Chapter 21

Electromagnetic Induction and

Faraday’s Law
 21-1 Induced EMF
Almost 200 years ago, Faraday looked for evidence that
a magnetic field would induce an electric current with
this apparatus:
He found no evidence when the current through the left-
hand loop was steady but did see a current induced in the
right-hand loop when the switch was turned on or off.
 21-1 Induced EMF

In addition, a current will be induced in a wire loop if a

magnet is moved through the loop, but not when the
magnet is held steady.
 21-1 Induced EMF

Therefore, a changing magnetic field induces an emf.

Faraday’s experiment used a magnetic field that was
changing because the current producing it was changing;
the previous graphic shows a magnetic field that is
changing because the magnet is moving.
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
The induced emf in a wire loop is proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop.

Magnetic flux:
(21-1)

 is the angle between the normal (to plane of area A)

and the magnetic field B

Unit of magnetic flux: weber, Wb.

1 Wb = 1 T·m2
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law

This drawing shows the variables in the flux equation:

Normal
to A
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
The magnetic flux is analogous to the electric flux—it is
proportional to the total number of lines passing through
the loop, the component of which is ⊥ to A.

normal
to A
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law of induction:

(21-2a)

If the circuit contains N loops that are closely wrapped so

the same flux passes through each, the emfs induced in
each loop add together, so the total emf is

(21-2b)
(c) The magnitude of the induced EMF (Equation 21-2a) during
the 0.14s time interval is .

  3.5  10−4 T .m 2 − 4 10−4 T .m 2 

 =− = −  = 3.6  10 −4
V
t  0.15s 
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law
The minus sign gives the direction of the induced emf:
A current produced by an induced emf moves in a direction so that
the magnetic field it produces tends to restore the changed field.
This is known as Lenz’s law. Be aware that we are now discussing
two distinct magnetic fields:
(1) the changing magnetic field or flux that induces the current, and
(2) the magnetic field produced by the induced current (all currents
produce a magnetic field). The second (induced) field opposes the
change in the first.

Lenz’s law can be said another way, valid even if no current can
flow (as when a circuit is not complete):
• An induced emf is always in a direction that opposes the
original change in flux that caused it.
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law
Magnetic flux will change if the area of the loop changes:
FIGURE 21–5 A current can be induced by changing the
coil’s area, even though B doesn’t change. Here
the area A is reduced by pulling on the sides of the coil: the
flux through the coil is reduced as we go from (a) to (b).
The brief induced current acts in the direction shown so as
to try to maintain the original flux by producing
its own magnetic field into the page. That is, as area A
decreases, the current acts to increase B in the original
(inward) direction.
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law
Magnetic flux will change if the angle between the loop
and the field changes:
 21-2 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Problem Solving: Lenz’s Law
1. Determine whether the magnetic flux is increasing, decreasing,
or unchanged.
2. The magnetic field due to the induced current opposes the flux
change.
3. Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the
current.
4. Remember that the external field and the field due to the
induced current are different.
 21-3 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor

This image shows another way the magnetic flux can

change:
 21-3 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor

The induced current is in a direction that tends to slow

the moving bar—it will take an external force to keep it
moving.
 21-3 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor

The induced emf has magnitude

 = Blv
 21-4 Changing Magnetic Flux
Produces an Electric Field
A changing magnetic flux produces an electric field;
this is a generalization of Faraday’s law.

E
v=
Allows us to calculate speed
if we can experimentally determine
B E and B

This result applies not only to wires and other conductors, but is a
general result that applies to any region in space. Indeed, an
electric field will be produced at any point in space where there is
a changing magnetic field.
 21-5 Electric Generators

A generator is the opposite of a motor—it transforms

mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is an ac
generator:
The axle is rotated by an
external force such as
falling water or steam.
The brushes are in
constant electrical
contact with the slip
rings.
Fleming's left-hand rule is used for electric motors, while Fleming's right-hand
rule is used for electric generators. ... Since neither the direction of motion nor the
direction of the magnetic field (inside the motor/generator) has changed, the
direction of the electric current in the motor/generator has reversed.
 21-5 Electric Generators

A sinusoidal emf is induced in the rotating loop (N is the

number of turns, and A the area of the loop):

 B = BA cos  = BA cos  t

Where  is the angle between B and normal to the area A

and  is the angular frequency of the loop as it rotates
about the axis.
  B
 = −N
t
d B
= −N
dt
d( BA cos  t)
= −N
dt
= − NAB (− sin t )
= NAB (sin t )

(21-5)
  =  0 (sin t )
Where  0 = NAB
 21-5 Electric Generators
A dc generator is similar, except that it has a split-ring
commutator instead of slip rings. The split-ring reverses
the polarity every half-cycle thus maintaining current
flow in one direction only i.e. no half cycles.
Simplified schematic diagram of an alternator

Actual shape of an alternator

 21-6 Back EMF and Counter Torque;
Eddy Currents
A motor turns and produces mechanical energy when a current is made to flow in
it. From our description in Section 20–10 of a simple dc motor, you might expect
that the armature would accelerate indefinitely due to the torque on it. However, as
the armature of the motor turns, the magnetic flux through the coil changes and an
emf is generated. This induced emf acts to oppose the motion (Lenz’s law) and is
called the back emf or counter emf. The greater the speed of the motor, the
greater the back emf. A motor normally turns and does work on something, but if
there were no load to push (or rotate), the motor’s speed would increase until the
back emf equalled the input voltage. When there is a mechanical load, the speed of
the motor may be limited also by the load. The back emf will then be less than the
external applied voltage. The greater the mechanical load, the slower the motor
rotates and the lower is the back emf.
 21-6 Back EMF and Counter Torque;
Eddy Currents

A similar effect occurs in a generator—if it is connected

to a circuit, current will flow in it, and will produce a
counter torque. This means the external applied torque
must increase to keep the generator turning.
 21-6 Back EMF and Counter Torque;
Eddy Currents
Induced currents can flow in bulk material as well as
through wires. These are called eddy currents, and can
dramatically slow a conductor moving into or out of a
magnetic field.
21-7 Transformers and Transmission of Power

A transformer consists of two coils, either interwoven or

linked by an iron core. A changing emf in one induces an
emf in the other.
The ratio of the emfs is equal to the ratio of the number
of turns in each coil:
(21-6)
21-7 Transformers and Transmission of Power

This is a step-up transformer—the emf in the secondary

coil is larger than the emf in the primary:
21-7 Transformers and Transmission of Power

• Energy must be conserved.

• The power output thus essentially equals the power
input.
• Therefore, in the absence of losses, the ratio of the
currents must be the inverse of the ratio of turns:
Combining with
we get
(21-7)
21-7 Transformers and Transmission of Power

Transformers work only if the current is changing; this is

one reason why electricity is transmitted as ac.
 21-10 Inductance

Mutual inductance: a changing current in one coil will

induce a current in a second coil.

(21-8a)

And vice versa; note that the constant M, known as the

mutual inductance, is the same:

(21-8b)
 21-10 Inductance

Unit of inductance: the henry, H.

1 H = 1 V·s/A = 1 Ω·s

A transformer is an example
of mutual inductance.
 21-10 Inductance

A changing current in a coil will also induce an emf in

the same coil:
(21-9)
 Ext emf I Ext emf
I
L is like a battery opposing
the source L is like a battery in series trying
to increase the emf
 21-11 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

Just as we saw that energy can be stored in an electric

field, energy can be stored in a magnetic field as well, in
an inductor, for example.
Analysis shows that the energy density of the field is
given by:
(21-10)

Inductor symbol
 21-12 LR Circuit

A circuit consisting of an inductor and a resistor will

begin with most of the voltage drop across the inductor,
as the current is changing rapidly.

With time, the current will increase less and less, until all
the voltage is across the resistor.
 21-12 LR Circuit

This plot shows the current as a function of time in an

LR circuit that has just been connected across an emf.
 21-12 LR Circuit

If the circuit is then shorted across the battery, the

current will gradually decay away.
 21-13 AC Circuits and Reactance

Resistors, capacitors, and inductors have different phase

relationships between current and voltage when placed
in an ac circuit.
The current through a resistor is in phase with the
voltage.
The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared”. Most
books define this as the “amount of AC power that produces
the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”. The
RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of
the squared function of the instantaneous values. The
symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
Vo Io
Vrms = I rms =
2 2
The term RMS, ONLY refers to time-varying sinusoidal
voltages, currents or complex waveforms were the magnitude
of the waveform changes over time and is not used in DC
circuit analysis or calculations were the magnitude is always
constant. When used to compare the equivalent RMS voltage
value of an alternating sinusoidal waveform that supplies the
same electrical power to a given load as an equivalent DC
circuit, the RMS value is called the “effective value” and is
generally presented as: Veff or Ieff.
 21-13 AC Circuits and Reactance

The current through an inductor lags the voltage by 90°.

 I (t ) = I o cos(2 ft )
dI (t )
V (t ) = L = − LI o 2 f sin(2 ft ) = − V0 sin(2 ft )
dt
 21-13 AC Circuits and Reactance
In a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90°.
 21-13 AC Circuits and Reactance
Both the inductor and capacitor have an effective resistance
(ratio of voltage to current), called the reactance.
Inductor: (21-11b)

Capacitor: (21-12b)

Note that both depend on frequency.

 21-14 LRC Series AC Circuit
Analyzing the LRC series AC circuit is complicated, as
the voltages are not in phase—this means we cannot
simply add them. Furthermore, the reactances depend on
the frequency.
 21-14 LRC Series AC Circuit

We calculate the voltage (and current) using what are

called phasors—these are vectors representing the
individual voltages.
Here, at t = 0, the current
and voltage are both at a
maximum. As time goes on,
the phasors will rotate
counterclockwise.
 21-14 LRC Series AC Circuit

Some time t later, the phasors have rotated.

 21-14 LRC Series AC Circuit

The voltages across each device are given by the

x-component of each, and the current by its
x-component. The current is the same throughout
the circuit.
 21-15 Resonance in AC Circuits

The rms current in an ac circuit is:

(21-18)

Clearly, Irms depends on the frequency.

 21-15 Resonance in AC Circuits

We see that Irms will be a maximum when XC = XL; the

frequency at which this occurs is

(21-19)

This is called the

resonant frequency.