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Science Notes

Notes in science

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29 views36 pages

Science Notes

Notes in science

Uploaded by

Gwen Baral
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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NOTES IN SCIENCE SCIENCE- systematic body of knowledge that aims to find answers to phenomena. Process of ific research SCIENTIFIC METHOD- systematic solving problem or doing sci 1. Observation 2. Statement of a problem. 3. Formulation of a Hypothesis 4. Experimentation 5. Conclusion Controlled variable > variable that is held constant Manipulated variable > variable that is being changed MEASUREMENT = a process in which a property is compared to a reference accuracy- measures how close the measurement is to the true value precision- measures how close two or mare measurements are with one another. Physical Quantity ‘Stunit Mass Kg. Length m time s ‘amount of substance mol temperature K electric current A | luminous Intensity 7] Significant Figures- all digits that are certain plus one uncertain digit 1.All nonzero digits are significant. 2.Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. 3. Zeros to the right of a decimal point and a nonzero digit are significant. 4. Zero to the right of a decimal point of numbers that are less than 1 are not significant. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS. Prefix Multiplier kilo 10° hecto 10° deka 10" deci 107 centi 107 107 micro 107 nano 10" y Ex. Convert the following measurements to the specified units 1. 30.0kg = __ going from top to bottom atomic size increases CHEMICAL BONDING ‘Types of Chemical Bonds Covalent Bond - formed when an electron pair is shared between two atoms 1,Polar Covalent: Although electrons are shared between two atoms, there isa slightly positive and a slightly negative region between the atom because of unequal sharing of electrons. ex. HF, H-Br . ail H H 2. Non-polar Covalent: The electrons are equally shared between the atoms. - present in homonuclear diatomic molecules ex.0=0,H-H,NEN Jonic Bond — results from the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal. - Positive and negative ions are formed and held together by electrostatic attractions ex. NaCl, KBr poy cote tee Structural Formula - shows how atoms are bonded with each other Chemical Formula - represents the numbers of atoms of an element in a compound *Molecular Formula — gives the actual number of atoms of an element in a molecule of a ‘compound ‘ex. H20 (water), C2H4O2 (acetic acid) “Empirical formula - the simplest chemical formula that can be written for a compound, that is, having the smallest integral subscripts possible ex: CH20 (empirical formula of acetic acid) CHEMICAL REACTIONS, Chemical Reaction a process in which one set of substances (reactants) is transformed into a ‘new set of substances (products) ex. 2H +2 > 2H,0 Evidences of a Chemical Change a gas is produced, the temperature changes, ‘a substance disappears, 2 solid is formed a color change occurs, ‘anew odor is produced. 32 ing Chemical Equations © The number of atoms of each element should be equal on both sides. © The total charge (for ions) should be the same for both sides. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 1. Combination/Synthesis Reactions - two ‘or more substances combine to form one substance ex. 2H, +02 240 2. Decomposition Reactions - breaking down of a substance into two or more simpler substances ex. 2H,0 > 2H, +0; 3. _ Single Replacement - an element substance replaces another element in a given ‘compound e& — CuCh+Zn> ZnCh+ Cu 4. Double Replacement - ions from two different reacting compounds exchange to form ‘a new compound, usually undergone by ionic ‘compounds ex. HCl+ NaOH > NaCl+H,0 5. Combustion Reactions ~ a substance combines with oxygen and undergoes rapid oxidation ex, Catto + O2 > 4C02 + 5H:0 2C4Hio+ 1302 > 8CO2 + 10H,0 GASES GAS LAWS 1. Boyle's Law — It simply states that the volume of a fixed quantity of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to Pressure V=constant x 1/P or PV= constant 2. Charles’ Law The volume of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure is directly Proportional to its absolute temperature. V= constant xT or V/T= constant 3. Grahom’s Law of Effusion - the ratio of the rate of effusion of gases is inversely related to the square root of the ratio of their molar masses. * the lighter the gas, the faster it will effuse Effusion is the term used to describe the passage of a gas through a tiny orifice into an evacuated chamber, as shown in the figure below. 33 SOLUTIONS ‘A homogenous mixture of two or more than ‘two substances Components of a Solution 1.Solute ~ substance dissolved in a given medium; in smaller quantity 2.Solvent ~ substance that dissolves the solute; in higher quantity AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS Types of Substances in Aqueous Solutions Nonelectrolytes - substances that are not dissociated into ions and therefore do not conduct electricity © formed from solutions of molecular ‘compounds ex. sugar solution Weak Electrolytes — partially ionized in aqueous solutions and are only weak conductors of electricity ¢ formed from solutions of slightly soluble salts and weak acids and bases ex. vinegar, ammonia solution Strong Electrolytes — substances that are completely ionized in aqueous solutions and are g00d electrical conductors * formed from solutions of soluble salts and strong acids and bases ~ ex. NaCl solution, aqueous HCI SOLUBILITY Factors Affecting Solubility 1. nature of solute and solvent “like dissolves like * polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents 2. temperature increasing temperature increases solubility 3. stirring Saturated Solution -a solution that can hold no more of the solute at a particular temperature. Unsaturated Solution - a solution, which contains less amount of solute than is required to saturate it at that temperature. Supersaturated Solution -a solution that is more concentrated than a saturated solution Ifa crystal of solute is added to this solution, the excess of solute crystallizes. ACIDS AND BASES Acid a substance that provides H" ions in aqueous solutions © sour taste, blue litmus turns red, pH <7 ex, muriatic acid, gastric juice, vitamin C, softdrinks Base ~a substance that provides OH" ions in aqueous solutions © bitter taste, slippery feel, red litmus turns blue, pH > 7 ex. lye, ammonia, antacids (like Kremil S) ‘Neutralization Reaction - an acid and a base react to form water and an aqueous solution of asalt. ‘THERMOCHEMISTRY - deals with the study of heat changes between the system and the ‘surroundings Endothermic reaction — absorption of heat Ex. melting of ice Exothermic reaction — release of heat Ex, burning of wood Heat (Q)— energy transferred from a body to another solely because of thelr difference in temperature (cal or J) Leal =4,1864) 35 Conventions: + Q= heat enters a body -Q= heat leaves a body For two interacting bodies A and B, Qu +Qs=0 ‘CHEMICAL KINETICS - study the rate of chemical reactions Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction 1. nature of reactants * active substances react faster 2 temperature “generally, an increase in temperature increases reaction rate due to increase kinetic energy between the molecules 3. presence of catalyst * catalyst ~ substance that hastens or slows down a reaction 4 concentration * higher concentration — faster reaction NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 1. neutron —n 2. electron/ beta particle —° xe or "8 3. positron -°.1e or «iB 4. alpha particle/ Helium -*2He or “20. 5. gamma - °ov Ex. Determine the new element formed when U-238 undergoes a beta particle emission. 233U-> $B+735NP Half-life (tun) time it takes for a substance to half its original amount Ex. How much will remain in 100.0 mg of a radioactive substance after 50 years if it’s half- life is 25 years? 25 yrs 25 yrs 100.0mg > 500mg > 25.0mg BIOLOGY ~ area of science that deals with the study of living things Characteristics of Living Things 1. Motion - movement of living things from one place to another ex. animals walking 2. Irritability - responsiveness to external conditions or stimuli ex. folding of makahiya leaves when touched 3. Nutrition - life processes involving food and its uses; includes food getting, digestion, absorption, respiration and assimilation Metabolism — sum total of all chemical processes and the changes taking place in cell 4. Growth — irreversible process that is a result of nutrition and metabolism 5. Development — maturation of living things 6. Reproduction — union of male and female sex cells necessary for the perpetuation of each living thing I, Chemical Compounds Composing Life 1. Inorganic Compounds A. water — most abundant molecule in all organisms; universal solvent B. acids — have sour taste; turns blue litmus to ted C. bases — taste bitter; turns red litmus to blue . salts — made up of cation and anion 2. Organic Compounds AProteins — made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen “building block: amino acids 36 Ex. ovaalbumin, casein, —_gluthathione, hemoglobin *Enzymes — proteins that hasten reactions in the body Functions 1. build and repair cells and tissues 2. hasten reactions in the body 3. control body functions 4, serve as transport molecules, reserve food and provide protection B. Carbohydrates made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen *building block: monosaccharides Ex. glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose, starch Functions 1. energy storage 2. serve as backbone of other molecules 3. combine with proteins to form structural components of living things C.Lipids = nonpolar substances which are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents “building block: fatty acids Ex. triacylglycerol, cholesterol Functions 1. components in the cell membrane 2. energy storage 3. insulator * D. Nucleic acids | — molecules that keep the messages or genetic code of the cell *building block: nucleotide 1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -doubly stranded that directs and controls the development and activities, of all the cells in an organism Nitrogenous Bases 1. Adenine - Thymine 2. Cytosine - Guanine 2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) -made up of chain or strand of bases “Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA Functions 1. contain the genetic material or hereditary information 2, protein synthesis CELL Cell —life’s basic unit a. prokaryotic - without a true nucleus b. eukaryotic — with true nucleus Cell Functions 1. Nutrition - process by which cells obtain food molecules to support their other activities Digestion - breaking down of food 3. Absorption - absorption of water, minerals and other essential materials 4, Biosynthesis ~ formation of complex molecules from simple molecules 5. Excretion — elimination of non-essential by- products 6. Egestion - elimination of insoluble, nondigested particles 7. Secretion — expulsion from the membrane of substances synthesized by the cell 8. Movement — locomotion of cells 9. Irritability — response to stimuli 10. Respiration — breaking down of molecules into usable chemical energy 11. Reproduction - replication or increase number by cell division 37 Cell Organelles proteins Golgi Bodies Mobile pouches Export proteins, carrying them from the ribosomes to the membrane; packaging counters of the cell Nucleus ‘Spherical structure located at the center of the cell, contains Controls or directs all the activities of the cell Vacuoles ‘Storage tanks of the cell; Regulates the molecular traffic between the vacuole and the cell substances Lysosomes Bags of digestive juices Suicide bags of the cell; break food into particles that the cell uses to grow; destroy old cells Chloroplasts Colored plastids Gives fruits and flowers the characteristic color; contain chlorophyll Part ‘Characteristics | Function Cell Fluid mosaic; | Serves asa membrane | semipermeable; | boundary outer covering between of the cell outside environment and the Inside of the cell; gives form and shape to the cell; protects the cell Mitochondria | Sausage-shaped | Powerhouse of the cell; where ATP is produced Ribosomes Tiny dotlike Where structures protein synthesis takes place Rough tong Carries Endoplasmic | membranes | proteins Reticulum where from ribosomes are | attached attached to ribosomes to other parts of the cell Smooth | Noribosomes | Involved in Endoplasmic attached the Reticulum production and transport of fats and fatelike Leucoplast Colorless plastids food storehouses in plant cells “Animal Cells — do not possess chloroplasts, leucoplasts, cell wall and vacuole (some have) 38 TISSUES Tissues ~ made up of group of cells performing specific functions 1. Animal Tissues 1. Epithelial Tissues — cover the surface of the body; form glands that secrete substances 2. Connective Tissues — bind tissues and ongans together 3. Muscular or Contractile Tissues — found in muscles that allow body movement 4. Nervous ‘Tissues - composed of networks of neurons or nerve cells 2. Plant Tissues 1. Meristematic Tissue — growth tissue that serves in the production of new cells 2. Permanent Tissue - mature tissues consisting of surface, fundamental and vascular types ORGAN SYSTEM Organ- group of different tissues working together to perform a particular function System - group of organs that coordinate with other organs for a particular life process A. Plant System 1. ROOTS - anchor the plant firmly to the ground; responsible for absorption of water and dissolved mineral nutrients from the soil “Root Hairs ~ fine, hair-like extension found in younger portions of the roots that enable water, minerals and gases to easily enter the roots 2. STEM — connects the roots to the leaves and holds the leaves up to sunlight; provides transport of water and other minerals within the plant; serves as the channel for conducting. materials between leaves and the roots *xylem ~ contains water-conducting tubes Phloem — contains the food-conducting tubes 3. LEAVES ~ arranged on the stem in a way that they can trap sunlight; major function is to manufacture food ‘*Stomata — pores or openings in the outermost which allow entry and escape of gases “Cuticle - waxy waterproof substance in the outermost layers of the leaf surface; gives shiny appearance to leaves and helps in minimizing evaporation from leaf cells, 4. FLOWERS — contain the male and the female gametes or reproductive cells; involved in sexual reproduction ~ 39 1. Peduncle - The stalk of a flower. 2. Receptacle - The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached. 3. Sepal- The outer parts of the flower (aften green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing bud. 4. Petal -The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored. 5. Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slendef filament supporting the anther, 6. Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced. 7. Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a long style, topped by a stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a seed. & Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates. 9. Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced. 5. FRUIT - developed ovary PHOTOSYNTHESIS “a process of taking inorganic material to make new organic matter through the combining of carbon dioxide and water using solar energy. occurs in green plants, blue-green algae, and certain bacteria, ‘eerone seme teeaf te somata eves, * Plants capture light energy and make their own food using it. The process of Photosynthesis is what allows the plants to make their own food. * Photosynthesis allows the chlorophyll inside each leaf to capture energy. The captured energy is used to build carbohydrates from simple raw materials. (water, carbon dioxide and minerals) These carbohydrates, also known as sugar, are the plants food. The plant uses some of the sugar, but also stores some. * Photosynthesis also needs the following raw materials to function: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, * Animals breath out carbon dioxide, so this gives the piants oxygen and carbon. Plants receive the hydrogen through water. The materials enter the plant either at the roots or the leaves. MONOCOTS AND DICOTS. 40 Monocots are seeds that only have one cotyledon, such as the corn seed. The corn seed does have a seed coat, but it does not slip off as easily as the bean seed. The corn seed will not split like the bean seed. It stays in one piece. One cotyledon surrounds the embryo. It Is a lighter color than the rest of the seed and is called the endosperm. It provides food for the growing plant. Dicots Pare seeds that have two parts, such as a bean seed. A bean seed that has soaked ia water for 2 day or two has a soft outside covering. This i the seed coat. The seed coat would probably slip off the seed easily. The bean seed has a slit going down the middle of the seed. Inside is a tiny plant called an embryo. The two large parts of the seeds are called cotyledons. They supply the food for the young plant when it's growing. The bean seed has two parts. B. Animal Organ System 1.Digestive System - process of reducing food to smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the body ‘* mouth - where food is broken to bits by the teeth and acted upon by saliva © esophagus - long tube that carries food down to the stomach peristalsis - rhythmic, wavelike muscular action that pushes the food further down the alimentary canal © stomach — large, J-shaped organ found at the end of the esophagus; contains gastric juices and enzymes that break down food © small intestine — where complete digestion and absorption of food take place © large intestine - where the undigested food materials pass through; functions to absorb water from the undigested food The Digestion Process ‘The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food Is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes {these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules). On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements {called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down, In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack- like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme. In the small intestine- After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of 41 ‘the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. In the large Intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon. The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus. 2. Circulatory System - body's transport system; regulates the flow of nutritive fluids and materials, waste substances and water into the bodies; deliver food and oxygen to the cells and to pick up the cells’ waste materials ¢ heart - muscular organ that contracts and make blood be carried to the different parts of the body Four Chambers 1. right atrium — collects blue venous deoxygenated blood from your body 2. left atrium — receives red oxygenated blood from your lungs B,right ventricle - pumps blue venous blood of Your heart and to the lungs for oxygenation A.left ventricle — pumps oxygenated blood out of your heart to all parts of the body © blood vessels 1. veins — large and thick-walled blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood to the heart 2. arteries - carry blood away from the heart *aorta — largest artery 3. capillaries - connect arteries to the veins * blood — substance composed of a liquid portion called plasma and several solid parts 1. red blood cells - very small, round, disc-shaped cells which are thinned out in the center 2. white blood cells - protect the body against —_forelgn-invading substances 3. platelets — smallest blood cells that contain and release a substance needed for blood clotting 42 PATH OF CIRCULATION Blood leaves the left side of the heart and travels through arteries which gradually di into capillaries. The blood then travels in veins back to the right side of the heart, where it is pumped directly to the lungs. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen, and this renewed blood flows back to the left side of the heart, and the whole process begins again. The major parts of the circulatory system are the heart, arteries and veins. The heart pumps blood to the arteries. The arteries take the oxygenated blood to the muscles. The veins take blood back to the heart, which then releases carbon dioxide in the lungs 3. Respiratory System = exchanges gases between the body and the external environment © nose —where air enters © pharynx — serves as a passageway for both air and food © larynx - smali cave of muscle in the front of the neck © trachea - tough muscular tube supported by rings of cartilage © fungs — where gas exchange takes place RESPIRATION PROCESS *When you breathe, you inhale air and pass it through your nasal passages where the air is filtered, heated, moistened and enters the back ‘of the throat. The esophagus (food tube) is located at the back of the throat and the trachea (windpipe) for air is located at the front, of the throat. When you eat, a tiny flap called the “epiglottis" closes down to cover the” windpipe so food won't go down the wrong pipe. “*hir flows down through the windpipe, past the vocal cords (voice box), to where the lowest ribs meet the center of your chest. This is where your windpipe divides into two tubes which lead to each of the two lungs that fill most of your ribcage. Each lung feels just like a sponge. Inside each of your sponge-like lungs, there are tubes called bronchi which branch into even smaller tubes just like the branches of a tree. At the end of these tubes are millions of sacs called alveoli. ‘The alveoli sacs bring new oxygen from air you just breathed to your bloodstream. It is here that a phenomenal exchange takes place. The oxygen is exchanged for waste products, like carbon dioxide, which the cells in your body have made and can't use. “This phenomenal exchange works with the assistance of the red blood cells in your bloodstream. Your red blood cells are like box cars on a railroad track. They will show up at the sacs at just the right time, ready to trade in old carbon dioxide that your body's cells have made for some new oxygen you just breathed in. During this process, the red blood cells turn from purple to a sparkling red color as they start carrying the oxygen to ALL the cells in your body. | Urinary System + removes waste materials from the body © kidney - bean-shaped organ which is the main excretory organ 43 ‘© ureter — long, hollow tube where liquid waste pass through © bladder reservoir of urine © urethra — passageway of urine found at the lower end of the bladder Excretion Process *The primary organs of excretion are the lungs, kidneys, and skin. Waste gases are carried by blood traveling through the veins to the lungs where respiration takes place. *Dead cells and sweat are removed from the body through the skin which is part of the integumentary system. Liquid waste is removed from the body through the kidneys. Located beside the spine in your back within your ribcage, the kidneys are small (about 10 centimeters long) reddish- brown organs that are shaped like beans. *During circulation, blood passes through the kidneys in order to deposit used and unwanted water, minerals, and a nitrogen-rich molecule called urea. The kidneys filter the wastes from the blood, forming a liquid called urine. The kidneys funnel the urine into the bladder along two separate tubes called ureters. The bladder stores the urine until muscular contractions force the urine out of the body through the urethra. Each day, your kidneys produce about 15 liters of urine. All of it needs to be removed from your system. This occurs through urination. 5. Nervous System + regulate the functions of the other body systems; receives information, interprets the information and makes the body respond to © neuron — plays the role of carrying information from one part of the body to another © brain — largest, most complex part where central exchange of nervous impulses take place 1, medulla oblongata ~ extends down from the central part of the brain and connects to the spinal cord; regulates heartbeat rate and breathing 2. cerebrum = largest and major part of the brain that controls 44 the functions related to intelligence 3. cerebellum - located between the brain stem and the hind part of the cerebrum; fegulates coordination of movements and maintain body balance © spinal cord — large ropelike segment of the nerve tissue extending down the medulla to the vertebral column; serves as the connector mechanism for the spinal reflexes and the connecting link between the peripheral system and the brain SENSE ORGANS 1. eyes~for seeing 2. nose~for smelling 3. skin — for feeling/touching 4. ears —for hearing 5. tongue —for tasting 6. Endocrine System > made up of ductless glands that secrete hormones released directly to the blood © pituitary gland — lies at the base of the brain that controls the functions of almost all the endocrine glands © thyroid gland - soft, brownish-red ‘organ that secretes the hormones, thyroxine and calcitonin © parathyroid gland - four, small glandular bodies that regulate the calcium and phosphate balance in the blood plasma ¢ thymus gland ~ manufactures white blood cells that make it possible for the body to develop immunity against infection © adrenal gland — small gland on top of the kidneys that secretes the hormones cortisol that regulates metabolism and adrenaline * pancreas -. secretes insulin that controls the sugar storage in the liver 6. Integumentary System - functions for protection © skin — tough, elastic material that Prevents rapid evaporation of water from the bodies; protects the body from mechanical injuries and from bacterial invasion © hair ~ made up of epithelial tissues; has its living roots embedded in the dermis and its body growing out through the epidermis 7, Skeletal System = gives the body support; protects the internal organs; make body movements possible © skull protects the brain © rib cage — protects the heart © vertebral column — protects the spinal cord * joint - place where bone meets 1. Immovable joints - do not allow movement 2. Movable joints — allow angular or rotary movements 3. Partially movable joints — allow slight 8. Muscular System = allows body movement; gives form and shape to the body . smooth muscles — found in the walls of the internal organs and involved in involuntary movements that cannot be controlled © striated muscles — associated with voluntary movement 9. Immune System - defends the body against diseases Radus Uina_ Sacral Cocrye Head ol femur Cake 10. Reproductive System - functions for the reproduction and perpetuation of offsprings A. Male Reproductive System © testes - primary male reproductive organs, smooth and oval and contains the ~—_sperm-bearing seminiferous tubules * epididymis - a narrow tube found on top of the testes; where sperm cells * vas deferens — connecting tube that continue to propel the sperm * bulbourethral gland - secretes mucus-like lubricating substance penis ~ cylindrical organ through which sperm and urine exit the body B. Female Reproductive System 6 ovaries — almond-shaped glands designed for germinating eggs and producing the female hormones * fallopian tube - form the upper, free margins of the flap © uterus — pear-shaped mass of solid mov muscle with a small, flat central cavity lined with a soft, moist membrane © cervix- opening to the uterus ‘vagina — channel leading from the uterus to the external opening of the genital canal Reproduction ~ fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell forming the zygote CELL DIVISION AMitosis — division of the body cells or som: cells = produces daughter cells of diploid number (2N) B. Meiosis - division of germ cells or gametes producing daughter cells of haploid number (N) 1" meiotic division - DNA has already formed two twin strands; crossing over of DNA strands 2 meiotic division — chromosomes at the center of every cell which then separate and move to opposite poles; cell divides resulting to four daughter cells Sex Chromosomes — determine the sex of an organism * fermales: XX * males: XY 46 chromosomes = 44 autosomes + 2 sex chromosomes X chromosome Y chromosome longer shorter Rod-shaped Curve at the end Devoid of genes Metabolically inactive Sex-linked Few sex-linked Found inmales and | Found only in males females Sex-Linked Traits - traits unrelated to sex and determined by genes on the sex chromosomes Ex. color blindness - inability to distinguish between the colors green and red due to a recessive allele of the gene Hemophilia - a recessive inherited disease in which the person’s blood does not clot easily; caused by a defective gene on the X chromosome Sex- Influenced Traits - caused by genes that act differently in males and females Ex. baldness - the gene is not on the X chromosome but its expression of dominance Is, affected by the sex of the invidual involved Sex- Limited Traits — autosomal genes are found in both sexes but the trait is manifested only in one sex for physiological or anatomical reason Ex. large comb in roosters but not in hen BLOOD TYPE Recipient Donor ovTATs8 | aa o o | =s[e 7 A o o s s 8 of|etfo = AB ofolfo a “unshaded squares are possible donors *human blood cells may contain in their surfaces one or both of two different antigens A and B Antigens — substances that stimulate the production of antibody 47 [- Blood Type Antigen Present A A B 8 AB ‘AandB ° none ECOLOGY branch of biology that deals with the study of interrelations between living organisms and the nonliving factors in their environment which may be affected or influenced by them Ecosystem ~ functional environment consisting of biotic (living) and abiotic —_(nonliving) components that are actively interacting with one another Biosphere — where living organisms exist Living Components * Population — number of individuals ‘of one species in an ecosystem © Community ~ different populations interacting with each other Categories: 1.Producers — organisms that manufacture their own food ex. plants 2. Consumers — organisms that cannot make their own food a. Herbivores/ Primary Consumers — organisms that feed directly on green plants b. Carnivores/ Secondary Consumers — organisms that eat herbivores ¢. Omnivores - organisms that eat both plants and animals 3. Decomposers - organisms that feed on decaying or dead organisms ‘ex. small animals, bacteria, fungl Nonliving Components = include soil or earth, water, air, temperature, light, physical and chemical factors Food Chain ~ represents the line of consumer starting with the producer Food Web ~ network of food chains on ia eer Pyramids — diagram that describes the flow of energy and matter ‘* primary producers ~ base * top carnivores — peak Types of Ecosystems 1. Natural Ecosystem — develops on its own by using only the energy and materials found in ‘the environment ex. mangrove swamp, coral reef, tropical rainforest 2. Artificial Ecosystem — made and maintained by man ex. rice field, fish pens Relationships between Biotic Factors 1. Predation - a relationship wherein one organism kills (predator) and the other dies (prey) ex. Cat eating a mouse 2. Parasitism — a relationship wherein one ‘organism is benefited (parasite) and the other is harmed (host) ex. ticks on dogs 48 3. Commensalism — a relationship wherein one benefits (commensal) while the other is neither helped nor harmed ex. an orchid plant on the trunk of the tree 4, Matualism — a give-and take relationship ex. flowers and insects 5. Competition — organisms compete for food, shelter and other needs ex. two cats competing for a fish bone TAXONOMY Classification of Organisms Taxonomy ~ science of classifying organisms * Linnaeus ~ ranked categories from the broadest taxon (kingdom) to the smallest taxon (species) ‘ex. house cat Animalia : Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae Genus: Felis Species: domesticus © Scientific name: Genus + species FIVE KINGDOMS 1. Monera — prokaryotic, single-celled, do not undergo sexual recombination ex. bacteria 2. Protista - eukaryotic, one-celled organisms ‘that are animal-like in their feeding habits and movements ex. paramecium, amoeba, brown, red and green algae 3. Fungi — eukaryotic, multicellular, parasitic, incapable of manufacturing their own food, cell walls made of chitin ex. mushrooms, molds, yeasts, smuts 4, Plant — eukaryotic, can produce their own food Plant Kingdom ‘oer Beary Pets ‘Seed oong Pants | | ‘Age contre Monsen Flowedog Prete * * Fema or yrnosperme ‘verve Angoeperes Pace oc Woncctledore leafed * Flowering Plants a. Dicots - have two cotyledons; generally have leaves with veins forming a network ex, mango, gumamela b. Monocots — have one cotyledon; generally have leaves with parallel veins ex. rice, corn * Nonflowering plants ex. pinetrees, ferns, mosses 5. Animal - eukaryotic, does not possess a cell wall Classification of Animals Chordates/Vertebrates ~ have backbone or vertebral column; at the early stage, they have a dorsal nerve cord, a notochord and gill slits 1. Mammals — bodies covered with hair; have mammary glands; warm-blooded ex. man, kangaroo, carabao 2. Birds ~ bodies covered with feathers; have wings that make them fly; warm- blooded; lay eges ex. ostrich, chicken 3. Reptiles — bodies covered with thick, dry scales; egg-laying; cold-blooded ex. lizard, crocodile 49 4. Amphibians - spend part of their lives in water and part on land ex. frog 5. Fishes — live in water; breathe through their gills; most have scales as an outer covering of their body; cold- blooded ex. tilapia, bangus Invertebrates ~ do not possess characteristics of chordates 1. Echinoderms — marine organisms with spiny skin ex. starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber 2. Arthropods - have three or more pairs of legs; have segmented abdomen; hard outer body covering or exoskeleton ex. crab, spider 3.Mollusks - have soft bodies; most have Protective shells as an outer body covering ex. snails; squids 4. Annelids — bodies made up of rings joined together ex. earthworm 5. Roundworms — have round bodies; no segmentation ex. ascaris 6. Flatworms ~ have flat bodies; have only one ‘opening in their digestive tract ex. tapeworms. 7. Cnidarians ~ possess stinging cells; have hollow, tube-like bodies, with a mouth at one end ex. jellyfish EARTH SCIENCE = all the sciences that collectively seek to understand Earth and its neighbors in space EARTH ‘* oblate-spheroid flattened at the poles and slightly bulging at the equator Major Divisions ‘SOLID EARTH — lying beneath the atmosphere andthe ocean aie a. crust- outermost layer made mostly of solid rocky material b. mantle- layer of molten rock . outer core- liquid layer of Fe and Ni 4. inner core- solid center of the earth UTHOSPHERE + rigid outer layer that includes uppermost ‘mantle plus the oceanic and continental crust Minerals - single elements or compounds found naturally in the crust of the earth Characteristics of Minerals * solid naturally occurring definite composition inorganic crystalline (have orderly internal structure/ definite pattern) Physical Properties 1. hardness- measure of a mineral’s resistance to scratching or abrasion Mineral Moh’s Scale Tale ‘Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Feldspar Quarts Topaz Corundum Diamond 10 fol eo|=Jofalafalala 2. color— most obvious mineral feature 3. streak - color of finely powdered mineral; more reliable indication of color 4, cleavage - tendency of a mineral to break/split to pieces 5. luster -ability of a mineral to affect path of light; appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral 6. crystal form — external expression of a ‘mineral’s internal orderly arrangement of atoms Ex. quartz, calcite, gold and silver ROCKS-minerals dumped together 1. Igneous-formed from the cooling of magma from the earth's interior ex. granite, basalt, obsidian, pumice * Lava~ similar to magma except that ‘most of the gaseous components have escaped Types of Igneous Rocks @. Volcanic/Extrusive igneous ‘© rocks that result when lava solidifies © extruded on to the surface b. Plutonic/Intrusive Igneous © rocks that result when magma crystallizes a © intrude existing rocks 2. Sedimentary- formed from compaction and cementation of pre-existing rock particles ex. sandstone, limestone, shale 3. Metamorphic- arise from the transformation of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic ex. gneiss, slate, marble ROCK CYCLE The Rock Cycle Weathering-breaking down of rocks brought about by either physical or chemical means Erosion-process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried along by such agents as wind and running water. Soil- small fragments formed when rocks are exposed to the forces of nature such as. temperature, wind and water. Composition: 1. Inorganic matter-minerals, air, water 2. Organic matter- humus Types of Soil 1. Sand- coarsest fragment 2. Clay- finest fragments 3, Loam-mixture of sand and clay ‘THEORIES REGARDING THE CHANGES IN THE LITHOSPHRE 1. Plate Tectonics- suggests that the earth's crust is divided into the large plates, moving very slowly in particular directions with respect to one another 2. Continental Orft- suggest that the continent called Pangaea that broke up into pieces and gradually moved away from one another 3. Seafloor Spreading Diastrophism- involves movement of the crust such that a portion is pushed up (uplift), pushed down | subsidence) or forced side-ways (thrust) Volcanism-movement of the earth's magma Types of Volcanic Cones 1. Cinder Cones- formed from violent eruptions 2. Shield Cones- formed from quiet volcanism 3. Composite Cones- formed from alternative violent and quiet deposition Earthquakes- vibrations or tremors of the crust ‘Type of Earthquakes 1. Tectonic- cause by faulting 2. Voleanic- caused by volcanic 3. Land slips- caused by landslide occurring over a wide area. Folding- bending of rock layers Faulting- formation of fractures HYDROSPHERE -covers about 70% of the earth’s surface. OCEANS 1. Pacific Ocean- largest and the oldest 2. Atlantic Ocean 3. Indian Ocean 4. Arctic Ocean 5. Antarctic Ocean ‘Sea- contains about 35 grams of salt per kilogram River- contains less than 0.10 gram of Salts per Kilogram f Factors that Cause Water Movements 1. Wind Blowing Over the Water 52 2. Earth’s Rotation +t Coriolis Effect- surface water moves generally along a path 45° to the right of the prevailing wind direction in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern hemisphere. 3. Difference in Density of Adjoining Water Masses * denser mass sinks beneath the less dense mass - 4. Gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun. SURFACE CURRENTS. a. North Equatorial Current b. South Equatorial Current ¢. Equatorial Counter-current WATER RESOURCES 1. Surface Water- above the ground a. Fresh Surface Water ex. rivers, lakes and swamps b. Marine Water ex. coastal and oceanic water 2. Ground water WATER CYCLE - Describes the continuous interchange of water among the _aceans, ‘atmosphere, and continents - Processes involved in the cycle include precipitation, evaporation, condensation, infiltration (the movement of water into rocks or soil through cracks and pore spaces), runoff (water that flows over the land rather than infiltrating into the ground) and transpiration (the release of water to the atmosphere by plants =e ATMOSPHERE Air is a mixture of many discrete gases, each with its own physical properties, in which varying quantities of tiny solid and liquid particles are suspended. + Nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99 % of the volume of clean, dry air. The remaining 1 % of dry air is mostly inert gas argon (0.93 %) plus tiny quantities of other gases. * Carbon dioxide, although present in minute amounts (0.036 %), is very important because it has the ability to absorb heat energy radiated by Earth and thus helps keep the atmosphere warm. 53 Troposphere: = most dense part - almost all weather is in this region. = 99%of located here Stratosphere: + the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. + Many airplanes fly in this layer because of its stability. Mesosphere + rock fragments from space are burned in this layer Thermosphere - _ It's where the space shuttle orbits, Exosphere + upper limit of the atmosphere Seasons can be attributed to the yearly fluctuation in the angle of the Sun and length of daylight brought about by Earth’s changing orientation to the Sun. Heat and Temperature Heat: a form of energy Temperature: measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual atoms or molecules in a substance. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Conduction- transfer if heat through matter by molecular activity. (ex: Anyone who has touched a metal spoon that was left ina hot pan has discovered that heat was conducted). Convection - transfer of heat by mass Movement or circulation within a substance. It can only take place in fluids) where the atoms and molecules are free to move about. Radiation- _ transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. It does not need a medium to travel through. Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air ‘Humidity is the amount of water vapor in air. Humidity can be examined by looking at: ‘© specific humidity - a measure of the actual quantity of water vapor in a given mass of air * relative humidity - ratio of the airs actual water content to its potential water vapor capacity at a given temperature © decrease in temperature results in an increase in relative humidity (CLOUDS visible aggregates of minute droplets of water or tiny crystals of ice. © Cirrus —clouds are high, white, and thin. © Cumulus — consist of globular individual cloud masses. Such clouds are frequently described as having a cauliflower structure © Stratus — best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky. Fog- a cloud with its base at or very near the ground that results from radiation cooling (i.e., when Earth’s surface cools rapidly by radiation). Air Pressure and Wind Alr pressure: the force exerted by the weight of air above. With increasing altitude there is less air above to exert a force, and thus air pressure decreases with altitude. ‘Mercury Barometer is used to measure air pressure. Wind: horizontal flow of air from areas of high pressure toward areas of lower pressure, Winds are controlled by the following combination of forces: 54 a. Pressure-gradient force b. Coriolis effect - deflective effect of Earth's rotation — to the right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere c. Friction with Earth's surface (slows the ‘movement of air and alters wind direction) LOCAL WINDs: - small-scale winds produced by a locally generated pressure SeaBreeze —___» Sea Breeze * In coastal areas during the warm summer_months, the land surface is heated more intensely during the daylight hours than is the adjacent body of water. * Asa result, the air above the land surface heats, expands, and rises, creating an area of lower pressure. A sea breeze then develops, because cooler air over the water (higher Pressure) moves toward the warmer land (lower pressure) Land Breeze Land Breeze © At night, the land cools more rapidly than the sea and the land breeze develops. Weather Patterns and Severe Storms FRONTS - boundaries that separate air masses (i.e., immense body of air) of different densities, one warmer and often higher in moisture content than the other. * Warm Front — occurs when the surface Position of the front moves so that warm air occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air. Along a warm front, a warm air mass overrides a retreating mass of cooler air. As the warm air ascends, it cools to produce clouds and light-to-moderate Precipitation over a large area * Cold Front forms when cold air is advancing into a region occupied by warmer air. Precipitation along a cold front is more intense and of shorter duration than is _ precipitation associated with a warm front. Tor view © Thunderstorms + caused by the upward movement of warm, moist, unstable ai triggered by a number of different processes. * Tornadoes + destructive, local storms of short duration, are violent windstorms associated with severe thunderstorms that take the form of a rotating column of air that extends downward from a cumulonimbus cloud, ‘+ Tropical Cyclones + require heat and moisture to develop. They are classified in terms of the velocity of the accompanying wind, 55 a. A tropical depression has maximum wind speed not greater than 63 kph. b. A tropical storm has a wind speed range of 63-118 kph. c. A typhoon has maximum wind speed f 118 kph or more. NOTES: 1. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place for a short period of time whereas climate is a generalization of the weather conditions of a place over a long period of time. 2. EI Nifiois refers to the Periodic warming of the ocean that occurs in the central and eastern Pacific. It is associated with periods when a weakened pressure gradient causes the trade winds to diminish. TIDES Tides- rise and fall of the earth’s surface waters due to its rotation 1. Spring Tide- produced when the sun and the moon align resulting to higher than usual high tides and lower than usual low tides. 2. Neap Tide- produced when the sun and the moon are at right angles, high tide is not so high and low tide is not so slow. ASTRONOMY History of Astronomy Ancient Astronomy © Claudius Ptolemy- presented the geocentric (Earth-centered) outlook of the Greeks in his Ptolemaic system. The Ptolemaic model has the planets moving in circular orbits around a motionless Earth. © Anaxagoras- reasoned that the Moon shined by reflected sunlight, and because it is a sphere, only half is iminated at one time © Aristotle — concluded that Earth is spherical * Aristarchus - first Greek to profess a Sun-centered, or heliocentric, universe. ‘© Erathosthenes — credited for his successful attempt to establish the size of Earth. Modern Astronomy * Nicolaus Copernicus ~ reconstructed the solar system with the Sun at the center and the planets orbiting around but erroneously continued to use circles to represent the orbits of planets. © Johannes Kepler— ushered in the new astronomy with his three law of planetary motion such as the path of the each planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus. * Isaac Newton - formulated and tested the law of universal gravitation, ‘Motions of Earth Rotation: turning, or spinning, of a body on its axis. ts main consequence is day and night. Revolution: motion of a body, such as planet or moan, along a path around some point in space 1 Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. 2.At perihelion (closest to the Sun}, it is 147 M km distant, which occurs about January 3" each year. 3. At aphelion (farthest from the sun), Earth is 152 Mkm distant, which occurs about July 4", 56 ECLIPSE -occurs at those times when the Moon moves Into a position of direct alignment with the Sun and the Earth. ‘Two Basic Types of Eclipses: a. Lunar - when the full Moon Passes through the shadow of the Earth. ~In this case, the Sun and the Moon are on opposite sides of the Earth. b. Solar - occurs when the new ‘Moon passes directly between the ‘Sun and the Earth *In the narrow path of totality swept across the Earth by the Moon’s complete shadow (the umbra), and during these few minutes the wispy halo of the Sun ~ the corona ~comes into view as the dark disk of the Moon totally obscures the bright Sun. Outside the path of totality, in the Moon's partial shadow (the penumbra), some portion of the Sun’s bright disk remains visible. THE SOLAR SYSTEM believed to have formed according to the nebular hypothesis. (This theory holds that 4.6 billion years ago the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud. PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM PLANET - A celestial body that is (a) in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. 1 SMALLER, ROCKY —TERRESTIAL PLANETS 1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars Ml LARGE, LOW-DENSITY GASEOUS PLANETS 1. Jupiter 2. Saturn 3. Uranus 4. Neptune The Relative Sizes of the Planets and the Sun ‘Temperatures on the Planets * Generally, the farther from the Sun, the cooler the planet. Differences occur when the greenhouse effect warms a planet (like Venus) surrounded by a thick atmosphere. Density of the Planets * The outer, gaseous planets are much less dense than the inner, rocky planets. * The Earth is the densest planet. Saturn is the least dense planet; it would float on water. ‘The Mass of the Planets “Jupiter is by far the most massive planet; Saturn trails it. Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus and Mars are orders of magnitude less massive. A Day on Each of the Planets A day is the length of time that it takes a planet to rotate on its axis (360°). A day on Earth takes almost 24 hours. The planet with the longest day is Venus; a day on Venus takes 243 Earth days. (A day on Venus is longer than its year; a year on Venus takes only 224.7 Earth days). The planet with the shortest day is Jupiter; a day on Jupiter only takes 9.8 Earth hours! 37 ‘The Average Orbital Speed of the Planets As the planets orbit the Sun, they travel at different speeds. Each planet speeds up when it is nearer the Sun and travels more slowly when it is far from the Sun (this is Kepler's Second Law of Planetary Motion). 5. MERCURY a small, dense planet that has no atmosphere and exhibits the greatest temperature extremes of any plant) 0), is closest planet to our Sun and the fastest moving planet in our Solar ‘System VENUS itis the hottest planet in our Solar ‘System brightest planet in the sky, has a thick, heavy atmosphere composed of 97 % carbon dioxide Venus rotates VERY slowly EARTH the only planet in our Solar System that is known to support life the densest planet in our Solar System MaRS Red Planet, has a carbon dioxide atmosphere only 1% as dense as Earth’s There are large stores of frozen carbon dioxide at the north and south poles JUPITER Jupiter is the fifth and largest planet in our solar system. This gas giant has a thick atmosphere, 39 known moons, and a dark, barely-visible ring. Its most prominent features are bands across its latitudes and a great red spot (which is a storm). SATURN has beautiful rings that are made mostly of ice chunks (and some rock) that range in size from the size of a fingernail to the size of a car made mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. 7. URANUS * Uranus’ blue color is caused by the methane (CH) in its atmosphere; this molecule absorbs red light. * Uranus’ rotational axis is strongly tilted on its side (97.9"). Uranus rotates on its side. 8. NEPTUNE '* Neptune cannot be seen using the eyes alone. * Each season lasts 40 years; the poles are in constant darkness or sunlight for 40 years at a time. OTHER HEAVENLY BODIES * Asteroids - smaller bodies that have been likened to flying mountains. The largest is Ceres. Most lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. + Comets = made of frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide) with small pieces of rocky and metallic material. © Meteoroids + small solid particles that travel through interplanetary space, become meteors when they enter the Earth’s atmosphere and vaporize with a flash of light. Meteorites are the remains of meteoroids found on Earth. SUN one of the 200 billion stars that make up the Milky Way Galaxy ~The source of its energy is nuclear fusion ( two Hydrogen atoms combine to produce Helium + energy) The Sun can be divided into four parts: a. solar interior b. photosphere— visible surface, radiates most of the light 58 c d. chromosphere - sun’s colored sphere made of incandescent layers corona — outermost portion made of ionized gases that escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and stream toward Earth at high speeds. STAR: a ball of gases held together by gravity Properties of Stars: The intrinsic properties of stars include: a. brightness b. color manifestation of a star's temperature “blue stars are the hottest while red stars are the coolest c. temperature d._ mass e. size *the biggest stars are the hottest Life Cycle of Stars: Stars are born when their nuclear furnaces are ignited by the unimaginable pressures and temperatures in collapsing nebulae. New stars not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion are called protostars. The final fate of a star is determined by its mass. © white dwarf — hot, dense body resulting from the collapse of a star that has mass that is less than one-half the mass of the Sun © Medium-mass stars (between 0.5 and 3.0 times the mass of the Sun) become red giants and erid up as white dwarf stars © Supernova — brilliant explosion of a star that is more than three times the mass of the sun *This event can produce small, extremely dense neutron stars, composed entirely of subatomic particles called neutrons; or even smaller and denser black holes, objects that have much immense gravity that light cannot escape their surface. Aunit use to express stellar distance is the light year, which is the distance light travels in a year - about 9.5 trillion kilometers. Constellations- group of stars forming a Pattern In the sky. dawn Ex. Ursa Major, Ursa Minor and Onion ‘THE UNIVERSE It is the summation of all particles that exist and the space in which all events ‘occur. It is where all heavenly bodies suspend and move. ‘The Big Bang Theory states that the entire universe was at one time confined in a dense, hot, supermassive concentration. About 20 billion years ago, a cataclysmic explosion hurled this material in all directions, creating all mater and space. 59 SEASONAL CHANGES The Seasons on earth [a ‘i Pics ernie Gere Be *The Earth's seasons are not caused by the differences in the distance from the Sun throughout the year (these differences are extremely small). The seasons are the result of the tilt of the Earth's axis. *The Earth's axis is tilted from perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic by 23.45°. This tilting is what gives us the four seasons of the year - spring, summer, autumn (fall) and winter. Since the axis is tilted, different parts of the globe are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the year. *Summer is warmer than winter (in each hemisphere) because the Sun's rays hit the Earth at a more direct angle during summer than during winter and also because the days are much longer than the nights during the summer. During the winter, the Sun's rays hit the Earth at an extreme angle, and the days are very short. These effects are due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. Solstices *The solstices are days when the Sun reaches its farthest northern and southern declinations. The winter solstice occurs on December 21 or 22 and marks the beginning of winter (this is the shortest day of the year). The summer solstice occurs on June 21 and marks the beginning of summer (this is the longest day of the year). Equinoxes “*Equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration. The two yearly equinoxes occur when the Suncrosses the celestial equator. “The vernal equinox occurs in late March (this is. the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of fall in the Southern Hemisphere); the autumnal equinox ‘occurs in late September (this is the beginning Of fall in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of spring in the Southern Hemisphere). PHASES OF THE MOON ‘The revolution of the Moon around the Earth makes the Moon appear as if it is changing shape in the sky. From Earth we see the Moon grow from a thin crescent to a full disk (or full moon) and then shrink back to a thin crescent ‘again before vanishing for a few days. = | |____ a sr oi 60

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