PHYSICS II

For Engineering students

Chapter 1
Electric Charge and Force

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force

Chapter 1
Electric Charge and Force
In this chapter, we learn about the basics of electricity by reviewing the different types of charges and
then studying the electric force in preparation for studying the electromagnetic force between charged
particles.

1-1 Electric Charge

The electrical nature of matter is inherent in atomic
structure. An atom consists of a small, relatively massive
nucleus that contains particles called protons and
neutrons. A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10−27 kg, and a
neutron has a slightly greater mass of 1.675 × 10−27 kg.
Surrounding the nucleus is a diffuse cloud of orbiting
particles called electrons. An electron has a mass of
9.11 × 10−31 kg.
Like mass, electric charge is an intrinsic property of protons and electrons, and only two types of charge
have been discovered, positive and negative. A proton has a positive charge, and an electron has a
negative charge. A neutron has no net electric charge.
Experiment reveals that the magnitude of the charge on the proton exactly equals the magnitude of the
charge on the electron; the proton carries a charge +e, and the electron carries a charge -e.
The SI unit for measuring the magnitude of an electric charge is the coulomb (C), and e has been
determined experimentally to have the value:
𝑒 = 1.60 × 10−19 C
The symbol (e) represents only the magnitude of the charge on a proton or an electron and does not
include the algebraic sign that indicates whether the charge is positive or negative.
Type Electron (e) Proton (p) Neutron(n)
Charge -1.6×10-19 C +1.6×10-19 C 0
Mass 9.11 ×10-31 kg 1.67 ×10-27 kg 1.67 ×10-27 kg

In nature, atoms are normally found with equal numbers of protons and electrons. Usually, then, an
atom carries no net charge because the algebraic sum of the positive charge of the nucleus and the
negative charge of the electrons is zero. When an atom, or any object, carries no net charge, the object
is said to be electrically neutral. The neutrons in the nucleus are electrically neutral particles. Charges
of larger magnitude than the charge on an electron or on a proton are built up on an object by adding
or removing electrons.

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
• Properties of the electric charge
Electric charges have the following important properties:
1. Attraction and repulsion:
Unlike charges attract one another, and like charges repel one another.

2. Charge is conserved:
Another important aspect of electricity that arises from experimental observations is that electric
charge is always conserved in an isolated system, the law of conservation of electric charge is
obeyed:
During any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system remains constant (is conserved).
𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑓
That is, when one object is rubbed against another, charge is not created in the process. The
electrified state is due to a transfer of charge from one object to the other. One object gains some
amount of negative charge while the other gains an equal amount of positive charge.
3. Charge is quantized
In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868–1953) discovered that electric charge always occurs as integral
multiples of a fundamental amount of charge e (see Section 25.7). In modern terms, the electric
charge q is said to be quantized, where q is the standard symbol used for charge as a variable.
That is, electric charge exists as discrete “packets,” and we can write
𝑞 = ± 𝑁𝑒
where N is some integer. Other experiments in the same period showed that the electron has a
charge -e and the proton has a charge of equal magnitude but opposite sign +e. Some particles,
such as the neutron, have no charge.
• Example 1
How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?
• Solution
The number N of electrons is
𝑞 −1
𝑁= = = 6.25 × 1018
𝑒 −1.6 × 10−19
• Example 2
A metal sphere has a charge of +8.0 µC. What is the net charge after 6.0×1013 electrons have been
placed on it?

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
• Solution
The 6.0×1013 electrons have charge equal:
𝑞2 = 6.0 × 1013 × −1.6 × 10−19 = −9.6 × 10−6 C
The net charge on the sphere is, therefore,
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = +8.0 × 10−6 + (−9.6 × 10−6 ) = −1.6 × 10−6 C = −1.6 µC

1-2 Electric Force

In 1785, Charles Coulomb measured the magnitude of the electrical forces
between charged objects in the laboratory using a torsion balance that he
invented. To review the results obtained by Coulomb, we will use the term
point charge to refer to a charged particle with a size of zero. The electrical
behavior of electrons and protons has been very well described by modeling
them as point charges. From experimental observations, we find that the
magnitude of the electric force (sometimes called the Coulomb force) between two-
point charges is given by Coulomb's law:
The magnitude 𝐹 of the electrostatic force exerted by one-point
charge 𝑞1 on another point charge 𝑞2 is directly proportional to
the magnitudes |𝑞1 | and |𝑞2 | of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r between them
|𝑞1 | |𝑞2 |
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟2
where k is a proportionality constant: 𝑘 = 8.99 × 109 Nm2 /C2 in
SI units. The electrostatic force is directed along the line joining the charges, and it is attractive if
the charges have unlike signs and repulsive if the charges have like signs.
1
It is common practice to express k in terms of another constant 𝜀0 , by writing 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 is called the
0

permittivity of free space and has a value that is given according to 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2
• Example 3
The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom are separated (on the average) by a distance of
approximately 5.3 × 1011 m. Find the magnitudes of the electric force and the gravitational force
between the two particles.
• Solution
The electric and gravitational forces will be evaluated from universal force laws, so we categorize
this example as a substitution problem. Use Coulomb’s law to find the magnitude of the electric
force:
|𝑒| |−𝑒| 9
(1.60 × 10−19 )2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 = 8.99 × 10 = 8.2 × 10−8 N
𝑟2 (5.3 × 10−11 )2
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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
Use Newton’s law of universal gravitation to find the magnitude of the gravitational force:
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑒 −11
9.11 × 10−31 × 1.67 × 10−27
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10 = 3.6 × 10−47 N
𝑟2 (5.3 × 10−11 )2
The ratio 𝐹𝑒 /𝐹𝑔 ≈ 2 × 1039 . Therefore, the gravitational force between charged atomic particles is
negligible when compared with the electric force. Notice the similar forms of Newton’s law of
universal gravitation and Coulomb’s law of electric forces. Other than the magnitude of the forces
between elementary particles, what is a fundamental difference between the two forces?

• Vector form of Coulomb’s law

When dealing with Coulomb’s law, remember that force is a vector
quantity and must be treated accordingly. Coulomb’s law expressed in
vector form for the electric force exerted by a charge 𝑞1 on a second
charge 𝑞2 , written 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 is
|𝑞1 | |𝑞2 |
𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 = 𝑘 𝐫̂𝟏𝟐
𝑟2
where 𝐫̂𝟏𝟐 is a unit vector directed from 𝑞1 toward 𝑞2 as shown in the figure.
Because the electric force obeys Newton’s third law, the electric force exerted by 𝑞2 on 𝑞1 is equal
in magnitude to the force exerted by 𝑞1 on 𝑞2 and in the opposite direction; that is, 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 = −𝐅⃗𝟐𝟏 .
The electrostatic force is obeying the principle of superposition. If we have 𝑛 charged particles, they
interact independently in pairs and the force on any one of them, let us say particle 1, and is given
by the vector sum
𝐅⃗𝟏 = 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟑 + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟒 + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟓 + ⋯ + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝐧
in which, for example, 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟒 is the force acting on particle 1 due to the presence of particle 4. An
identical formula holds for the gravitational force.
• Example 4
Consider three-point charges located at the corners of a right
triangle as shown in the figure, where 𝑞1 = 𝑞3 = 5.00 𝜇C, 𝑞2 =
−2.00 𝜇C, and 𝑎 = 0.100 m. Find the resultant force exerted on 𝑞3 .
• Solution
The directions of the individual forces exerted by 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 on 𝑞3
are shown in the figure. The force 𝐅⃗23 exerted by 𝑞2 on 𝑞3 is attractive because 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 have
opposite signs. Use Coulomb’s law to find the magnitude of 𝐅⃗23 :
|𝑞2 | |𝑞3 | 9
2.00 × 10−6 × 5.00 × 10−6
𝐹23 = 𝑘 = 8.99 × 10 = 8.99 N
𝑎2 (0.100)2
For the direction of 𝐅⃗23 :
𝐹23𝑥 = −8.99 N ; 𝐹23𝑦 = 0 N
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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
The force 𝐅⃗13 exerted by 𝑞1 on 𝑞3 is repulsive because both charges are positive. The repulsive force
𝐅⃗13 makes an angle of 45.0° with the 𝑥 axis. Find the magnitude of the force 𝐅⃗13 :
|𝑞1 | |𝑞3 | 5.00 × 10−6 × 5.00 × 10−6
𝐹23 = 𝑘 2 = 8.99 × 109 = 11.2 N
(√2𝑎) 2(0.100)2

For the direction of 𝐅⃗13 :

𝐹13𝑥 = 𝐹13 cos 45.0° = 7.94 N ; 𝐹13𝑦 = 𝐹13 sin 45.0° = 7.94 N
Find the components of the resultant force acting on 𝑞3 :
𝐹3𝑥 = 𝐹13𝑥 + 𝐹23𝑥 = 7.94 + (−8.99) = −1.04 N
𝐹3𝑦 = 𝐹13𝑦 + 𝐹23𝑦 = 7.94 + 0 = 7.94 N

The resultant force acting on 𝑞3 in unit-vector form: 𝐅⃗3 = (−1.04 𝑖̂ + 7.94 𝑗̂) N

The magnitude of the resultant force acting on 𝑞3 : 𝐹3 = √(−1.04 )2 + (7.94)2 = 8.01 N

The direction of the resultant force acting on 𝑞3 :
𝐹3𝑦 7.94
𝜃 = tan−1 | | = tan−1 = 82.5°
𝐹3𝑥 1.04
• Example 5
Three-point charges lie along the x axis as shown in the figure.
The positive charge 𝑞1 = 15.0 µC is at 𝑥 = 2.00 m, the positive
charge 𝑞2 = 6.00 µC is at the origin, and the net force acting on 𝑞3
is zero. What is the 𝑥 coordinating of 𝑞3 ?
• Solution
The net force on charge 𝑞3 when it is in equilibrium:
|𝑞2 ||𝑞3 | |𝑞1 ||𝑞3 |
𝐅⃗3 = 𝐅⃗23 + 𝐅⃗13 = −𝑘 𝑖̂ + 𝑘 𝑖̂ = 0
𝑥2 (2.00 − 𝑥)2
Move the second term to the right side of the equation and set the coefficients of the unit vector 𝑖̂ equal:
|𝑞2 ||𝑞3 | |𝑞1 ||𝑞3 |
𝑘 2
𝑖̂ = 𝑘 𝑖̂
𝑥 (2.00 − 𝑥)2
Eliminate 𝑘 and |𝑞3 | and rearrange the equation:
|𝑞2 |(2.00 − 𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 |𝑞1 |
(4.00 − 4.00𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )(6.00 × 10−6 ) = 𝑥 2 (15.0 × 10−6 )
Reduce the quadratic equation to a simpler form:
3.00 𝑥 2 + 8.00 𝑥 − 8.00 = 0
Solve the quadratic equation for the positive root:
𝑥 = 0.775 m
The second root to the quadratic equation is 𝑥 = − 3.44 m. That is another location where the
magnitudes of the forces on𝑞3 are equal, but both forces are in the same direction.
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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
Questions

1. Explain what is meant by the term “a neutral atom.”

2. Explain from an atomic viewpoint why charge is usually transferred by electrons.
3. Would life be different if the electrons were positively charged and the protons were negatively
charged? Does the choice of signs have any bearing on physical and chemical interactions?
4. What differences between the conductors and the insulators?
5. (TUT) What similarities do electrical forces have with gravitational forces? What are the most
significant differences?
6. Consider two equal point charges separated by some distance d. At what point (other than ∞)
would a third test charge experience no net force?
7. Two small charged objects attract each other with a force 𝐹 when separated by a distance 𝑑. If the
charge on each object is reduced to one-fourth of its original value and the distance between them
is reduced to 𝑑/2. What is the force becoming?
8. (TUT) Two identical conducting spheres 𝐴 and 𝐵 carry equal charge. They are separated by a
distance much larger than their diameters. A third identical conducting sphere 𝐶 is uncharged.
Sphere 𝐶 is first touched to 𝐴, then to 𝐵, and finally removed. As a result, what is the electrostatic
force between 𝐴 and 𝐵, which was originally 𝐹?

Problems
1. An object carries a charge of -8.0 µC, while another carries a charge of -2.0 µC. How many electrons
must be transferred from the first object to the second so that both objects have the same charge?
2. How many electrons must be removed from an electrically neutral silver dollar to give it a charge
of +24 µC?
3. (TUT) A plate carries a charge of -3.0 µC, while a rod carries a charge of +2.0 µC how many
electrons must be transferred from the plate to the rod, so that both objects have the same charge?
4. (a) Two protons in a molecule are separated by a distance of 3.80 ×10-10 m. Find the electric force
exerted by one proton on the other. (b) How does the magnitude of this force compare with the
magnitude of the gravitational force between the two protons? (c) What must be the charge-to-
mass ratio of a particle if the magnitude of the gravitational force between two of these particles
equals the magnitude of the electric force between them?
5. What must be the distance between point charge 𝑞1 = 26.0 µC and point charge 𝑞2 = 47.0 µC for
the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70 N?
6. (TUT) A particle of charge +3.00 × 10-6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second particle of charge -1.50
× 10-6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the particles.

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
7. The force of repulsion that two like charges exert on each other is 3.5 N. What will the force be if
the distance between the charges is increased to five times its original value?
8. In the Bohr Theory of the hydrogen atom, an electron moves in a circular orbit about a proton,
where the radius of the orbit is 0.529×10-10 m. (a) Find the electric force between the two. (b) If
this force causes the centripetal acceleration of the electron, what is the speed of the electron?
9. Three-point charges lie along the x axis as shown in the figure. The positive charge 𝑞1 = 15.0 µC is
at x = 2.00 m, the positive charge 𝑞2 = 6.00 µC is at the origin, and the net force acting on 𝑞3 is zero.
What is the x coordinating of 𝑞3 ?
10. (TUT) Three charges are fixed to an x, y coordinate system. A charge of +18 µC is on the y axis at
y = + 3.0 m. A charge of -12 µC is at the origin. Last, a charge of +45 µC is on the x axis at x = + 3.0
m. Determine the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the charge at x = + 3.0
m. Specify the direction relative to the − x axis.
11. Two small spheres spaced 20.0 cm apart have equal charge. How many
excess electrons must be present on each sphere if the magnitude of the
force of repulsion between them is 4.57×10-21 N
12. Three-point charges are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle,
as shown. Calculate the net electric force on the 7.00 µC charge.

MCQ
1. The magnitude of the charge on an electron is approximately:
A. 1023 C B. 10−23 C C. 1019 C D. 10−19 C E. None of These

2. An electrical insulator is a material:

A. Containing no electrons B. Through which electrons do not flow easily
C. Cannot be a pure chemical element D. Must be a crystal

3. A positively charged metal sphere K is brought into contact with an uncharged metal sphere L . As
a result:
A. Both spheres are positively charged B. K is positively charged and L is neutral
C. K is neutral and L is positively charged D. None of These

4. (TUT) Each of three objects has a net charge. Objects K and L attract one another. Objects L and
M also attract one another, but objects K and M repel one another. Which one of the following table
entries is a possible combination of the signs of the net charges on these three objects?
A. K +, L+, M- B. K -, L+, M- C. K -, L+, M+ D. K -, L-, M+ E. K +, L-, M-

5. The units of 1/4𝜋𝜀0 are:

A. N2C2 B. N · m/C C. N2 · m2/C2 D. N · m2/C2 E. m2/C2

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
6. A conducting sphere has a net charge of −4.8 × 10−17 C. What is the approximate number of excess
electrons on the sphere?
A. 100 B. 300 C. 500 D. 200 E. None of These

7. Consider three identical metal spheres, K, L, and M. Sphere K carries a charge of −2.0 µC; sphere L
carries a charge of −6.0 µC; and sphere M carries a charge of - 5.0 µC. Spheres K and L are touched
together and then separated. Spheres L and M are then touched and separated. How many
electrons on sphere M?
A. 6.0 × 1013 B. 3.0 × 1013 C. 2.0 × 1013 D. 5.0 × 1013 E. None of These
8. An aluminum nail has an excess charge of +3.2 µC. How many electrons must be added to the nail
to make it electrically neutral?
A. 2.0 × 1013 B. 3.2 × 10-6 C. 5.0 × 10-14 D. 2.0 × 1019 E. 3.2 × 106

9. To change an uncharged object to a negative object we must:

A. Add some protons B. Remove some protons C. Add some electrons
D. Remove some electrons E. B and C

10. Each of three objects carries a charge. As the drawing shows, objects K and L
attract each other, and objects M and K also attract each other. Which one of
the following statements concerning objects L and M is true?
A. They attract each other. B. They repel each other. C. None of These.

11. (TUT) Two particles, X and Y, are 4 m apart. X has a charge of 2Q and Y has a charge of Q. The force
of X on Y:
A. Has twice the magnitude of the force of Y on X
B. Has half the magnitude of the force of Y on X
C. Has four times the magnitude of the force of Y on X
D. Has one-fourth the magnitude of the force of Y on X
E. Has the same magnitude as the force of Y on X

12. Two identical charges, 2.0m apart, exert forces of magnitude 4.0N on each other. The value of
either charge is:
A. 1.8×10−9 C B. 2.1×10−5 C C. 4.2×10−5 C D. 5.0×10−5 C E. None of These
13. At what separation will two charges, each of magnitude 6.0 μC, exert a force of 1.4 N on each other?
A. 5.1 m B. 0.48 m C. 40 m D. 0.23 m E. 2.0 m
14. Two charged particles, 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 = 5 𝑄1, are a distance 𝑟 apart. Compare the forces they exert on
one another when 𝐅𝟏 is the force 𝑄2 exerts on 𝑄1 and 𝐅𝟐 is the force 𝑄1 exerts on 𝑄2 .
A. 𝐅𝟐 = 𝟓𝐅𝟏 B. 𝐅𝟐 = −𝟓𝐅𝟏 C. 𝐅𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏 D. 𝐅𝟐 = −𝐅𝟏 E. 𝟓𝐅𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏

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 Chapter 1: Electric Charge & Force
15. Two electrons (𝑒1 and 𝑒2) and a proton (𝑝) lie on a straight line, as shown. The directions of the
force of e2 on e1, the force of p on e1, and the total force on e1, respectively, are:

16. (TUT) Two protons (𝑝1 and 𝑝2) and an electron (𝑒) lie on a straight line, as shown. The directions
of the force of 𝑝1 on 𝑒, the force of 𝑝2 on 𝑒, and the total force on 𝑒, respectively, are:

17. A particle with a charge of 5 × 10−6 C and a mass of 20 g moves uniformly with a speed of 7m/s in
a circular orbit around a stationary particle with a charge of −5×10−6 C. The radius of the orbit is:
A. 0 m B. 0.23 m C. 0.62 m D. 1.6 m E. 4.4 m

18. In the figure, if Q = 30 µC, q = 5.0 µC, and d = 30 cm, what is

the magnitude of the electrostatic force on q?
A. 15 N B. 23 N C. 45 N D. 0 N E. None of these
19. A charge Q exerts a 12 N force on another charge q. If the distance between the charges is doubled,
what is the magnitude of the force exerted on Q by q?
A. 3 N B. 24 N C. 48 N D. 6 N E. 36 N
20. A particle (charge = + 40 µC) is located on the x axis at the point x = –20 cm, and a second particle
(charge = –50 µC) is placed on the x axis at x = +30 cm. What is the magnitude of the total
electrostatic force on a third particle (charge = – 4.0 µC) placed at the origin (x = 0)?
A. 41 N B. 16 N C. 56 N D. 35 N E. 35 N
21. Two small charged objects attract each other with a force F when separated by a distance d. If the
charge on each object is reduced to one-fourth of its original value and the distance between them
is reduced to d/2 the force becomes:
A. F/16 B. F/8 C. F/4 D. F/2 E. F
22. (TUT) If a = 3.0 mm, b = 4.0 mm, 𝑄1 = 60 nC , 𝑄2 = 80 nC, and 𝑞 =
32 nC in the figure, what is the magnitude of the total electric force on q?

A. 1.6 N B. 1.3 N C. 1.9 N D. 2.2 N

23. When comparing the electricity force (𝐹𝑒 ) and the gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 )
between an electron and a proton in a hydrogen atom, the

A. 𝐹𝑒 > 𝐹𝑔 B. 𝐹𝑒 < 𝐹𝑔 C. 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑔
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