Less frequently,
commercially manufactured perforated cloth mutes or cork mutes are used.

Pitch Bending
Pitch bending describes a fluctuation of intonation or a pitch alteration in a single note which is produced by
altering the embouchure. During pitch bending the tongue's position moves from an articulated "e" to an "oo".
On the clarinet, which is better suited for playing this technique than the double-reed instruments, relatively large
pitch alterations are possible downward: low notes can be lowered by up to a quarter tone; notes in the middle
register (from G4-D5) up to a minor second and higher notes from a major second to an octave.
In contrast, bending the pitch upward is possible over only a small interval.

Bassoon - Range
The bassoon has a range from Bb1 - Eb5 (F5).

Bassoon - Sound characteristics

Mellow, gentle, velvety, mild, sonorous, warm, smooth, picturesque, tense, active,
penetrating, plaintive, long, light, delicate, full, round, slender, narrow, sensitive.
The U-shaped bend of the bassoon tube means that it lacks the penetrating and brilliant shawm-like sound of
the oboe.
The bassoon's timbre is rich in harmonics, which gives it particular color. The differences between the registers
are very pronounced, which is one of the instrument's most striking characteristics: full and sonorous in the lower
register, slender, elegant and melodious in the middle and narrow and compressed in the upper register.
In all its registers, the notes of the bassoon - especially staccato notes - are well suited for the performance of
humorous, comic effects and the depiction of musical caricatures.

31
Brass

32
Trumpet – Brief Description
CLASSIFICATION
Aerophone (lip-vibrated), Wind Instrument, Brass
Instrument
HISTORY
Trumpets originated from end-blown objects such
as animal horns, bones, or bamboo. They were
primarily used for military signalling. Records
indicate that trumpets were used in religious
services as early as c. 2000 B.C.E. It is also know
that two early trumpets were found in King
Tutankhamen's tomb in Egypt (c. 1339 B.C.E.).
According to the Bible, Moses made two trumpets of silver. The modern "folded" trumpet (as opposed to a long
straight tube) was created around 1400 C.E. Images from the 15th century show performers with both straight
and folded trumpets. Trumpets were introduced into the opera in 1607 with opera Orfeo. After that, they became
common in opera orchestras and in the 19th century were commonplace in the symphony orchestras. The
modern trumpet is a common instrument in concert bands, jazz bands, marching bands, and is used in many
genre of popular music as well as in today's symphony orchestra.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION:
A family of brass instruments with a cylindrical bore, valves, and a cup mouthpiece producing a clear, bright
tone. Three valves are used to make the instrument fully chromatic. Some models have a fourth valve to adjust
for inherent intonation problems of the instrument. A trigger mechanism is sometimes added to the the first or
third valve tuning slide that is used to provide a way for the performer to fix the intonation problems with certain
valve combinations.
SOUND PROPERTIES
Sound is produced (as in most brass instruments) by the vibration of the performers lips. Three valves are used
to make the instrument fully chromatic.

Trumpet – RANGE
The trumpet is pitched in the soprano range and has a normal chromatic range from F sharp below middle C to
C above the treble clef. Experienced performers are able to extend the upper range, often to the G above the
high C (or higher). The trumpet in C is a non-transposing instrument, the trumpet in B flat has the same written
range, but sounds a step lower.

Trumpet – Playing Techniques

Thanks to the ease of its playability the trumpet possesses remarkable technical agility. Extemporaneous playing
of the highest notes is possible, as are large legato and staccato leaps.

33
Single Tonguing
Can be played with great precision at the fastest tempi, and at extreme dynamic levels and with dynamic
changes in accidentals.

Double tonguing
Can be played with great precision at the fastest tempi, and at extreme dynamic levels and with dynamic
changes in accidentals.

Triple tonguing
Can be played with great precision at the fastest tempi, and at extreme dynamic levels and with dynamic
changes in accidentals.

Flutter tonguing
While playing the musician flutters his tongue between his lips. This technique is most effective in the middle
register. It is rarely used, since it produces a piercing and overstated sound, particularly when played with a
mute.

Valve Trill
On the trumpet the trill is one of the less refined techniques and is therefore rarely used. The arrangement of the
valves does not allow the use of the major trill on all notes, only on C#4, D4, E4, F4, F#4, G4, A4, Bb4, C5, C#5
and D5.
The minor trill can be performed on the notes B3, C#4, D#4, E4, F#4, G#4, A4, Bb4, B4, C5, C#5, D#5 and E5.

Mute
Lends the tone more intensity.
piano: very gentle, glassy and subtle; mezzoforte: enigmatic, eerie; fortissimo: shrill, piercing, cutting.

Trumpet – Sound Characteristics

34
The trumpet’s sound is metallic, bright (but also dark in the lower register), intense, brilliant,
powerful and stately. It projects best between G3 and G5.
Lower register
F#3 - F#4
Metallic, dark, substantial, heroic. Not as rich in overtones as the upper register. Played forte, notes in this
register are sonorous and rounded.
In its low register the trumpet is well-suited as a metallic, dark, precise and agile middle voice in the orchestra
and as such offers an effective contrast to the soft horns in the same register. The lowest notes down to C4 are
prominent, assertive, dark (though not weighty as on the trombone), eerie and portentous. These effects are
often used for battle scenes in dramatic works.
Middle register
G4 - F#5
It is here that the instrument’s sound comes into its own: brilliant, full, rounded, magnificent. A metallic brilliance
that pervades the entire orchestra and cannot be achieved by any other instrument.
The ease of its playability makes it ideally suited for thematic tasks and solos, even when played piano, which is
still clearly audible even in tutti passages.
Upper register
G5 - C6
Bright, shrill, penetrating, vivid.
Up to C6: A homogeneous continuation of the middle register, although no longer so prominent.
The notes above this sound piercing and develop a particular quality appreciated especially by jazz musicians.

35
Horn in F – Brief Description
Name: Viennese horn
Spelling
o German: Wiener Horn in F
o French: Cor Viennois
o Italian: Corno di Vienna

Classification: Aerophone, brass wind instrument

Material: Brass, gold brass, nickel silver
Mouthpiece: Funnel-shaped mouthpiece
Tubing: Length 3.7 m, coiled several times, predominantly conical,
detachable F crook, length 105-120 cm

Horn in F – Stopping and Valves

Vienna valve
The Vienna valve is a double-piston valve that was developed in 1830 by the Viennese Leopold Uhlmann in
emulation of the first piston valve that was patented in 1818 by Blühmel and Stölzel. Nowadays the Viennese
Horn is the sole instrument built with Viennese valves. It is used only in a few European orchestras, principally in
Vienna itself by the Vienna Philharmonic among others.

Rotary valve
This valve was developed in Vienna by Joseph Riedl in 1835 and is now the most commonly used valve on
brass instruments along with the Périnet or piston valve.

Stopping valve
An additional valve on the valve horn which lowers the instrument's pitch by about a half tone. It is used to
compensate for the rise in pitch caused by stopping.

Stopping
1. A playing technique on the natural horn from the middle of the 18th century. The horn player reduced the
tube's width by putting his right hand into the bell, which faced downward. The lowering of the horn's
pitch that this technique produced made it possible to play those intermediate notes of the natural
harmonics series which had hitherto been missing. Stopping gave the horn a certain chromaticism. The
stopped notes sounded weaker and muffled, however, and were therefore really only useful as
transitional notes and not suitable for inclusion in melody lines. The use of stopping for the purposes of
chromatization was rendered obsolete by the invention of valves.
2. An integral part of modern valve horn playing technique which should not be confused with stopping on
the natural horn: the horn player inserts his right hand into the ball, the back of the hand lying against the
tube. The air flows over the palm and out of the bell. By moving his wrist up and down the horn player
alters the tube width very subtly, thus making very fine adjustments to the instrument's intonation. It also
plays a very important role in giving the valve horn its typical sound.
3. Total stopping: A modern playing technique on the valve horn. The bell is filled completely by the right
fist, which is often wrapped in a cloth. This has the effect of projecting the sound not through the bell but
through the closed and vibrating tube. Stopping raises the instrument's pitch by about a half tone, which
is compensated for by the stopping valve.

Detachable F crook
The crook is a piece of coiled tubing, which is
detachable on the Viennese horn but fixed on the
double horn. By changing the crook, which accounts
for nearly a third of the total tube length, the
instrument’s character - i.e., its response, tone and
intonation - can be altered.

Horn in F – Range
36
The horn in F has a range from B1 - F5 (sounding)

 Lower register: B1 - D3
 Middle register: Eb3 - Eb4
 Upper register: E4 - F5

Horn in F – Playing Techniques

General
Due to the large range of the horn, orchestra hornists specialize either in the high register (from the 4th natural)
or the low register (to the 12th natural) and are consequently known as "high hornists" (1st and 3rd hornist) or
"low hornists" (2nd and 4th hornist).
In the middle register, and especially in the upper register, every one of the horn-playing techniques can be
applied with ease. Difficulties arise with leaps to the naturals from the 13th upward. The deepest notes (B1-E2)
develop only very slowly and ponderously.

Single Tonguing
Easy performance of scales, leaps etc., slow response of the lowest notes.

Vibrato
A microtonal pitch fluctuation possible in passages at any tempo and at all dynamic levels; vibrato can be played
in virtually any context, from pp to ff and from slow to fast. On the horn, this technique is largely ignored in the
classical repertoire, but in contemporary music every kind of vibrato is used.

Double tonguing
Easy to play in the middle and upper registers, problematical in the low register and at the very highest pitch.

Triple tonguing
Easy to play in the middle and upper registers, problematical in the low register and at the very highest pitch.

37
Flutter tonguing
Playable in the middle and upper registers.

Glissando
Rarely called for in earlier works, mainly found in 20th century works, e.g., Igor Stravinsky’s (1882-1971) "The
Rite of Spring". Glissando can be played best in the upper register where the partials are close together.

Trills
Valve trill
The whole note trill is easier to perform than the half note trill (only using the old stopping technique!). Most
effective between G#3 and C5.

Lip trills
Lip trills are also possible on high notes.

Stopped
Stopped (German: gestopft, French: bouché, Italian: chiuso; notation: + = sign indicating stopped notes)
Stopped notes are notated in two ways: either with the word stopped, or with the sign +.
The musician presses his right fist into the bell, filling it completely. This has the effect of projecting the sound
not through the bell but through the vibrating tube, which darkens the timbre and raises the pitch by a minor
second. The technique also alters the directional characteristics of the sound, which now appears to be coming
from far away, creating the impression of wide open spaces: the sense of space is changed.

Open
Open (German: offen, French: ouvert, Italian: aperto; notation: sign indicating open notes = o)
A typical and very effective technique on the horn is the playing of open and stopped notes in rapid succession
(open-stopped effects, o - +).

Brassy
Brassy (German: schmettern, French: cuivré, Italian: cupreo; notation: ^ = indicating brassy)

38
Increased lip tension and a very forced but controlled attack cause the tube to vibrate strongly. Popular horn
technique, used to demonstrate strength, authority etc. Spurned as a trumpet technique.

Mute
Muted (German: mit Dämpfer, French: avec sourdine, Italian con sordino
Notation: + = sign indicating muted notes)
Muted notes are notated in two ways: either with the word muted, or with the sign +.
Instead of the hand a mute is placed in the bell. The effect on the sound is much the same as with hand-
stopping, unless the musician uses a non-transposing mute, in which case the pitch does not change.

Horn in F – Sound characteristics

Full, warm, velvety, clear, distant, mellow, metallic.
The sound is homogeneous, only the deepest notes sound a little more muffled and
ponderous.
Low register B1 - D3
Most effective played piano, where the notes are very mellow and sonorous. Well-suited as bass in horn chords
or woodwind chords. Also very effective as solo bass. Ideal for the performance of thematic tasks, for example in
the 3rd movement of the 7th symphony by Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), where the sustained horn notes
are extremely sonorous and mellow.
Forte notes sound a shade less powerful and expressive than in the upper registers. When forced they take on a
slightly rough tone.
Middle register Eb3 - Eb4
Full and resounding. Piano notes very mellow. Forced notes can sound mellow or coarse and tempestuous.
Creates a more sober impression than the upper register.
Upper register E4 - F5
Soft as velvet, bright and very intense, brilliant. This characteristic horn sound develops best around C5, as the
horn quartet in the overture to Weber’s "Freischütz" demonstrates.
Forced, the high horn notes are very bright and powerful but with relatively little shrillness.

39
Trombone – Brief Description
Trombone, brass wind musical instrument sounded by lip vibration against
a cup mouthpiece. It has an extendable slide that can increase the length
of the instrument’s tubing. The slide thus performs the function of the
valves on other brass instruments. From the 19th century, some trombones
have been made with valves, but their use was never universal.

The trombone is a 15th-century development of the trumpet and, until

approximately 1700, was known as the sackbut. Like a trumpet, it has a
cylindrical bore flared to a bell. Its mouthpiece is larger, however, suited to
its deeper musical register, and is parabolic in cross section, like a cornet.
The slide is composed of two parallel and stationary inner tubes, thickened
at their lower ends, and two movable outer tubes. The two sets of tubes are
telescoped in and out by a cross stay manipulated by the player’s right hand. The other half of the trombone, the
bell joint, passes over the player’s left shoulder, counterbalancing the weight of the slide. Its bend usually
incorporates a tuning slide.

Trombone – Range
Unlike most other brass instruments in an orchestral setting, the trombone is not usually considered a
transposing instrument. Prior to the invention of valve systems, most brass instruments were limited to playing
one overtone series at a time; altering the pitch of the instrument required manually replacing a section of tubing
(called a "crook") or picking up an instrument of different length. Their parts were transposed according to which
crook or length-of-instrument they used at any given time, so that a particular note on the staff always
corresponded to a particular partial on the instrument. Trombones, on the other hand, have used slides since
their inception. As such, they have always been fully chromatic, so no such tradition took hold, and trombone
parts have always been notated at concert pitch (with one exception, discussed below). Also, it was quite
common for trombones to double choir parts; reading in concert pitch meant there was no need for dedicated
trombone parts. Note that while the fundamental sounding pitch (slide fully retracted) has remained quite
consistent, the conceptual pitch of trombones has changed since their origin (e.g. Baroque A tenor = modern B-
flat tenor).[36]

E2-F5

Trombone – Playing Techniques

As with all brass instruments, progressive tightening of the lips and increased air pressure allow the player to
move to different partial in the harmonic series. In the first position (also called closed position) on a B♭
trombone, the notes in the harmonic series begin with B♭2 (one octave higher than the pedal B♭1), F3 (a perfect
fifth higher than the previous partial), B♭3 (a perfect fourth higher), D4 (a major third higher), and F4 (a minor
third higher).

40
The trombone is one of the few wind instruments that can produce a true glissando, by moving the slide without
interrupting the airflow or sound production. Every pitch in a glissando must have the same harmonic number,
and a tritone is the largest interval that can be performed as a glissando.[18]: 151

The trombone glissando can create remarkable effects, and it is used in jazz and popular music, as in the
famous song "The Stripper" by David Rose and his orchestra.

'Harmonic', 'inverted', 'broken' or 'false' glissandos are those that cross one or more harmonic series, requiring a
simulated or faked glissando effect.

Trills, though generally simple with valves, are difficult on the slide trombone. Trills tend to be easiest and most
effective higher in the harmonic series because the distance between notes is much smaller and slide movement
is minimal. For example, a trill on B♭3/C4 is virtually impossible as the slide must move two positions (either 1st-
to-3rd or 5th-to-3rd), however at an octave higher (B♭4/C5) the notes can both be achieved in 1st position as a
lip trill. Thus, the most convincing trills tend to be above the first octave and a half of the tenor's range.[35] Trills
are most commonly found in early Baroque and Classical music for the trombone as a means of ornamentation,
however, some more modern pieces will call for trills as well.

Trombone – Sound characteristics

Brassy, brilliant, powerful, overpowering, solid, tense, penetrating, dramatic, hard, full, sinister, soft,
round.
The sound of the trombone remains homogeneous throughout its entire range. There are no big differences
between the registers such as those found in the clarinet or the bassoon.
Pedals
These sound metallic, grave, dark, distant, focused (not wide like the tuba).
Low register
dark, weighty, dense, somber, threatening when played forte, mysterious and full when played piano. It is used
for weighty and portentous themes and as bass in harmony sequences.
Middle register
Metallic sound, mighty, sometimes blaring and heroic when played forte.
Grave, sustaining, full, mysterious in piano. Very short and barely sounded notes through sustained chords.
Upper register
Here the sound becomes more brilliant and can reach sweeping intensity. The mellowness increases. The tenor
trombone, now sounding more metallic, more definite and brighter, shares this register with the French horn,
which sounds playful and magical.
Brilliance in piano.
At its highest pitch the tenor trombone reaches the trumpet register sounding more substantial and mellower.

41
Tuba – Brief Description
 Name: Bass tuba in F
 Spelling
o German: Basstuba in F
o French: tuba basse en fa
o Italian: tuba bassa in Fa
 Classification: Aerophone, lip-vibrated instrument, brass wind instrument.
Belongs to the valved bugle-horns family
 Material: Brass, gold brass, nickel silver, gold lacquer
 Mouthpiece: Deep cup mouthpiece
 Tubing: Length 350-400 cm, conical along entire length

The tuba is currently used in four tunings: the bass tuba in F and Eb, and the
contrabass tuba in C and Bb. In Austrian and French orchestras tubas in F and Bb
are used, the contrabass tuba in Bb being found primarily in opera orchestras. In some regions of Germany and
in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and the USA the C tuba with four valves is common as a kind of all-round
instrument: it is played not only in the orchestra but also in chamber music and as a solo instrument.
Tubas are made in four different patterns and have a variety of names: there is the oval form; the sousaphone
(rounded, made of fiber-reinforced plastic with a forward-facing bell; the instrument is hung over the shoulder for
the purposes of marching); the helicon (round form) and finally the tuba form (upright with bell facing upward).
There is also a wide variety of sizes, bore profiles and valve mechanisms.
The bell passes the musician's head either on the left or the right, depending among other things on the type of
valves the instrument has: Périnet valves and rotary valves are equally common. The double tuba has a valve
which enables the player to alternate between two tunings - it is a combination of a bass and contrabass tuba.
The bass and contrabass tubas are the largest and lowest-pitched brass instruments not only in the orchestra
(where the tuba player sits together with the trombone section) but also in wind band and military music. Beside
the tubas in Eb, C and low Bb, other instruments of the valved bugle horn family covering all pitches (e.g.,
cornet, flugelhorn, euphonium) are common in wind band and military music, whereas in modern orchestras the
bass tuba is the only instrument of this kind in use.

Bass Tuba – Notation

Music for the bass and contrabass tubas is generally non-transposing and written in bass clef. The instrument is
pitched in the bass and contrabass registers.
Notation an octave higher than the actual sound has not found acceptance, even though it is easier to read in
parts. The reason for this is that the tuba often doubles the 3rd trombone and shares a staff with it.

Bass Tuba – Range

Range of the bass tuba: D1 - G4
Lower register D1 - F2
Middle register F#2 - F3
Upper register F#3 - G4

Bass Tuba – Sound Production

Overall the embouchure is relaxed; it is only in the high register that the lips are tensed.

42
Bass Tuba – Playing Techniques
The bass tuba is a very agile instrument, far more agile than it appears.

Single Tonguing
Can be played well and fast in all pitches. Very fast scales can be played. Sharply accentuated forte blasts are
difficult to maintain for long periods and are felt to be ponderous and dragging.
Staccatonotes are very homogeneous and effective played pp , comparable to the pizzicato of the double-bass.

Vibrato
Tuba players use vibrato as an acoustic trick, to simulate a supple sound where it is in fact missing. Compared
to the other tones, pedals are at a disadvantage because they require a much greater volume of air. As a result
the note becomes softer. By using slight vibrato, however, the note appears louder.

Double tonguing
Can be played with ease at all pitch levels up to a tempo of about MM 130 (4
sixteenths per quarter note 130). Rarely called for in symphonic orchestra
literature.

Triple tonguing
Can be played with ease up to a tempo of about MM 150 (4 sixteenths per quarter note 150). It goes without
saying that the notes have a slower response the deeper they are. The performance of fast playing techniques
such as triple tonguing thus reaches the limits imposed by physics. Rarely called for in symphonic orchestra
literature.

Flutter tonguing
Can be played easily, but is rarely required.
Bass Tuba – Sound characteristics
Round, smooth, calm, velvety, hearty, robust, unobtrusive, ponderous, sustaining, gentle,
soft, soothing.
Lower register
D1 - F2
Although the pedal tones speak thanks to the slightly wider bore they are difficult to play and sound very
ponderous. For this reason they are only scored pianissimo together with other instruments. The overall effect of
the low notes is soft and unobtrusive. The tone is not penetrating, but nevertheless projects very well.
Middle register
F#2 - F3
Very full-sounding in soft legato phrases. It is the notes within this compass that are used most often.
Upper register
F#3 - G4
A very loud and powerful tone is possible at this level which can hold its own in tutti passages.

43
Percussion

44
Drum-kit

45
Timpani
 Name: Timpani, Kettledrums
 Spelling
o German: Pauken
o Italian: timpani
o French: timbales
 Classification: Percussion instrument, membranophone, skin-covered instrument with definite pitch
 Bowl: Copper, brass
 Diameter: From 52 cm (piccolo kettledrum) to 76 cm (bass kettledrum)

Timpani – Range
A kettledrum has a range of about a sixth.
A timpani group composed of several instruments covers approximately three octaves.

The purest tone is produced in the middle of a kettledrum's compass. Very high notes sound too strained and
too thin, very low notes sound too “woolly” and weak. For this reason timpanists allocate the pitches demanded
in the score to the available drums in such a way that the pitch each drum plays is in the middle of its compass.

 D kettledrum (bass kettledrum: 75-80 cm): C2, D2 - H2, C3

 G kettledrum (large kettledrum: 65-70cm): E2, F2 - D3, E3
 C kettledrum (small kettledrum: 60-65cm): Ab2, Bb2 - G3, Ab3
 F kettledrum (high kettledrum: 55-60 cm): C3 - G#3
 A kettledrum (high kettledrum: 50-60 cm): C3, D3 - Bb3, C#4
 B kettledrum (45-50 cm): G3 - C4

The range of historical (baroque, classical) timpani was limited solely to the octave F2 to F3.
This meant that certain keys could not be played in the instruments' usual tuning - low drum = dominant, high
drum = tonic. In such instances the usual tuning was reversed: low drum = tonic, high drum = dominant (e.g. A
major).

Timpani – Sound characteristics

Dull, thunderous, booming, deep, heavy, powerful, mellow, velvety, substantial, resonant,
round, rumbling, dead, dry, hollow.
Due to its great dynamic range the timpani part must be precisely planned and regulated and carefully balanced
with its partner instruments. This exactitude must be reflected in the notation. Although when played piano and
mezzoforte timpani allow other instruments to the fore, it is very easy for them to drown them out in forte and
fortissimo passages.
Basically the timpani sound is composed of two elements, the attack and the resonance. The resonance of a mf
tone lasts about 4-5 seconds on the large drum and 3-4 seconds on the small one.
The timbre is determined by three factors: what the mallets are made of, where the head is struck and how hard
the head is struck.

46
Snare Drum
 Name: Snare drum, side drum
 Spelling
o German: Kleine Trommel
o French: caisse claire, tambour petit
o Italian: cassa chiara, tamburo piccolo
 Classification: Percussion instrument, membranophone with indefinite pitch
 Tensioning mechanism: Snare release lever to tighten or lift off the snares

Since the 20th century the snare drum part has been written on a single line with no clef. This type of notation
became standard because the drum has no definite pitch.
As a rule, the snare drum is played with tightened snares, and this is not indicated in the score. What is explicitly
written into the score is the composer's instruction to play snares off (German: ohne Schnarrsaiten, French: sans
timbre, Italian: senza corde). In historical scores playing without snares is often indicated by the instruction
muffled (German: gedämpft, Italian: coperto).

Snare Drum – Sound production

The snare drum is beaten with two drumsticks, held one in each hand. Unlike the timpani, striking the head of
the snare drum does not produce a definite pitch, or at least one that can only be determined with difficulty.
It is the construction of the drum that causes it to have no definite pitch. Heads are stretched across both ends of
the shell. The vibrations stimulated by striking the head are magnified by the resonance of the shell and the air
inside it. They cause the snare head to vibrate and this reacts both on the batter head and outwardly. The sound
contains a great many inharmonic partials in close proximity to each other and this results in a sound which has
very much the character of noise. Because the two heads have neither same degree of tension, nor the same
thickness, the batter head and snare head vibrate at different rates which contributes to the indistinctness of
pitch.
There is always a small hole in the shell that acts as a vent, preventing a build-up of excessive air pressure
inside the shell. The striking spot, the point on the head that produces the best sound, is more or less in the
center of the batter head (unlike the timpani, where it is about a hand-width from the rim). The nearer the rim the
head is struck the less volume of sound is produced on the snare drum and the less discernible its fundamental
pitch – the upper register dominates. It is for this reason that the drummer plays nearer the rim to achieve
decrescendo and piano effects.
Compared to the bass drum the snare drum's resonance is very short, owing to its smaller dimensions. The
drum's small resonant chamber means that its pitch is relatively high, somewhere in the region of one octave
above middle C. The hard drumsticks produce a particularly bright sound.

Snare Drum – Playing Techniques

Flam:
One faint beat is played as a grace note before the main stroke (lR or rL).

Drag:
Two faint beats are played as grace notes before the main stroke either as single strokes (lrL or rlR) or as a
double stroke (rrL or llR).

Three stroke ruff:

Three faint beats are played as grace notes before the main stroke: three alternate single strokes (rlrL or lrlR) or
a double stroke plus a single stroke (llrL or rrlR, or rllR and lrrL). At very fast tempos the three grace notes can
also be played as a tied trill.

Four stroke ruff:

Four faint beats before the main stroke. Possible variations: alternate single strokes (lrlrL or rlrlR) or two double
strokes (llrrL or rrllR). At very fast tempos the drummer may choose to play the four grace notes as a tied trill.

47
Paradiddle
This is one of the rudiments of drumming and is used mainly in military music. A rhythmic figure which alternates
between a pair of single strokes and a double stroke (mammy-daddy stroke): L R LL R L RR L R LL R L RR etc.
This gives the drummer the possibility of lively phrasing.

Rolls
The supreme drumming technique – a series of strokes which are not perceived as individual beats and are free
of accentuation. Rolls can be performed in various ways:
 As a rapid series of tied trills alternating between the left and right hand and overlapping. It is essential
that the sound of the drumstick making contact with the head is not heard, which is extremely difficult to
master. This type of roll is called the press or closed roll.
 As a series of double strokes (the two-stroke or ”legitimate roll”). This is the traditional roll and is
preferred by a number of orchestra percussionists. It is the open roll.
 As a series of single strokes (one-stroke roll). This technique originated on the timpani and was adopted
chiefly by rock and pop drummers in the 20th century.
Rolls have usually been notated as trills. In older scores they were also notated as tremolos.

Wire brushes
The drummer either strikes the head with the brush or firmly brushes it, which produces a bright rushing sound
(in silent films this technique was used to imitate the sound of steam locomotives).
With two brushes beating alternately rapid sequences up to roll speed are possible. This is another technique
that entered the orchestra by way of jazz.

Sound characteristics
Bright, hard, clear, precise, metallic, shrill, noise-like, sharp, penetrating, rustling, hissing, shuffling,
rattling, clattering, dry, cracking.
The sound is dependent on a number of factors:

 The snares: if the snare drum is played snares off it sounds hard, dry, dead and lower-pitched.
 The sticks: if timpani mallets (or marimba mallets) are used the sound is dark and muffled.
 Head tension: if the batter head is braced more tightly, the pitch rises.
 The shell: the deeper the shell, the darker (lower-pitched) the sound.
 The striking spot: generally in the center; the closer to the rim, the quieter the tone.

 Snare tension: the tighter the strings are tensioned, the higher the sound (slight variations only).

The term ”tone” is used when talking about drums even though the instrument does not produce a definite pitch.
The snare drum's register is somewhere in the region of one octave above middle C.
Following the attack only a short tone sounds which can last between 0.5 and 3 seconds depending on the string
tension. What is then heard, however, is only the vibration of the strings which usually takes the form of a single
tone.
The snare drum can be played from very quietly to very loudly and is quite capable of leading an entire
orchestra; it can always be heard.

48
Xylophone
 Name: Xylophone
 Spelling
o German: Xylophon
o French: xylophone
o Italian: silofono, xilofono
 Classification: Idiophone, percussion instrument with definite pitch, mallet instrument.

The term xylophone is derived from two ancient Greek words: xylon (= wood) and phoné (= sound). The name
has been in use since the 19th century. Technically, every instrument that consists of a row of wood bars of
various lengths which are arranged according to pitch and struck with mallets, is a xylophone. Nowadays the
term is more narrowly defined and refers to the European and American orchestra xylophone, the bars of which
are arranged in two rows, in the same way as piano keys.
Compared to the marimba, the xylophone has the higher and narrower range and its bars are made of a harder
wood, resulting in a brighter and more penetrating timbre. Sometimes there is even mention of the xylophone
family, which consists of the xylophone, the marimba and the xylomarimba.

Xylophone – Range
The average range of modern orchestra xylophones varies between three and four octaves.
Xylophone with three octaves: C5–C8
Xylophone with three and a half octaves: F4–C8
Xylophone with four octaves: C4–C8

Xylophone – Sound production

The orchestra xylophone consists of two parallel rows of bars. Each bar produces a different pitch; the shorter
the bar, the higher the pitch.
The bars are arranged in the same way as the keys on a piano; the low notes (= long bars) are on the left, the
nigh notes (= short bars) on the right of the musician.
When playing, the musician stands at the xylophone with the bars lying lengthwise in front of him, pointing
toward him. One or more mallets can be held in each hand. The mallets strike the bars and are constructed in
such a way that they immediately spring back and so avoid damping the vibration of the bars. If the mallet head
remains lying on the bar it is known as a dead stroke, which is used as a special effect. The mallets are held with
the palm facing downward.
The width of the bars on xylophones and other mallet instruments often varies, which can cause the musician
problems.
The xylophonist has a choice of mallets of differing hardness. Softer mallets damp the higher partials making the
timbre softer, rounder and more gentle; harder mallets favor the higher partials, making the timbre brighter,
harder and shriller.

Xylophone – Playing Techniques

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Glissando
Diatonic (white keys) and pentatonic glissandos (black keys), both singly and parallel, crosswise glissandos,
polyphonic glissandos at all tempos and dynamic shading are all possible and very effective.

Xylophone – Sound characteristics

Hard, wooden, bright, rattling, incisive, penetrating, sharp, accentuated, precise, piercing, brittle, dry,
bubbling, drop-like, shrill, hollow, ticking, transparent, clear.
What distinguishes the sound of the xylophone is the impression of precision it creates and the lack of
resonance.
A further characteristic of the instrument is that it is often difficult to hear the octave positions correctly,
especially the highest registers. This is due to the greater proportion of higher partials. Consequently it is
admissible and sometimes necessary to transpose individual xylophone parts down an octave in order to meet
the requirements of the room.
The sound depends on the diameter and hardness of the mallet head: the harder the mallet the higher the
number of partials that sound and the brighter, harder and shriller the timbre. Softer mallets damp the higher
partials, the timbre becomes darker, softer and rounder.
The point at which the bar is struck can also influence the sound.
The xylophone's timbre remains consistent throughout its compass, differences between the registers are not
distinguishable.

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The Voice
Register: A range of tones produced in the human voice by the vibrations of
the vocal folds.

Chest Voice: The lower part of the vocal register resonates particularly in the mouth or in a speaking voice.
Head Voice: The higher part of the vocal register, resonates from the nasal cavities and front of face.
Mix Voice: A mix between head and chest voice, which allows for belting and other more intense, higher gear
singing.

Vocal Techniques
Belting Bringing your chest register above a moderate volume. Usually done with a mix voice.

Diphthong Two vowel sounds occurring in the same syllable. Also known as gliding vowels.

Falsetto A vocal technique used to sing notes higher than your natural range. It’s light and airy
sound and often confused with head voice, it lies at the top of your vocal range.

Melisma The singing of a single syllable of text whilst moving to several different notes in
succession.

Octave Slurs Slurring usually with vowels from one octave to the same note of the next octave
above.

Overtone singing Harmonic singing from the throat, in which the singer manipulates the
resonances created as air travels from the lungs through the vocal cords and out of the lips to
produce a melody.

Scatting Vocal improvisation with wordless vocables. Particularly found in Jazz. Scat singing is a
difficult technique that requires singers to sing with the ability to sing improvised melodies and
rhythms, more so using the voice as an instrument.

Sirens A vocal technique used to create one voice within the registers, it is used to smooth out
breaks, flips and cracks within the voice.

Twang A nasally vocal technique used to achieve a powerful, crisp breathless head voice and to
help create one voice. When singing from your head voice and moving into your chest voice.

Vibrato Regular pulsating change of pitch to accent expression in a piece. The voice is alternating
subtly and very quickly between two different pitches that are very close together. The larynx and
diaphragm both play a part in contributing to the vibrations.

Vocal Colouring Painting the tones of your voice with emotion including bright and dark tone.

Vocal Fry A low creaky vibration caused by fluttering vocal chords or informally known as the
‘Husky Voice’.

Yodelling A form of singing that involves repeated and rapid changes of pitch and alternation
between the normal voice and falsetto.

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Musical terms found in singing
A Capella Singing without a musical accompaniment.

Accent To place emphasis on a certain word.

Aria A long song accompanying a solo voice.

Articulation The formation of clear and distinct sounds in speech.

Dynamics The different volumes of pitch.

Enunciation The act of pronouncing words clearly.

Flat When your pitch is too low.

Intervals The distance between two notes.

Intonation The rise and fall of the voice in speaking.

Pitch The sound of the notes, in singing when we talk about pitch means singing the right note.

Projection The strength of singing whereby the voice is used loudly and clearly, it commands respect and
attention.

Pronunciation The result of producing sounds of speech and the accepted standard of the sound and
syllable.

Scales Chromatic, ascending, descending.

Sharp When your pitch is too high.

Vowels Speech sound made by the vocal cords.

GENDER VOICE TYPE DESCRIPTION & RANGE

Female Soprano The highest female singing voice. From C4 to a A5.

Mezzo The range between a soprano and a contralto, mezzo

Female
Soprano soprano literally meaning half soprano. (A3-A5)

The lowest female singing voice. From the F below middle C

Female Contralto
to the second F above middle C (F3-F5)

Classical Male Singing voice from a male that has been

Castrate
Castrato castrated to achieve a higher voice. They can cover Soprano,
d Male
Mezzo Soprano and Contralto.

Classical male singing voice whose vocal range is equivalent

Male Countertenor
to the female contralto or mezzo-soprano. (G3-D5/E5)

Male Tenor One of the highest male singing voices. (C3-A4/C5)

Male Baritone Most common male voice. (F2-F4/ A2-A4)

Male Bass Lowest singing voice. (E2-E4)

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Guitar
Guitar technique (right-hand articulation)

1. Fingerpicking/fingerstyle: You either see PIMA (thumb, index, middle, ring) or T1234
(thumb, index, middle, ring, pinky) to represent which right-hand fingers to use for the various
notes.
2. Pick strokes, Flatpicking: Using a guitar pick is the alternative to fingerstyle guitar. There
is no symbol for using a pick to sound the strings though you may see symbols to indicate down
and upstrokes in guitar tab.
3. Hybrid picking: This is a hybrid of fingerstyle and Flatpicking and is commonplace in country
and bluegrass guitar, though musicians of any style will use it. You may see the Flatpicking down
and upstroke symbols along with “m” (middle) or “a” (ring) to indicate hybrid picking is required.
4. Harmonics: In case you are not aware, you can play harmonic notes by lighting touching the
strings at nodal points. The round note heads for harmonic notes are replaced by diamond shapes
and may be seen with the 8va notation.

Chord symbols
This is a relatively simple section dealing with the different methods of playing chords.
1. Chord (Symbol & Diagram): Chords are notated as notes stacked on top of each
indicating to play all the notes at the same time. You will also see either the chord symbol/name or
a chord diagram.
2. Arpeggiated Chord: A chord with notes played in rapid succession, usually ascending
(downstroke) but can be descending (upstroke), each note being sustained throughout the stroke.
It is also called a “broken chord” or “rolled chord”. This is not the same as an arpeggio (see
ornamentation section). The symbols are an up or down arrow similar to brush strokes.
3. Rasgueado: A Flamenco guitar strumming technique that uses the fingers (downstrokes) or
thumb (upstrokes) to strum chords using the fingernails. There is just an abbreviation of “rasg.”
instead of a symbol. Don’t bother with this one – it sounds weird.
4. Brushstroke: A brushstroke is similar to Rasguedo but you use the flesh part of the finger for
a softer dynamic and uses arrows but smaller than arpeggiated arrows.

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Guitar percussive techniques
The following are techniques that produce sound but not from pitches, though you will hear the
pitch slightly with some of the techniques. They involve either using the strings or an acoustic
guitar body to make the percussive sounds.

The techniques that may sound an actual pitch are the dead note effects: ghost note, palm mutes,
and rakes. You will notice this if you hold a barre chord to mute strings, strum and then move the
chord to a different position. You should hear the difference in pitch.

1. Ghost-Note: a dead note made by muting the string played with either the palm of your
picking hand or the fingers of your fretting hand.
2. Palm Mute: This is when you use the palm of your picking hand to muffle or mute the strings
that you are playing.
3. Rake: This is often 2 dead or ghost notes before playing a note. It’s common to be played as a
triplet where the first 2 beats of the triplet are dead notes.
4. Pickscrape: This is when you use your pick to scrape against the metal windings on the bass
strings, either up or down.
5. Golpe: The term Golpe is when you use your finger(s) to tap on the guitar body just below the
soundhole at the end of strum. Variations of the technique are when you use your fingers, thumb
and/or palm to hit various parts of the guitar body for different sounds. I am not sure how the
variations involving hitting the guitar body are notated.
6. Pop or Snap: This is when you pull a string away from the fretboard and let it snap back
making a “pop” sound. Not sure how this is notated.
7. Slap: This is when you use your thumb or palm of your picking hand to slap the bass strings.
Use this technique in between normal chord strums as a rhythmic device. It’s another version of a
dead note. Not sure how this one is notated.

Single note embellishments

There are only two guitar embellishments that involve a single note: Tremolo and Vibrato.

1. Tremolo: Extremely rapid up and down strokes of a single note. You want to play as fast as
possible.
2. Vibrato: Involves using the fretting hand to slightly vary the pitch of a note. It is a very slight
string bend.

Double note embellishments

The effects involving two notes are hammer-on, pull-off, trill, tapping, string bends, and slides.

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3. Hammer-on: Played by striking a note and then hammering onto a higher-pitched note to
sound the second note.
4. Pull-Off: A pull-off is the reverse of a hammer-on and is when you play the first note and then
pull off to sound the second note. Hammer-ons and pull-offs are often used together, so they can
be multi-note effects
5. Trill: Similar to a tremolo but with two notes via repeated hammer-ons and pull-offs.
6. Tapping: This is a hammer-on technique but where you use your picking hand to hammer-on
any note on a string. It makes possible hammer-ons of intervals greater than your fretting hand
can make.
7. String Bends: This is when you pluck a note then push or pull the string to sound a higher
pitch note. There are variations like the pre-bend and release.
8-10. Slides (Glissando, Portamento): A slide is when you play one note and slide up or
down to another note. You can either slide to the 2nd note and let it ring or slide and pick the 2nd
note. There are 2 other subtle slide variations: Glissando and Portamento.
Glissando is a quick large interval slide where you do not hear the individual notes as distinct
Portamento is a slow large interval slide where you do hear the individual notes between the
first note and final note
Multiple note embellishments

There are 3 embellishments in this group: arpeggio, mordent, and gruppetto.

11. Arpeggio. This is when you play the notes of a chord individually in the order of thirds such
as 1-3-5-7 for a major 7th chord. This is not the same as an arpeggiated chord.
12. Mordent: This is a 4-note riff in the pattern of target note + upper neighboring note + lower
neighboring note + target note. Or you could reverse the upper and lower. For example, with an A
note as the target note, you would play A-B-G#-A or A-G#-B-A. The neighboring notes are often
notated as grace notes with short duration.
13. Gruppetto / Turn: Similar to a Mordent but the neighboring note is played first. Using the
example for A above you would either play B-A-G#-A or G#-A-B-A.

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The Keyboard
A modern keyboard instrument that produces sounds by hammers striking strings. These
hammers are activated by keys, depressed by the performer's fingers. The piano is typically
equipped with pedals that control the dampers which stop the vibration of the strings. When the
pedal is pressed by the performer's foot, the dampers are lifted from the strings, and the strings
are allowed to vibrate freely. The muting pedal softens the volume of the piano. The piano is an
extremely popular instrument in Classical, Romantic, Post-Romantic, Modern, Jazz, Pop, Rock,
and Folk music.

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