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Topic - 1: Logarithms
● 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) =𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
● 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥/𝑦) =𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
● 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
● 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 1/𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
● 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 =𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑎/𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑏 → 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
● 𝑎 =𝑥
Topic - 2: Trigonometry
● 𝜋 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180𝑜 = 200 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 +𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 = 1
● 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1 +𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑠𝑐2 𝜃 = 1 +𝑐𝑜𝑡2 𝜃
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≥ 0 in the first and second quadrant.
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ≥ 0 in the first and fourth quadrant.
● 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≥ 0 in the first and third quadrant.
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 ) =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 + 𝜃 ] = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 ) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 + 𝜃 ] = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2𝑛𝜋 − 𝜃 ) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 − 𝜃 ] =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (𝜋/2) ± 𝜃 ] =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝜋/2) ± 𝜃 ] = ∓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 ∗ 𝜋) = 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋/2 ] = 0
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 ± 𝜑) =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 ±𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 ± 𝜑) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 ∓𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑
● 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝜃 ± 𝜑) = [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ±𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 ]/[ 1 ∓𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 ]
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ±𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (𝜃 ± 𝜙)/2 ] ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝜃 ∓ 𝜙)/2 ]
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 2 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝜃 + 𝜙)/2 ] ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝜃 − 𝜙)/2 ]
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (𝜃 + 𝜙)/2 ] ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ (𝜙 − 𝜃)/2 ]
● 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝜙) +𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 − 𝜙)
● 2 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) +𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽)
● 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) −𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2 ∗ 𝜃) = 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2 ∗ 𝜃) =𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 2 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 − 1 = 1 − 2 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3 ∗ 𝜃) = 3 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 4 ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3 ∗ 𝜃) = 4 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝜃 − 3 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (3 ∗ 𝜃) = ( 3 ∗𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 −𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 )/(1 − 3 ∗𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃)
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝜙) ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 − 𝜙) =𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜙 −𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 + 𝜑) ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − 𝜑)
𝑠𝑖𝑛[ 𝛼+{ (𝑛−1)/2 } ∗ 𝛽 ]
● ∑𝑛−1
𝑘=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝛽) = ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝛽/2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽/2)

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𝑐𝑜𝑠[ 𝛼+{ (𝑛−1)/2 } ∗ 𝛽 ]

● ∑𝑛−1
𝑘=0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝛽) = ∗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝛽/2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽/2)
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 ∗ 𝐵
● 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 𝐵
● 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝐵
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Topic - 3: Inverse Trigonometric Function

● Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions -
○ 𝑥 ∈ [ −1, 1 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ∈ [ −𝜋/2, 𝜋/2 ]
○ 𝑥 ∈ [ −1, 1 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ∈ [ 0, 𝜋 ]
○ 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, ∞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ∈ ( −𝜋/2, 𝜋/2 )
● Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions -
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑥
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = 𝑥
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑥
○ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 =𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (1/𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| ≥ 1
○ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 (1/𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 ≥ 1|
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑡−1 𝑥 =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1/𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑡−1 𝑥 = 𝜋 +𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 −𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑡−1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 −𝑐𝑜𝑡−1 𝑥
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 +𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥 = 𝜋/2
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 +𝑐𝑜𝑡−1 𝑥 = 𝜋/2
○ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 +𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 = 𝜋/2
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 +𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ (𝑥 + 𝑦) ÷ (1 − 𝑥𝑦) ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝑥𝑦 < 1
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ (𝑥 − 𝑦) ÷ (1 + 𝑥𝑦) ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ 𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 1
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥 −𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑦 =𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 [ 𝑥𝑦 − √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 𝑦
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ 2𝑥/(1 + 𝑥 2 ) ] = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑥| ≤ 1
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 [ (1 − 𝑥 2 )/(1 + 𝑥 2 ) ] = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≥ 0
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ 2𝑥/(1 − 𝑥 2 ) ] = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑥| < 1
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 ) = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑥| ≤ 1/2
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 (4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥) = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 1/2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑥| ≤ 1/√2
○ 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 ( 2𝑥 2 − 1 ) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

Topic - 4: Quadratic Equation

● 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = (1/2𝑎)(−𝑏 ± 𝐷) where 𝐷 = √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
● If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −𝑏/𝑎 and 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = 𝑐/𝑎
● 𝐷 > 0 ⇒ Roots are real
● 𝐷 = 0 ⇒ Roots are real and identical
● 𝐷 < 0 ⇒ Roots are Imaginary

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● If 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is one root then 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 must be the other root.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
● Roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝛼𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 = 0 then = =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
● If 𝑎 , 𝑏 ≥ 0 then 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≥ 2 ∗ √𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
● If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑎 > 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ ( 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )/4𝑎
● If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑎 < 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ( 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 2 )/4𝑎
● 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 can be resolved into two linear factors if and only if
𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑎𝑓 2 − 𝑏𝑔2 − 𝑐ℎ2 = 0

Topic - 5: Sequence and Series

● If the first term is 𝑎 and common difference is 𝑑 then the 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of AP is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1) ∗ 𝑑
𝑛 𝑛
● ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1) ∗ 𝑑 = [ 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] = (𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
2 2
● If 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵 then 𝑎 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and 𝑑 = 𝐵
● If 𝑆𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛2 + 𝐵𝑛 then 𝑎 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and 𝑑 = 2 ∗ 𝐴
● The Arithmetic Mean of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is (𝑎 + 𝑏) / 2
● If 𝑎 , 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , . . . , 𝐴𝑛 , 𝑏 are in AP with 𝐴𝑘 (𝑘 = 1,2,3, . . . , 𝑛) is the Arithmetic Mean, then the
common difference is 𝑑 = (𝑏 − 𝑎)/(𝑛 + 1)
● If the first term is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟 then the 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of GP is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑘−1 𝑎 ∗ (𝑟 𝑛 −1)
● ∑𝑘=1 𝑎 ∗ 𝑟 = where 𝑟 ≠ 1
𝑟−1
𝑎
● ∑∞ 𝑘=1 𝑎 ∗ 𝑟 𝑘−1 = where |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟
● The Geometric Mean of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is √𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
● If 𝑎 , 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , . . . , 𝐺𝑛 , 𝑏 are in GP with 𝐺𝑘 (𝑘 = 1,2,3, . . . , 𝑛) are the Geometirc Mean, then the
common ratio is 𝑟 = (𝑏/𝑎)1/(𝑛+1)
● If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 > 0 are terms in GP then 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎1 ,𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎2 ,𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎3 , . . . ,𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑛 are in AP
● If the first term is 𝑎 and the common difference is 𝑑 then the 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of HP is 𝑎𝑛 = 1 / [ 𝑎 +
(𝑛 − 1) ∗ 𝑑 ]
● The Harmonic Mean of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is 2𝑎𝑏/(𝑎 + 𝑏)
● 𝐴𝑀 ≥ 𝐺𝑀 ≥ 𝐻𝑀
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
● ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑘 = 𝑛
, ∑𝑘=1 𝑘2 = 𝑛
and ∑𝑘=1 𝑘3 =
2 6
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
4

Topic - 6: Binomial Theorem

● (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑛 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 +. . . + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
● The (𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is 𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
● 𝐶𝑥 = 𝐶𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑛
● 𝐶𝑟−1 + 𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛+1 𝐶𝑟
𝐶𝑘 2𝑛+1 −1 𝐶 1
● ∑𝑛𝑘=0 = 𝑛
and ∑𝑘=0 (−1)𝑘 𝑘 =
𝑘+1 𝑛+1 𝑘+1 𝑛+1
2
● 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 +. . . +𝐶𝑛 = 2𝑛 and 𝐶0 2 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2 +. . . +𝐶𝑛 2 =2𝑛 𝐶𝑛
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● The greatest coefficient of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is 𝐶𝑛/2 is 𝑛 is even or 𝐶(𝑛−1)/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(𝑛+1)/2 if 𝑛 is odd.
● (1 + 𝑥)𝑘 = 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)𝑥 2 /2! + 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)𝑥 3 /3!+. . . ∞ if 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅
● (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 +. . . ∞
● (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 +. . . ∞
∞ 𝑥𝑘 ∞ 𝑥 𝑘
● 𝑒 = ∑𝑘=0
𝑥
and 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥) = ∑𝑘=1 (−1)𝑘+1 where 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑘! 𝑘

Topic - 7: Complex Numbers

● If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 then 𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
● 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑒(𝑧), 𝑧 − 𝑧 = 2 ∗ 𝑖 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) and 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
● |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑦/𝑥)
● 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) + 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 ) , 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 /𝑧2 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) − 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 ) and 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧 𝑛 ) = 𝑛 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧)
● 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 where 𝑟 is the magnitude and 𝜃 is the argument.
● Euler’s Formula is 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
● 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 and 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
● If 𝑓(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 then 𝑓(𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽) = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
● The triangle inequalities are | 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ | 𝑧1 | + | 𝑧2 | and | 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ | | 𝑧1 | − | 𝑧2 | |
● If 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) then 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝜃) ], this is De Moiver’s Theorem
−1 + 𝑖√3 −1 − 𝑖√3
● Cube Root of Unity is 1, 𝜔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 where 𝜔 = and 𝜔2 =
2 2
2 2
● 1 ∗ 𝜔 ∗ 𝜔 = 1 and 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔 = 0
● 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎 = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝜔 + 𝑐𝜔2 )(𝑎 + 𝑏𝜔2 + 𝑐𝜔)
● 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎𝜔 + 𝑏𝜔2 )(𝑎𝜔2 + 𝑏𝜔)
● 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 𝜔)(𝑥 − 𝜔2 )
● If 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) then 𝑧1/𝑛 = 𝑟1/𝑛 [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {(𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘)/𝑛} + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 {(𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘)/𝑛} ]
● Equation of a Circle with center 𝑧0 and radius 𝑟 is | 𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟

Topic - 8: Matrices
● Sum of diagonal elements or the Trace of a Matrix is 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖𝑖 .
● Two Matrices [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] are equal then 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 .
● [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝑘 ∗ [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑘 ∗ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ].
𝑛
● Define 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝐵𝑛×𝑝 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], then 𝐴𝐵 = [∑𝑘=1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 ⋅ 𝑏𝑘𝑗 ].
● Cayley-Hamilton’s Theorem: | 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0 where 𝜆 is the Eigenvalue.
● Commutative Property of Matrix Addition → 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴.
● Associative Property of Matrix Addition → (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶).
● Associative Property of Matrix Multiplication → (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶).
● Distributive Property of Matrices → 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴.
● Define 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑁 then 𝐴𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑛+𝑚 , (𝐴𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝐴𝑛𝑚 and 𝐼 𝑛 = 𝐼 where 𝐼 is the Identity Matrix.
● Orthogonal Matrix → 𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐼.
● Symmetric Matrix → 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 and Skew-Symmetric Matrix 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴.
● The diagonal elements of a Skew-Symmetric Matrix are 0, that is 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0.
● 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴| 𝐼𝑛 ⇒ | 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 | = | 𝐴 |𝑛−1 .
● 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = | 𝐴 |𝑛−2 𝐴 and | 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) | = | 𝐴 |(𝑛−1)(𝑛−1) .
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● 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴𝐵) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐵)(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) and 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 where 𝑘 is a constant.

1
● The Inverse of a Matrix is 𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴, the inverse exists only when | 𝐴 | ≠ 0.
|𝐴|
● Inverse of a Matrix Product is (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1.
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
● The solution to the system of equations 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 is 𝑋 = 𝐵 where | 𝐴 | ≠ 0.
|𝐴|
● If | 𝐴 | ≠ 0 but (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 = 0 then the solution is 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0.
● If | 𝐴 | = 0 and (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 = 0 then the system of equations has Infinite Solutions.
● If | 𝐴 | = 0 and (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 ≠ 0 then there is NO Solution.

Topic - 9: Determinants
● For an 𝑛 × 𝑛 Determinant, if 𝑎𝑘 is the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ element in 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row with Cofactor 𝐴𝐾 , then the value of
𝑛
hte Determinant is ∑𝑘=1 𝑎𝑘 𝐴𝑘 .
● The value of the Determinant does not change if the rows and columns are interchanged.
● Interchanging the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row with (𝑖 ± 1) 𝑡ℎ row will change the sign of the Determinant.
● If any two rows (or columns) are proportional then the Determinant evaluates to Zero.

● .

● Row Operation → .

● If the Determinant is then its derivative is written

as

.
● Multiplication of Determinants → | [ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] | ∗ | [ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] | = | [ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∗ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] |.
● Determinant of a Skew-Symmetric Matrix is Zero.

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● .

● If we have 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 ∀ 𝑘 = 1,2,3 then the solution using the Cramer’s Rule is 𝑥 =

𝛥1 / 𝛥, 𝑦 = 𝛥2 / 𝛥 and 𝑧 = 𝛥3 / 𝛥 where 𝛥1 , 𝛥2 , 𝛥3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛥 are as shown

Topi - 10: Properties and Solutions of a Triangle

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
● The Law of Sine is = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
𝑏 +𝑐 −𝑎2
2 2
● The Law of Cosine is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐
𝑎−𝑏
● The Law of Tangent is 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ (𝐴 − 𝐵)/2 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝐴/2)
𝑎+𝑏
● The Projection Formula is 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
(𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 𝛥 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
● 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴/2) = √ , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴/2) = √ and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴/2) = where 𝑠 =
𝑏𝑐 𝑏𝑐 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 2
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
● Area of a Triangle is 𝛥 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where 𝑠 =
2
√3 2
● Area of an Equilateral Triangle is 𝛥𝑒𝑞 = 𝑙 where 𝑙 is the length of each side of the triangle.
4
1 1 1
● Area of a Triangle given an angle is 𝛥 = 2 𝑏𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = 2 𝑐𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶

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𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
● Radius of the Circumcenter is 𝑅 = = = =
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 4𝛥
● Radius of Incircle is 𝑟 = 𝛥/𝑠 = (𝑠 − 𝑎) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐴/2) = (𝑠 − 𝑏) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐵/2) = (𝑠 − 𝑐) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐶/2)
𝛥 𝛥 𝛥
● Radius of Excircle is 𝑟1 = , 𝑟2 = and 𝑟3 =
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏 𝑠−𝑐
1
● Length of Median from angle 𝐴 is 𝑚𝐴 = 2 √2𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 𝑎2
2 2

2𝑏𝑐
● Length of Angle Bisector of 𝐴 is 𝑏𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴/2)
𝑏+𝑐
𝑎
● Length of Altitude from 𝐴 is ℎ𝐴 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐶
2 2 2 3
● 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑏𝐴 + ℎ𝐴 = ( 𝑎2 + 𝑏 + 𝑐2 )
2
4
● For an Isosceles Triangle 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
𝑎 𝑎
● 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝜋/𝑛) and 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (𝜋/𝑛) for a Regular Polygon with 𝑛 sides and side length 𝑎
2 2
● Area of a Cyclic Quadrilateral with sides 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 is 𝛥 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑)
where 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)/2
● Ptolemy’s Theorem is 𝐴𝐶 ∗ 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑

Topic - 11: Straight Lines

● 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 where 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝜃 =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑦/𝑥)
● Distance Formula in 2-D is 𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1
● Coordinates for Internal Division is ( , )
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑥2 −𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 −𝑛𝑦1
● Coordinates for External Division is ( , )
𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3
● Coordinates of the Centroid is ( , )
3 3
𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑥2 +𝑐𝑥3 𝑎𝑦1 +𝑏𝑦2 +𝑐𝑦3
● Coordinates of Incenter is ( , )
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

● Area of a Triangle with vertices (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is

Latex Code:

● Equation of 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is 𝑦 = 0 and the Equation of 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is 𝑥 = 0

𝑦2 −𝑦1
● Slope of a line is given as 𝑚 =
𝑥2 −𝑥1
● Slope Intercept Form of a Line: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
● Point Slope Form of a Line: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

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𝑦2 −𝑦1
● Two Point Form of a Line: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
𝑥 𝑦
● Intercept Form of a Line: + =1
𝑎 𝑏
● Normal Form of a Line: 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑝
● Parametric Form of a Line: 𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
● General Form of a Line: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑚 −𝑚2
Angle between two lines is 𝜃 = ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1
●
1+𝑚1 𝑚2 )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
● Lines are Parallel if and only if 𝑎1 = 1 ≠ 𝑐1
2 𝑏2 2
● Lines are Perpendicular if and only if 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
● Lines are Coincident if and only if 𝑎1 = 1 = 𝑐1
2 𝑏2 2
𝑎1 𝑏1
● Lines are Intersecting if and only if 𝑎 ≠
2 𝑏2

● Length of Perpendicular from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is

● Distance between two Parallel Lines is

● Line parallel to 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 has the equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0 where 𝑐 ≠ 𝑘
● Line perpendicular to 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 𝜆 = 0

● Three lines of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 are concurrent if and only if

● Linear Translation of axes by (𝛼, 𝛽): 𝑥𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑥 − 𝛼 and 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑦 − 𝛽
● Rotation of axes by angle 𝜃 anti-clockwise: 𝑥𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑤 = −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● Equation of the line passing through the intersection of 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 =
0 is 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 + 𝜆(𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 ) = 0
● 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is the equation for pair of straight lines if and only if

or 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑎𝑓 2 − 𝑏𝑔2 − 𝑐ℎ2 = 0

● For a pair of straight line 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, angle between them is 𝜃 =
2
2√ℎ −𝑎𝑏
± 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
( 𝑎+𝑏
). Lines are Perpendicular if 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑥𝑦
● Equation of the Angle Bisectors of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 0 is =
𝑎−𝑏 ℎ
● Pair of Straight Lines perpendicular to 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 0 is 𝑏𝑥 2 − 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 2 = 0
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● Coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular (ℎ, 𝑘) from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is
ℎ−𝑥1 𝑘−𝑦1 𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
= = −
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 +𝑏2
ℎ−𝑥1
● Coordinate (ℎ, 𝑘) of the image of a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) over the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is =
𝑎
𝑘−𝑦1 2 ∗ (𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐)
= −
𝑏 𝑎2 +𝑏2

Topic - 12: Circle

● Standard Equation of a Circle is (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 where the centre is (ℎ, 𝑘) with Radius
𝑟.
● General Equation of a Circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 where the coordinates of the centre
is (−𝑔, −𝑓) with Radius √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐.
● If 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 = 0 then the Circle is actually the point (−𝑔, −𝑓).
● If 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 < 0 then the Circle is Imaginary.
● If the end-points of the Diameter are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), then the Equation of the Circle is (𝑥 −
𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) = 0.
● The parametric form of (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 is 𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃.
● The parametric form of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is 𝑥 = −𝑔 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ⋅ √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 and 𝑦 =
−𝑘 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ⋅ √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐.
● The point (𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼) is simply written as point 𝛼.
● The equation of a line joining the points 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {(𝛼 + 𝛽)/2} +
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 {(𝛼 + 𝛽)/2} = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {(𝛼 − 𝛽)/2}.
● Define 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 and (𝑎, 𝑏) is any arbitrary point, then -
○ If 𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏) = 0 ⇒ The point is on the boundary of the Circle.
○ If 𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏) < 0 ⇒ The point lies inside the Circle.
○ If 𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏) > 0 ⇒ The point lies outside the Circle.
● For 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , the Equation of the Tangent at (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑟 2 .
● For 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , the Equation of the Tangent at (𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) is 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑟.
● Two Tangents at points 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 of the Circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 intersects each other at the point

● The Equation of Tangent for the Circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 0.
● Equation of the Tangent on the Circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± 𝑟 ⋅ √1 + 𝑚2 .
● Equation of the Tangent on the Circle (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 with Slope 𝑚 is written as 𝑦 −
𝑘 = (𝑥 − ℎ) ± 𝑟 ⋅ √1 + 𝑚2.
● The length of Tangent from (𝑎, 𝑏) to the Circle 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦) is √𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏).
● From an external point (𝑎, 𝑏) two Tangents can be drawn to the Circle 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦), the Equation of
the pair of Tangents is 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑇 2 (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑟 2
● The Equation of the Normal to the Circle with center (−𝑔, −𝑓) and on the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is written
as 𝑦 − 𝑏 = [ (𝑏 + 𝑓)/(𝑎 + 𝑔) ](𝑥 − 𝑎).
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● The Equation of the Chord of Contact is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.

● If the midpoint of the Chord is (𝑎, 𝑏), then the Equation of Chord is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑆(𝑎, 𝑏).
● If 𝐶1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 and 𝐶2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 are two given Circles, then the family of Circles passing through
the point of intersection of the Circles is 𝐶1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝜆 ⋅ 𝐶2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.
● The angle between two Circles with Radius 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 and 𝑑 being the distance between Radii is
given by 𝜃 =𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 [ (𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 𝑑)/2𝑟1 𝑟2 ].
● Radical axis of two Circles is 𝐶1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶2 (𝑥, 𝑦).

Topic - 13: Parabola

● Eccentricity of a Parabola is 1.
● There are four types of Parabolas - Upward, Downward, Leftward and Rightward openings.
● Equation of Rightward Opening Parabola is 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 is the distance between the
Center and the Vertex of Parabola.
● Equation of Leftward Opening Parabola is 𝑦 2 = −4𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 is the distance between the
Center and the Vertex of Parabola.
● Equation of Upward Opening Parabola is 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 where 𝑎 is the distance between the Center
and the Vertex of Parabola.
● Equation of Downward Opening Parabola is 𝑥 2 = −4𝑎𝑦 where 𝑎 is the distance between the
Center and the Vertex of Parabola.
● Length of Latus Rectum of 𝑦 2 = ±4𝑎𝑥 or 𝑥 2 = ±4𝑎𝑦 is 4𝑎.
● Parametric representation of 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 is 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡.
● Define 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 − 4𝑎𝑥 and any arbitrary point (𝑎, 𝑏), then -
○ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 0 ⇒ The point is on the boundary of the Parabola.
○ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) < 0 ⇒ The point is inside the Parabola.
○ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) > 0 ⇒ The point is outside the Parabola.
● Equation of a Chord joining the points 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 is (𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑡1 𝑡2 .
● Equation of Tangent to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + (𝑎/𝑚).
● Equation of Tangent to 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑎𝑚2 .
● Equation of Tangent to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑏𝑦 = 2𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑎).
● Equation of Tangent to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at the point 𝑡 is 𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑡 2 .
● Equation of Normal to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑐𝑥 at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑦 − 𝑏 = (−𝑏/2𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑎).
● Equation of Normal to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚3.
● Equation of Normal to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at the point 𝑡 is 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 .
● Define 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 − 4𝑐𝑥 and 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏𝑦 − 2𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑎), the Equation for the pair of Tangents
drawn from the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑇 2 (𝑥, 𝑦).
● The Equation for the Chord of Contact is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 where the Tangents to the Parabola is
drawn from an external point (𝑎, 𝑏).
● Equation of the Chord with midpoint (𝑎, 𝑏) is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏).
● Length of Co-Tangent is 2𝑎𝑡 2 and the length of Co-Normal is 2𝑎.

Topic - 14: Ellipse

𝑥2 𝑦2
● Equation of a standard Horizontal Ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1 where 𝑎 > 𝑏.
𝑎 𝑏

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𝑏2
● The Eccentricity of the Horizontal Ellipse is 𝑒 = √1 − ∈ (0,1).
𝑎2
● Coordinates of the Foci of a Horizontal Ellipse are (±𝑎𝑒, 0).
● Coordinates of the Vertices of a Horizontal Ellipse are (±𝑎, 0).
● Coordinates of the Co-Vertices of a Horizontal Ellipse are (0, ±𝑏)
● The equation of Directrix of a Horizontal Ellipse are 𝑥 = ±𝑎/𝑒.
● Length of the Latus Rectum of a Horizontal Ellipse is 2𝑏 2 /𝑎.
● Equation of the Latus Rectum of a Horizontal Ellipse is 𝑥 = ±𝑎𝑒.
𝑥2 𝑦2
● Equation of a standard Vertical Ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1 where 𝑎 < 𝑏.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎2
● The eccentricity of the Vertical Ellipse is 𝑒 = √1 − .
𝑏2
● Coordinates of the Foci of a Vertical Ellipse are (0, ±𝑏𝑒).
● Coordinates of the Vertices of a Vertical Ellipse are (0, ±𝑏).
● Coordinates of the Co-Vertices of a Vertical Ellipse are (±𝑎, 0).
● The equation of Directrix of a Vertical Ellipse are 𝑦 = ±𝑏/𝑒.
● Length of the Latus Rectum of a Vertical Ellipse is 2𝑎2 /𝑏.
● Equation of the Latus Rectum of a Vertical Ellipse is 𝑦 = ±𝑏𝑒.
𝑥2 𝑦2
● Define 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 + 2 − 1 and an arbitrary point (𝑎, 𝑏), then
𝑎 𝑏
○ 𝐸 > 0 ⇒ The point is outside the Ellipse.
○ 𝐸 = 0 ⇒ The point is on the boundary of the Ellipse.
○ 𝐸 < 0 ⇒ The point is inside the Ellipse.
𝑥2 𝑦2
● Parametric Form of 2 + 2 = 1 is 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥 𝛼+𝛽 𝑦
● The Equation of a Chord joining two points 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 of 2 + 2 = 1 is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 2 𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 .
2 2
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 + 2 = 1 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± √𝑎2 𝑚2 + 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑝𝑥 𝑞𝑦
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 + 2 = 1 at (𝑝, 𝑞) is 2 + 2 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑦
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 + 2 = 1 at the point 𝜃 is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑎2 𝑏2
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 + 2 = 1 at the point (𝑝, 𝑞) is 𝑥 − = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞
𝑥2 𝑦2 (𝑎2 −𝑏2 )𝑚
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 + 2 = 1 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± .
𝑎 𝑏 √𝑎2 +𝑏2 𝑚
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 + 2 = 1 at the point 𝜃 is 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 − 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏

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𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation for the Chord of Contact for 2 + 2 = 1 is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation for the pair of Tangents to 2 + 2 = 1 is 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝐸(𝑝, 𝑞) = 𝑇 2 (𝑥, 𝑦) where the
𝑎 𝑏
Tangents are drawn from the external point (𝑝, 𝑞).
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the Director Circle of 2 + 2 = 1 is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦 2
● The Equation of a Chord in 2 + 2 = 1 with mid-point at (𝑝, 𝑞) is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐸(𝑝, 𝑞).
𝑎 𝑏
● The point of intersection of two Tangents at the points 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 is

Topic - 15: Hyperbola

𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of a standard Horizontal Hyperbola is 2 − 2 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏2
● The Eccentricity of a Horizontal Hyperbola is 𝑒 = √1 + .
𝑎2
● The Coordinates of the Foci of a Horizontal Hyperbola are (±𝑎𝑒, 0).
● The Coordinates of the Vertices of a Horizontal Hyperbola are (±𝑎, 0).
● The Equation of the Directrix for a Horizontal Hyperbola are 𝑥 = ±𝑎/𝑒.
● The Equation of the Latus Rectum is 𝑥 = ±𝑎𝑒.
● The Length of the Latus Rectum is 2𝑏 2 /𝑎.
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the Conjugate Hyperbola is − 2 + 2 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
1 1
● If the Eccentricities of Horizontal and Vertical Hyperbolas are 𝑒1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒2 , then
𝑒1 2 + 𝑒2 2
= 1.
● The Equation of a Rectangular Hyperbola is 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 or 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 2 .
● The Eccentricity of a Rectangular Hyperbola is √2.
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Parametric Form of 2 − 2 = 1 is 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃.
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2
● Define 𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 − − 1 and an arbitrary point (𝑝, 𝑞), then
𝑎 𝑏2
○ 𝐻(𝑝, 𝑞) < 0 ⇒ The point lies inside the Hyperbola.
○ 𝐻(𝑝, 𝑞) = 0 ⇒ The point lies on the boundary of the Hyperbola.
○ 𝐻(𝑝, 𝑞) > 0 ⇒ The point lies outside the Hyperbola.
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑝𝑥 𝑞𝑦
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 − 2 = 1 at the point (𝑝, 𝑞) is 2 − 2 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦 2
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 − 2 = 1 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± √𝑎2 𝑚2 − 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑦
● The Equation of the Tangent to 2 − 2 = 1 at the point 𝜃 is 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 1.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
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𝑎 2 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 − 2 = 1 at the point (𝑝, 𝑞) is 𝑥+ 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑚(𝑎2 +𝑏2 )
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 − 2 = 1 with Slope 𝑚 is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 ± .
𝑎 𝑏 √𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑚2
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑎 𝑏
● The Equation of the Normal to 2 − 2 = 1 at the point 𝜃 is 𝑥+ 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
● The Equation for the Chord of Contact is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.
● The Equation for the pairs of Tangents is 𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝐻(𝑝, 𝑞) = 𝑇 2 (𝑥, 𝑦) where the Tangents to the
Hyperbola is drawn from an external point (𝑝, 𝑞).
● The Equation of the Chord with midpoint (𝑝, 𝑞) is 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐻(𝑝, 𝑞).
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
● The Equation of the pair of Asymptotes of 2 − 2 = 1 is 2 − 2 = 0.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
● The Equation of the Tangent to a Rectangular Hyperbola at (𝑝, 𝑞) is + = 1.
𝑝 𝑞
2
● The Parametric Form of Rectangular Hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 is 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑐/𝑡 where 𝑡 ≠ 0.
● The Equation of Normal to the Rectangular Hyperbola is 𝑦 − (𝑐/𝑡) = 𝑡 2 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡).

Topic - 16: Limits, Continuity and Differentiability

● Sum Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Difference Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Product Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Quotient Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) provided 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Scalar Multiple Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑘 ∗ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Power Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑓(𝑥) ]𝑘 = 𝑘[ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) ]
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Composite Function Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)) provided 𝑓(𝑥) exists at 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Important Limit Properties -
○ 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ÷ 𝑥 ] = 1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ÷ 𝑥 ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ÷ 𝑥 ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ÷ 𝑥 ]
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
○ 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ ( 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑝𝑛 ) ÷ ( 𝑥 − 𝑝 ) ] = 𝑛𝑝𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑝
○ 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥) ÷ 𝑥 ] = 1
𝑥→0
○ 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ ( 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 ) ÷ 𝑥 ] = 1 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ ( 𝑎 𝑥 − 1 ) ÷ 𝑥 ] =𝑙𝑛 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
○ 𝑙𝑖𝑚(1 + 𝑥)1/𝑥 = 𝑒 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + 1/𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞
○ If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑓(𝑥) ] 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝[ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥){ 𝑓(𝑥) − 1 } ]
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● L’ Hospital Rule: 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ 𝑓′(𝑥) − 𝑔′(𝑥) ]
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
● Missing Point Discontinuity: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑓(𝑝) 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑥→𝑝
● Isolated Point Discontinuity: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑝)
𝑥→𝑝
● Finite Type Discontinuity: 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 − 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ≠ 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
● Infinite Type Discontinuity: Either 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 − 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 → ∞ or 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 → ∞
● Oscillatory Type Discontinuity: Limit oscillates between two finite numbers.

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● Intermediate Value Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous in the interval [ 𝑎, 𝑏 ] then 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝐾 for some
𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝐾 ∈ ( 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏) ).
● Right-hand Derivative: 𝑓(𝑝+ ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ { 𝑓(𝑝 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑝) } ÷ ℎ ]
ℎ→0
● Left-Hand Derivative: 𝑓(𝑝− ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[ { 𝑓(𝑝) − 𝑓(𝑝 − ℎ) } ÷ ℎ ]
ℎ→0
● A function is differentiable only if 𝑓(𝑝+ ) = 𝑓(𝑝− ) at a point 𝑥 = 𝑝

Topic - 17: Differential Calculus

● Sum Rule: (𝑓 + 𝑔)′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) + 𝑔′(𝑥)
● Difference Rule: (𝑓 − 𝑔)′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) − 𝑔′(𝑥)
● Product Rule: (𝑓𝑔)′(𝑥) = (𝑓′𝑔)(𝑥) + (𝑓𝑔′)(𝑥)
● Quotient Rule: (𝑓 ÷ 𝑔)(𝑥) = [ (𝑔𝑓′)(𝑥) − (𝑓𝑔′)(𝑥) ] ÷ 𝑔2 (𝑥)
● Scalar Multiple Rule: (𝑘 ∗ 𝑓(𝑥))′ = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑓′(𝑥)
● Chain Rule: [ 𝑓{ 𝑔(𝑥) } ]′ = 𝑓′{ 𝑔(𝑥) } ∗ 𝑔′(𝑥)
● Derivative of some common functions -
○ ( 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )′ = 0
○ ( 𝑥 𝑛 )′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
○ ( 𝑒 𝑥 )′ = 𝑒 𝑥 and ( 𝑎 𝑥 )′ = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0
○ (𝑙𝑛 𝑥)′ = 1/𝑥
○ (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑝 𝑥)′ = 1/(𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑝)
○ ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )′ =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 and ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 )′ = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
○ ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 )′ =𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 and ( 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 )′ = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
○ ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 )′ =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 and ( 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 )′ = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
○ ( 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 )′ = 1/√1 − 𝑥 2 where | 𝑥 | < 1
○ ( 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 )′ = −1/√1 − 𝑥 2 where | 𝑥 | < 1
○ ( 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 )′ = 1/(1 + 𝑥 2 )
● Logarithmic Differentiation: 𝑦 = [ 𝑓(𝑥) ] 𝑔(𝑥) then 𝑦′ = [ 𝑓(𝑥) ] 𝑔(𝑥) [ { 𝑔(𝑥) ÷ 𝑓(𝑥) } + 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑙𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ]
provided 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓/𝑑𝑥
● If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 then = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑓/𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
● If 𝑥 = 𝜙1 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝜙2 (𝑡) then =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
−1
● If 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 then 𝑓′(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔′[ 𝑓(𝑥) ] = 1
● Maxima/Minima are of two types - Local and Global
● 𝑓′(𝑝) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓′′(𝑝) < 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum in the neighborhood of 𝑥 = 𝑝
● 𝑓′(𝑝) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓′′(𝑝) > 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) is minimum in the neighborhood of 𝑥 = 𝑝

Topic - 18: Tangents and Normals

● Tangent on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑥 = 𝑝 has the Slope

● Normal on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑥 = 𝑝 has the Slope

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● Length of Tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

● Length of Sub-Tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

● Length of Normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

● Length of Subnormal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

Topic - 19: Integral Calculus

● Indefinite Integral of some common functions -
𝑛 𝑛+1
○ ∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎(𝑛+1)
+ 𝐶 where 𝑛 ≠ −1

○ ∫
1
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛| 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑎
|
+𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
○ ∫ 𝑝𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝𝑎⋅𝑙𝑛𝑝 + 𝐶 where 𝑝 > 0
○ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛| 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎
|
+𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛| 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎
|
+𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ⋅𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎 +𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛| 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)+𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎
|
+𝐶
○ ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛| 𝑐𝑠𝑐(𝑥+𝑏)−𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑎
|
+𝐶

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1 −1 𝑥
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎+𝐶
√𝑎2 −𝑥2

○ ∫
1
𝑑𝑥 = 1𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎2 +𝑥2
1
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 1𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐−1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥√𝑥2 −1
1 −1 𝑥
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑎+𝐶
√𝑎2 +𝑥2

1 −1 𝑥
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑎+𝐶
√𝑥2 −𝑎2

1 1
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑛 | 𝑎+𝑥
𝑎−𝑥 | + 𝐶
𝑎2 −𝑥2
1 1
○ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑛 | 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥+𝑎 | + 𝐶
𝑥2 −𝑎2
2 −1
○ ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 √𝑎2−𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+𝐶
−1 𝑥 2
○ ∫ √𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 √𝑥2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ
𝑎+𝐶
2 −1
○ ∫ √𝑥2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 √𝑥2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎𝑥
○ ∫ 𝑒𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑒 2 [𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑥) − 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑏𝑥)] + 𝐶
𝑎 +𝑏
𝑎𝑥
○ ∫ 𝑒𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑏𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑒 2 [𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑏𝑥) + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑥)] + 𝐶
𝑎 +𝑏
● ∫
𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)] = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶
● ∫ 𝑒𝑓(𝑥) [1 + 𝑥𝑓′(𝑥)] = 𝑥𝑒𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶
𝑑
● ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅
∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
● ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑏 𝑎
● ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
● ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
● ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 if 𝑓(𝑥) is an Odd Function
𝑎 𝑎
● ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) is an Even Function
𝑏 𝑏
● King Property ∫
𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 𝑎
● Queen Property ∫
0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) is an Even Function
otherwise 0

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𝑛𝑇 𝑇
● ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 when 𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑇+𝑥 𝑇
● ∫𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 when 𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏+𝑛𝑇 𝑏
● ∫𝑎+𝑛𝑇 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 when 𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛𝑇 𝑇
● ∫𝑚𝑇 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛 − 𝑚) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 when 𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝜋/2
● Walli’s Formula ∫
0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 ⋅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
[ (𝑛−1)(𝑛−3)...(1 𝑜𝑟 2) ][ (𝑚−1)(𝑚−3)...(1 𝑜𝑟 2) ]𝐾
where 𝐾 = 𝜋/2 when 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 or
(𝑚+𝑛)(𝑚+𝑛−2)(𝑚+𝑛−4)...(1 𝑜𝑟 2)
𝐾 = 1 otherwise
𝑑 ℎ(𝑥)
● Leibniz-Newton Formula ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓[ℎ(𝑥)]ℎ′(𝑥) − 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑏 1 𝑛−1
● Limit of Riemann Sum (Left Rule) ∫
𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∑𝑘=0 𝑓[𝑎 +
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎
𝑘( )]
𝑛
𝑏
● Limit of Riemann Sum (Right Rule) ∫
𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑏 −
1 𝑏−𝑎
𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓[𝑎 + 𝑘( )]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
● Important Integrals -
𝜋/2 𝜋/2 𝜋
○ ∫0 𝑙𝑛 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑙𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑙𝑛 2
2
𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
○ ∫𝑎 |𝑥| 𝑑𝑥 =
2
𝑏 |𝑥|
○ ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = |𝑏| − |𝑎|
𝑥
𝑏
● Area under two curves from 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑏 is ∫
𝑎
[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
Topic - 20: Vectors and 3-D Geometry
● Internal Section Formula using position vectors is 𝑟⃗ = (𝑛𝑎⃗ + 𝑚𝑏⃗⃗) ÷ (𝑛 + 𝑚)
● Vector Equation of a Line is 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑡𝑏⃗⃗
● Three points are collinear if 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝑏𝑦⃗ + 𝑐𝑧⃗ = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
● Projection of 𝑎⃗ 𝑜𝑛 𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏̂
● | 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ |2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2( 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗ + 𝑐⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗)
● Lagrange’s Identity | 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ |2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 − ( 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ )2
● Area of a Triangle is the magnitude of (1/2)[ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ + 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ ]
● Area of a Quadrilateral with diagonals ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑2 is 𝐴 = (1/2)| ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑2 |

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⃗⃗−𝑎⃗⃗)⋅(𝑝⃗×𝑞⃗⃗)
(𝑏
● Shortest Distance between Skew Lines is | |
| 𝑝⃗×𝑞⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗−𝑎
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2
● Distance between parallel lines is | |
𝑏

● Scalar Triple Product

● Volume of a Tetrahedron is [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑐⃗ ]/6
● Volume of a Parallelepiped is [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑐⃗ ]
● [ 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ − 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ − 𝑎⃗ ] = 0 and [ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ + 𝑎⃗ ] = 2[ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑐⃗ ]
● [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑐⃗ ]2 = [ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ ]
● Vector Triple Product is 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ ) = (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗)𝑏⃗⃗ − (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗)𝑐⃗
● Distance Formula in Space is 𝑑 = √𝛥𝑥 2 + 𝛥𝑦 2 + 𝛥𝑧 2
∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦 ∑ 𝑧
● Centroid of a Triangle is ( , , )
3 3 3
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
● Equation of a Straight Line in symmetrical form is = =
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
● Equation of a Line through two points is = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1
● Vector Equation of a Plane is (𝑟⃗ − 𝑎⃗) ⋅ 𝑛⃗⃗ = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
● Equation of a Plane in Intercept Form is + + = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
● Equation of a plane in Normal Form is 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⋅𝑛
𝑛 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2
● Angle between two planes with normal vectors 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 is
𝑛1 ∗ 𝑛2
⃗⃗⋅𝑑̂
𝑛
● Angle between a Line and a Plane is
𝑛∗𝑑
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑧
● Foot of the Perpendicular of a Point on a Plane is given by = = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑
−
𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑧 𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑
● Reflection of a Point on a Plane is given by = = = −2( )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2

● Two lines are coplanar if and only if

𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐𝑧1
● Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Plane is | |
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
𝑑1 −𝑑2
● Distance between Parallel Planes is | |
√𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
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Topic - 21: Probability and Statistics

● 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 ÷ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
● 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴) = 1
● 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
● Conditional Probability 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ÷ 𝑃(𝐵)
● Multiplication Theorem 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵|𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)𝑃(𝐴|𝐵)
● Bayes’ Theorem 𝑃(𝐵|𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) ÷ 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑛
● Binomial Distribution 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞 𝑛−𝑥
𝑥
● Mean and Variance of Binomial Distribution are 𝑛𝑝 and 𝑛𝑝𝑞 respectively
● Arithmetic Mean is 𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑥𝑘 ÷ 𝑛 for ungrouped discrete data
● Arithmetic Mean is 𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘 𝑥𝑘 ÷ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘 when frequency is given
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘 𝑑𝑘
● Mean by Shortcut Method is 𝑥 =𝐴+ where 𝑑𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 − 𝐴 and 𝐴 is the
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘
Assumed Mean
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘 𝑢𝑘
● Mean by Step Deviation Method is 𝑥 =𝐴+( )ℎ where 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 ÷ ℎ
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘
∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑤 𝑘 𝑥𝑘
● Weighted Mean is 𝑥 = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘
∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑛𝑘 𝑥𝑘
● Combined Mean is given by 𝑥 = ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑛𝑘
● Median for ungrouped distribution is

(𝑁/2)−𝐹
● Median of Grouped Distribution is 𝑙 + ⋅ℎ
𝑓
𝑓0 −𝑓1
● Mode of a Grouped Frequency Distribution is 𝑙 + ⋅ℎ
2𝑓0 −𝑓1 −𝑓2
● 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 3 ∗ 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 − 2 ∗ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
● Mean Deviation is ∑𝑛𝑘=1 | 𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥 | ÷ 𝑛
∑𝑛 𝑥𝑘 2
● Variance for discrete distribution is
𝑘=1
− 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛2
𝑛
∑𝑛 𝑓 𝑘 𝑥𝑘 2
● Variance for frequency distribution is
𝑘=1
− 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛2
𝑁
● Standard Deviation is the Principal Square Root of Variance
● Mean Square Deviation is 𝑆 2 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 (𝑥 − 𝐴)2 ÷ 𝑛 or 𝑆 2 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝐴)2 ÷ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓𝑘

Topic - 22: Mathematical Reasoning

● AND () is called the Conjunction Operator.

● OR ( ) is called the Disjunction Operator.
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● NOT ( ) is called the Negation Operator.

● IMPLIES ( ) is called the Conditional Operator.
● IFF ( ) is called the Bi-Conditional Operator.
● The Truth Table for Conjunction Operator is
p q p q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

● The Truth Table for Disjunction Operator is

p q p q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

● The Truth Table for Negation Operator is

p p

T F

F T

● The Truth Table for the Conditional Operator is

p q p q p q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

● The Truth Table for bi-Conditional Operator is

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p q p q q p p q

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T

● The Bi-Conditional Operator is Equivalent to (p q) (q p).

● Two compound statements are logically equivalent if both have the same Truth Table.
● Tautology is the statement that is always true.
● Fallacy is the statement that is always false.
● If the statement is p q then the Converse is q p.
● If the statement is p q then the Inverse is p q.
● If the statement is p q then the Contrapositive is q p.
● (p q) p q and (p q) p q.

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