ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES

Unit 5: Citing Sources of Information

Lesson 1: Different Citation Styles

What Are Citation Styles?

A citation is a way to give credit to the authors, scientists, researchers, and the like whose
creative and intellectual work you used to support or supplement your own research. It is
also used to conveniently locate particular sources as well as to help avoid plagiarism.
Usually, a citation includes the author’s name, date of publication, location of the publication
company, journal title, and a DOI (Digital Object Identifier).

A citation style dictates what information is necessary to include in a citation, how that
information should be organized, what punctuations are used, and other formatting concerns.

How do we choose a citation style?

There are many available citation styles to choose from, and this lesson will discuss the three
major ones often used in academic writing. How do we choose which citation style to use?
Typically, the citation style used will depend on the academic discipline involved. Below is a
general overview of the fields in which the three major citation styles are most often used:

● APA (American Psychological Association) is used in education, psychology, and the

social sciences.

● MLA (Modern Language Association) is normally used in the humanities.

● Chicago/Turabian style is often used in business, history, and fine arts, as well as in the
physical, natural, and social sciences.

This does not mean that the citation styles are unusable in fields that are not their own. These
are just the preferred styles of these fields and disciplines and thus, it is still recommended
that you use a style that matches them.
APA Citation Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) citation style began in 1929, when a
group of psychologists, anthropologists, and business managers gathered in order to establish
a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that would classify the many different components
of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading comprehension. This style is the most
used in psychology, education, and the social sciences.

The APA citation style consists of guidelines that a publisher follows to ensure the clear and
consistent presentation of written material. It concerns itself with a number of elements, such
as a selection of headings, tone, length, punctuation and abbreviations, citation of references,
and many more.

Example 1

A typical in-text citation in the APA citation style looks like this:

“There is no one pedagogy that will be effective for all kinds of students” (Tan, 2013, p. 10).

In this example, the APA citation style states the last name of the author, the year of
publication, and the page number in which the quote is found, all enclosed in parentheses.

Example 2

The APA citation style also requires a reference list at the end of the paper. A bibliographic
entry in this style is normally written like this:

Villareal, J. (2015). The psychology of children and adolescents. Hammer Publishing Inc.

A simple APA bibliographic entry includes the author, year of publication, title of the work,
and the publisher.

Example 3

When using in-text citations, you must make sure that what you have cited is accurately
included in the reference list at the end.

Jimenez states that cases of anxiety and depression in teenagers continue to rise, not because
more teenagers are getting these mental health illnesses, but because they are finally being
reported (2013, p. 133).
Jimenez, K. (2013). Why we should start talking about mental illness. Psychology Today, 2,
131-150.

In this example, an idea by the original author is paraphrased, so an in-text citation is

necessary. The bibliographic entry, which now includes an article title and the page range it
is found in, must then match the in-text citation.

MLA Citation Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) citation style is most often used in the
humanities, particularly in academic texts about language and literature. The MLA citation
style also features brief parenthetical citations in the text that should all be tied to an
alphabetical list of works cited that is placed at the end of the text.

The MLA style has a list of core elements that should always be included in the list of works
cited. The elements, in order, are the following:

1. Author
2. Title of source
3. Title of container
4. Other contributors
5. Version
6. Number
7. Publisher
8. Publication date
9. Location

In MLA, the concept of containers is crucial. If the source text being used is part of a larger
collection or whole, that larger collection can be thought of as the container of the source.
For example, when quoting from a short story, then the short story is the source, and the
anthology in which it was published is the container.
Example 1

In-text citation in the MLA citation style usually looks like this:

There is an argument that in El Filibusterismo, Jose Rizal meant to show that sometimes, a
violent revolution is unavoidable (Santos 87).

In the MLA citation style, the in-text citation must have the name of the author and the page
number where the quote or paraphrased information can be found.

Example 2

Much like the APA citation style, the MLA style also requires a works cited list at the end of
the paper. One of the entries in the list of works cited would look like this:

Samar, Edgar. Si Janus Silang at ang Tiyanak ng Tabon. Adarna House Inc., 2014.

This should provide as many of the core elements required by MLA as possible, if they are
applicable. Remember also that the second and succeeding lines should be indented, similar
to the APA style.

Example 3

Any and all in-text citations in the MLA format should also be tied to an entry in the works
cited list.

“A story coming out of another country is not our story; it is theirs. We have our own story
to tell” (Cruz-Lucero 8).

Cruz-Lucero, Rosario. “The Music on Pestle-on-Mortar.” Ang Bayan Sa Labas Ng Maynila,

pp. 1-10.

Again, provide the core elements required for the MLA citation style whenever available. In
this case, there is also an example of the source, which is “The Music on the Pestle-on-
Mortar” and the container, which is Ang Bayan Sa Labas Ng Maynila.
Chicago/Turabian Citation Style

Chicago is a citation style that has been published by the Chicago University Press since
1906. This style incorporates rules of grammar and punctuation common in American
English. The Chicago style has two basic documentation systems: (1) notes and
bibliography and (2) author-date. Choosing between one or the other is usually dependent
on the subject matter and the nature of sources cited, as each system is favored by varying
groups of scholars. The Turabian citation style follows the same format as that of the
Chicago style, with minor edits for student writers.

The notes and bibliography style is preferred in the humanities, especially by those in
literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic information in notes and,
often, a bibliography.

The author-date style is typically used by those in the physical, natural, and social sciences.
In this format, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by the author’s last
name and date of publication. The short citations are then connected to an entry in a list of
references, where the full bibliographic information for each work is given.

Example 1

In-text citation in the Chicago/Turabian author-date style looks like this:

There is a need to review what we thought we knew about our oceans (Atienza 2018, 45).

Similar to the APA style, the Chicago/Turabian author-date style also requires the year of
publication in the in-text citation alongside the author’s last name and the page number
where the information can be found.

Example 2

The works cited through in-text citation in the author-date style should also be listed in the
list of references:

“Basic knowledge of physics is more useful in our daily lives than you think” (Jacobs 2012,
111).

Jacobs, Jacob M. 2012. Physics for the Everyday. All About the Sciences 20:111-18.
In the Chicago/Turabian style, the page numbers can be simplified if the leftmost number(s)
are unchanged. Meaning, 111-18 means pages 111 to 118.

Example 3

The notes and bibliography style normally features footnotes or endnotes and then a
bibliography entry at the end. How the works are cited varies depending on whether they are
a note or the bibliography entry.

Note Style: 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in Plato’s Republic," Classical Philology
104
(2009): 440.
Duplicate Note: 2. Weinstein, "Plato’s Republic," 452–53.
Bibliography: Weinstein, Joshua I. "The Market in Plato’s Republic." Classical Philology
104
(2009): 439–58.
The first note style is when the source cited is first used. The duplicate note is used if the
same source is cited again later on in the paper. These take the place of in-text citations. The
bibliography entry is then added to a compilation of bibliographies, usually at the end of the
paper.

Lesson 2: Writing In-Text Citations, Endnotes, and Footnotes

In-Text Citations in APA Format (7th Edition)

The APA citation follows the author-date method for in-text citations. The author’s last
name and the year of publication should appear in the written text.

Capitalization and Italics

These are the rules for capitalization for in-text citation in APA format:

● Capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials.

● Capitalize all words that are four letters or longer within the title of the source.
● Exceptions to the previous rule apply to short words in the forms of verbs, nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
● Capitalize the first word after a colon.
● Italicize the title of a reference if it is italicized in the reference list.
● If it is not italicized in the references list, use double quotation marks.

Short Quotations

For short direct quotations, include the author’s name, year of publication, and page number.
Introduce the direct quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author’s last name,
followed by the year of publication in parentheses. The page number should be indicated
after the direct quotation. If a signal phrase was not used, place the author, year, and page
number in parentheses. Use “p.” to note if the quotation was taken from one page of the text,
and “pp.” if the quotation spans several pages.

Long Quotations

For quotations that utilize 40 words or more, use a block of typewritten lines and omit
quotation marks. The quote should start from a ½ inch tab from the left margin, and keep the
subsequent paragraphs indented until the end of the direct quotation. The double-spaced
format should be maintained. The parenthetical citation should follow the direct quotation.

Why should a writer be conscious of the format in using different citation styles?

Quotations from Sources Without Page Numbers

If there are references that do not contain the page numbers, there should be a reference from
another identifying element, such as a paragraph, chapter number, section, etc. It should act
as a substitute for the page number.

Summary or Paraphrase

The page numbers can be omitted if the reference was summarized or paraphrased. The
author and year of publication should be cited. Writers are still encouraged to indicate page
numbers, especially if the paraphrased texts are longer.

Citations for Authors

If two or more authors did the research, the parenthetical citation should cite the writers.
Citing a two-author study should include the names of authors with an “&” in between their
names and the year of publication. If there are more than two researchers, mention only the
first author then add “et al.” with the publication date in the in-text citation.
If there is no cited author for the study, the title of the source should be cited using the
capitalization rules of APA with the date of publication.

Why is it important to recognize the work of different authors?

If an organization, such as a government agency or a nonprofit organization, is the author of

the paper, mention the name of the said organization in full for the first citation. Succeeding
times should use the abbreviation, followed by the date of publication.

Lastly, if there is a need for multiple citations that use two or more different references, cite
the authors in the order they are mentioned in the reference list.

Example 1

Rabiger (2010) states that the film is a production consciousness, where all the characters
have their respective consciousness. Each character has its own psychological state of
consciousness, in which each character has the awareness to perform an activity in a film. It
is a production of psychological conditions that were provided by the main character. It has
an important role in the movie. Weijers as cited in Kleemans, et.al (2017:2) stated that the
main character propels the story forward because she or he is confronted with a problem that
requires a response. The character is put in a (moral) predicament, acts according to his or
her specific character traits and as a result, the plot develops and the character changes.

Source: “Social Relationships of the Main Characters in Rowling's Fantastic Beast and
Where to Find Them” by Euis Meinawati, Herlin Widasiwi Setianingrum, Jimmi Jimmi, and
Eggi Winata

(http://jurnal.unswagati.ac.id/index.php/RILL/article/view/2074)

How can you practice utilizing in-text citations in APA format?

Example 2

Jesper Juul (2005) voices his concerns about delineating the enjoyable ingredients of games
by emphasizing that:

[. . .] there is ultimately no one-sentence description of what makes all games

fun; different games emphasize different types of enjoyment and different
 players may even enjoy the same game for entirely different reasons. (Juul
2005, p. 19)

Despite the complexity of the phenomenon and the multitude of game genres, most gamified
applications seem to be relying on a simple point-based structure, which is believed to
provide enjoyment in all possible contexts. To gamification evangelists such as Zichermann
(2010), the formula is simple: “If air-trafficking can be fun, anything can be fun.”

Source: “Why Fun Matters: In Search of Emergent Playful Experiences” by Sonia Fizek
(https://doi.org/10.14619/001)

Explanation

Example 2 utilizes a long quotation from the reference. The author’s name, Jesper Juul, was
mentioned following the year of publication in parentheses (2005). Following the rules of in-
text citation for APA format, the long quotation starts with a new paragraph, and the entire
block of text is indented. Additionally, the citation found at the end of the quotation includes
the author, publication, and the page numbers where it was taken directly from the text (Juul
2005, p. 19). A short quotation is also found at the end of the example, with the author’s
name and year of publication.

Footnotes in APA Format (7th Edition)

APA recommends the limited use of footnotes for research. Footnotes and endnotes in APA
format are utilized for content and copyright purposes.

Format

A number should be formatted in superscript after the text that requires additional
information.

The footnotes should be found on the bottom of the page where they appear. It is also
possible to put all footnotes after the References section of the paper. It should be labeled
“Footnotes,” and each line per footnote should be indented.
Content

Footnotes for the content should provide supplemental material for the readers. It should be
short, and the information included should strengthen the discussion of the paper. Content
notes can also reference additional references found online for the reader.

Copyright

If the paper has directly quoted more than 500 words from the reference, there is a need to
seek permission to use the said reference. This kind of footnote requires the use of “From” if
it is a direct reprint or “Adapted from” for adaptations.

Example 1

In 1875 he [Isawa] enrolled in the Bridgewater Normal School, Massachusetts, and attended
all the courses, including music. In his memoirs, written in 1912 in his old age, he confessed
that he had found vocal music terribly hard to learn, especially singing in the Western
heptatonic scale, while in all other subjects he had always managed to obtain higher than
average notes. However, during his stay in Boston he had the chance to meet somebody who
helped³ him overcome his problem, Luther Whiting Mason (1818-1896). Mason was one of
the main US experts in music education for primary public instruction, and it appears that the
Japanese government already knew of him before he met Isawa in person.4

3 About L. W. Mason, see entry by Bonlyn Hall in The New Grove

Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., London, Macmillan, 2001, XVI,
p. 37.

4 Y. OKUNAKA, Kokka to ongaku: Isawa Shūji ga mezashita nippon kindai

[State and music: the modernization of Japan pursued by Shūji Isawa],
Tokyo, Shunjūsha, 2008, pp. 139-151.

Source: “The Teaching of Music History in Japanese Music Education” by Midori Sonoda
(https://doaj.org/article/00b6e0ce43d04ae4bdeffff7491fb4a1)
Explanation

In this example, two footnotes display additional information about the subject, the musician
Shūji Isawa. The first footnote denotes a reference about Mason, while the second footnote
denotes a reference that mentions Mason and Isawa’s professional relationship.

In-Text Citations in MLA Format

MLA format also uses parenthetical citations. The in-text citation is usually placed at the end
of the sentence or paragraph. The format generally utilizes author-page numbers.

Citing Authors and Works

As the citation style cites the author and page number, it can be presented in two different
ways. The sentence may have a signal statement, which must include the author’s name and
the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, or a direct quotation or
paraphrase, then have the author and page number in parentheses. No comma should be used
between the author and page number.

If there are different authors with the same last name, be sure to include the first initial of the
author’s name to differentiate the writers from one another.

Two authors should be cited within the in-text citation using the conjunction “and” in
between their names. If there are more than two authors, use only the first author name
mentioned in the reference and add “et al.” to denote the other authors.

If there is no known author, the title of the reference should be placed in the parenthesis.

Short Quotations
The quotation should be placed in double quotation marks, then provide the author and page
number of the said quotation. The in-text citation and punctuation marks should come after
the quotation marks.

Why is it essential to have two different formats for the short and long quotations?

Long Quotations

Long quotations are more than three lines in length and should omit the quotation marks.
The quotation should start on a new line with a ½ inch indentation, and the entire quotation
should follow that indentation format. When quoting two or more paragraphs, the first lines
of the succeeding paragraphs should be indented with an additional ¼ inch.

Adding or Omitting Quotations

Words that are not part of the original text should be placed in brackets in the in-text
references. Words which have been omitted should be replaced with ellipsis points and
additional space (...).

Example 1

Alcohol might help you relax, but it can be disruptive. People usually drink alcohol at night
and fall asleep, especially if it’s early in the evening. However, Reen et al. warned that:

After the alcohol has metabolized though, usually after three to four hours,
you’ll most likely wake up and have difficulties falling back to sleep... If
drinking alcohol in the evening can’t be helped, do so four to five hours
before your bedtime. Don’t nap and drink lots of water to help you remove
the alcohol out. Your sleep is guaranteed to be restful after (1321-22).

Explanation

The paragraph utilized a long quotation cited from the authors, Reen et al., which spanned
two pages, according to the in-text citation. The quotation also omitted some information, as
indicated by the use of ellipses.

Example 2
With all of the responsibilities that we have to face in our everyday lives, it can be hard to
get the recommended amount of sleep. However, “sleep has significant roles in recovery,
energy conservation, and survival” (Shepard et al. 62). It offers our body the chance to
recover from the stresses of daily life. Not only does our body rest during sleep, but “...it also
means that our cells focus on regenerating themselves and the body temperature, heart rate,
and breathing drop to conserve energy” (Cappuccio 590). True, our body can still do all of
these when we’re awake, but it more optimally does so when we’re asleep.

Explanation

The researcher utilized two short quotations for the in-text citations. There are words omitted
from the short quotation, as represented by the ellipses. The two quotations are quoted within
another sentence, utilizing the MLA format for in-text citations correctly.

How does knowing the page number of the reference help the readers?

Example 3

Sleep constitutes one-third of our lives, according to Aminoff et al. (vii). It is a state longer
than the time dedicated for “making love, raising children, eating, playing games, listening to
music, or any of those other activities that humanity values so highly,” (Martin 463).
However, given the situation today, we often take sleep for granted. We think it is optional,
when in fact, we can “survive longer without food” and suffer heavy consequences such as
“depressed mood, impaired performance, damaged social relationships and poorer health”
when we get insufficient sleep (Martin 464).

Explanation

The researcher utilized three in-text citations, in two of which she quotes the same author.
The writer cites Martin as the author, and the first short quotation is taken from page 463 of
the book. The second quotation comes from page 464, wherein the researcher utilized the
author-page number format for the in-text citation.
Why would an author need to utilize explanatory footnotes?

Footnotes and Endnotes in MLA Format

Footnotes and endnotes in MLA should be limited as well, as it can be distracting for the
reader. It can be used for bibliographic notes that the reader may consult for additional
references. Footnotes and endnotes can also be used for explanatory or content notes, which
add brief additional information.

Format

A superscript indicates the footnote or endnote after a punctuation mark. The referencing
page for footnotes should be placed before the Works Cited page. The footnotes and
endnotes should be listed in chronological order as they appear in the text, with each entry
indented for ½ inch.

Example 1

This meant that musicology in Japan ceased to be a discipline reserved for a few committed,
dynamic scholars, and began to acquire a consistent institutional profile16. In 1963 a further,
higher study level was introduced, equivalent to the US Master’s degree, while in 1977, the
Ph.D. was introduced. About 20 university institutes across the whole national territory
established a Musicology Department or course17.

16 For a lively report on the state of musicology in Japan at that time, see F.
Y. NOMURA, Musicology in Japan since 1945, «Acta Musicologica»,
XXXV, 1963, pp. 47-53.

17 About the current situation, see for example Ongaku daigaku, gakkō
an’nai, 2013 nendo [Annual guide for music institutes of various levels,
Academic Year 2013], Tokyo, Ongaku no tomosha, 2012. For an overview
of different music genres of today, including the traditional ones, see The
Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, ed. by A. McQueen
Tokita and D. W. Hughes, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2008 (see especially the first
chapter: Context and Change in Japanese Music, pp. 1-33).
 Source: “The Teaching of Music History in Japanese Music Education” by
Midori Sonoda
(https://doaj.org/article/00b6e0ce43d04ae4bdeffff7491fb4a1)

Explanation

The paragraph contains two footnotes about Japanese music. The first footnote refers to
additional resources for the reader. The second footnote is an explanatory footnote to explain
the concept of establishing music courses in Japan. This footnote references three different
sources for the reader.

Which format may be easier for beginner researchers to use?

Author-Date (AD) Style in Chicago Format

Format

The author-date style in Chicago Manual of Style, also known as CMoS, requires the in-text
citation to be in parenthetical format. It should include the author, publication date, and page
numbers for direct quotations and paraphrases. No punctuation is included between the
author’s name and date of publication, but a comma should be used between the date of
publication and page numbers. The in-text citation is placed after a quotation mark and
before the punctuation mark in a sentence.

If there is no author to be cited, the title of the reference should be used in the citation. If
there is no page number indicated for the in-text citation, utilize another kind of marker to
indicate its location in the original text:

● Section (sec.)
● Volume (vol.)
● Equation (eq.)
● Note (not.)
Short Quotations

The quotation should be placed in a double quotation mark, then provide the author and page
number of the said quotation. The in-text citation and punctuation marks should come after
the quotation marks.

Long Quotations

Long quotations require block paragraphs. The quotation should start on a new line with a ½
inch indentation. If the author and publication date is part of the introductory sentence before
the long quotation, only the page number should be placed in parentheses at the end.

Lesson 3: Writing a Bibliography

A reference list or works cited list is slightly different from a bibliography as it only lists
the sources that you referred to, summarized, paraphrased, or quoted in your paper. Aside
from that, they serve mostly the same purpose.

The purpose of the bibliography or reference list is to help your readers find the sources that
you used in your paper. It also allows you to give proper credit to the authors and researchers
whom you consulted for their ideas. All sources that you have cited in your paper must
appear in your reference list, except for personal communications (for example,
conversations or emails) which cannot be retrieved.

Bibliography in APA

The APA citation style has a specific formatting guide for your bibliography or references
list. The table below lists the necessary information.
Example 1
Here is an example of a bibliography entry in APA.

Ocampo, J. (2015). How poverty affects health. In N. Galvez (Ed.), The health situation in
 the Philippines (pp. 85–98). University of the Philippines Press.

In this example, the reference is a book chapter. The author and the chapter title are given
first. The editor of the entire book is given after the chapter title, followed by the book’s title
in italics. The page range that follows is where the chapter can be found. The entry ends with
the press that published the book.

Example 2
Here is an example of two references with the same author and published in the same year:

Rush, E., McLennan, S., Obolonkin, V., Cooper, R., & Hamlin, M. (2015a). Beyond the
randomised controlled trial and BMI--evaluation of effectiveness of through-school
nutrition and physical activity programmes. Public Health Nutrition, 18(9), 1578–
1581.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014003322.
Rush, E. C., Obolonkin, V., Battin, M., Wouldes, T., & Rowan, J. (2015b). Body
composition
in offspring of New Zealand women: Ethnic and gender differences at age 1–3 years in
2005–2009. Annals of Human Biology, 42(5), 492–497.

Take note of the use of “a” and “b” after the year of publication. Don’t forget to include
them in your in-text citation as well.

Example 3
Here are examples of entries with multiple authors:

For references with two to twenty authors:

Szcz Ę Sna, A., Nowak, A., Grabiec, P., Paszkuta, M., Tajstra, M., & Wojciechowska, M.
(2017). Survey of wearable multi-modal vital parameters measurement systems.
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 526. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
319-47154-9_37.
Instructions: List all of the authors in the source. The ampersand is used before the last
author.

For references with more than 20 authors:

Kasabov, N., Scott, N. M., Tu, E., Marks, S., Sengupta, N., Capecci, E., . . . Yang, J. (2016).
Evolving spatio-temporal data machines based on the NeuCube neuromorphic
framework: Design methodology and selected applications. Neural Networks, 78, 1-
14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2015.09.011.

Instructions: The ampersand is no longer used. List the first 20 authors, then follow the 20th
author with ellipses (...). Then, write the name of the last author. The rest of the information
continues as normal.

Bibliography in MLA
In MLA, the reference list is referred to as the works cited page. It is also found at the end of
a paper and should also give the complete information on any sources used in your paper.
The title “Works Cited” is also included, capitalized and centered at the beginning of the
page. These are the most important format rules in the MLA citation style:
● Double line spacing (but no extra space between entries)
● One-inch margins
● Hanging indent on entries that run over one line
● Alphabetized by the author’s last name

The MLA style provides a general format of the nine core elements that you can include for
any source. The format is:
Author. Title. Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Date, Location.
Include only the elements that are relevant to the source you are citing.
When arranging the entries in your works cited page, order them alphabetically, by the first
author’s last name.