FARM STRUCTURES

Farm struct
uresrefert
oallthephysicalstr
uctureswhicharefoundonthe
farm suchascr opstor
es,pigst
ys,poultr
yhouses, ani
mal
protecti
on/handli
ngstruct
ures,f
ence, f
arm buil
dings,
farm waterst
ruct
ures
etc.

Animalhandl
ingst
ructuresincludecrushes,sprayraces,
plungedi
ptanks.
Forprot
ecti
onincl
udef ences,pensforgr owi
ngupani malsandcalves,
str
uctur
ebuil
dingforwor ker
s,garages,farm waterstr
uctur
esetc.

I
MPORTANCEOFFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

1.Theyprov i
decomfor
ttohumansandanimal
sbyacti
ngasplacesof
abode(housing)
.Forexampl
efamer
’shouseandani
malpens
respect
ivel
y.

2.Farm bui
l
dingspr
otectfar
m machi
ner
yfr
om weat
heragent
sand
thi
evessuchasgarages.

3.Farm st
ructuressuchaspoultr
yhouseprotectvul
nerableli
vestock
forexamplepoul t
ryagai
nstbadweatherandpredators.Thi
sr educes
str
essandi ncreasesout
put.

4.Far
m bui
ldi
ngsgeneral
l
yincr
easeeff
ici
encyandeaseof
managementbyacti
ngasoffi
ces.

5. Somefar
m buil
dingsser
veasani
tar
yfunct
ionf
orexampl
ethebat
h
r
oomsandtoi
l
ets.

6.Farm buil
dingsenableonetoincreaset
heprofi
tmar
ginbyst
ori
ng
cropstowai tforhi
gherpr
icesforexamplecr
opstor
age
buil
dings/stor
es.

7.Farm bui
l
dingssaveani
mal f
eedsbykeepingt
heanimalswarm and
reduci
nglossofener
gyinmaintai
ningbodyal
socausesless
wastageandfeedsarepr
otectedf
rom badweather
.
 8.Far
m st
ruct
uresi
ncr
easet
her
eal
est
atev
alueoft
hef
arm.

9.Farm bui
l
dingsmayhel
pinconservat
ionoflabourforexampl
ewhen
l
aboursavingequi
pmenti
sinst
all
edindoorsforexampleinamai
ze
cri
b.

10. Theyreducecr
oplossesbystor
ingexcessproducetor
educe
wast
ageforexamplethecr
opstores,
cri
bsandgr anar
ies.

11. Far
m bui
l
dingsmayimprov
ethequali
tyofproducethr
ough
stor
ageofgrai
nsli
kemaizeandmil
letandprocessi
ngsuchproduce.

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGTHELEVELOFI
NVESTMENTI
NFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

1.Moneyandcapi talavail
abl
e.Buil
dingcotsmoneyi.
e.t
hebuil
ding
materialhastobeboughtandt hebuil
dingcont
ract
orspai
d.
Therefor
e, t
hehighertheamountofmoneyav ai
labl
e,t
hemoret he
bui
ldingsthatcanbeer ect
ed/setup.

2.Thesizeoftheent
erpri
se.Thebi
ggertheent
erpri
se,
thegreat
ert
he
necessi
tyoffar
m bui
ldi
ngsbecausether
ewillbemoretostor
eanda
great
ernumberofemployeestohouse.

3.Thenatur
eoftheent
erpri
se.Ani
mal
product
ionr
equi
resmor
e
st
ruct
uresthancr
opproducti
on.

4.Locat
ionoftheenter
pri
se/
cli
mate.Thelevel
ofinv
estmentinthe
temperat
eareasishi
gherduetothegreat
erneedforpr
otect
ion
agai
nsttheadver
seweather.

5.Natur
eofownership.Pri
vat
eownershi
poft hel
andandot
her
ent
erpri
sesst
imulateinv
estmenti
nbuil
dings.

6.Economicr
etur
nsf
orsetti
ngupbuil
dings.Mor
ebui
ldi
ngsarebrund
tobeconst
ruct
edi
fitdeemedthati
tmakeseconomicsense.

7.Changesintechnol
ogy.Changes/
innov
ationsi
ntechnol
ogymay
makeiotnecessaryt
oinvestmoreinexisti
ngbui
ldi
ngsandremodal
 orr
enov
atet
hem t
osui
teconomi
cchanges.

SI
TINGOFFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

Thesi
tei
stheact
ual
pieceofgr
oundonwhi
cht
hebui
l
dingi
sconst
ruct
ed.

Sit
ingoff
arm bui
l
dingsr
efer
stothechoosi
ngorsel
ect
ionofthepar
tof
thefar
mlandwherethefar
m bui
l
dingsaret
obeconstr
ucted.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edwhensi
ti
ngf
arm bui
l
dings

 Accessi
bil
it
y.I
tshoul
dbenearat
ranspor
tnetwor
ktoease
accessi
bil
i
ty.I
tshoul
dal
sobenearafort
ranspor
tat
ionand
marketi
ngpurposes.

 Watersupply.Itshouldbesitednearapermanentsour
ceofwat er
.
Alt
ernat
ivel
y,itshouldbeeasi l
yconnect
edtowatersuppl
ysystem.
Watermayber equiredfordomesti
cuseathomeorf orani
mals,
cooli
ngofmachi nesetc.

 El
ectricit
y/powersupply.I
tshouldbeneartheelect
ri
ci
tygrid(
li
ke)of
possible.Thisisanessenti
alconsider
ati
onparti
cul
arl
yinbuil
dings
wheredi ff
erenttypesofmachineryaretobeinst
all
edforexample
mil
kingmachi nes,f
ri
dges,pumps, mil
l
setc.

 Dr
ainage.Thebui
ldi
ngshouldbeconst
ruct
edonwel
ldr
ainedar
eat
o
av
oidsinki
ngofthefoundat
ion.

 Elev
ati
on.Far
m bui
l
dingssuchasoffi
cesshouldbecentr
all
ylocat
ed
toprov
ideagoodvi
ewofaf arm andeasesuperv
isi
on.

 Gradi
ent/
topography.Forthepur
poseoff aci
li
tat
ingf
reeflowofrain
waterandnaturaldr
ainage,t
hebuil
dingsarebett
ersi
tuatedonraised
gr
oundpr ef
erablyongentlesl
opes.Avoidlowswamppl acesand
st
eepslopes.

 Securi
ty.Farm bui
l
dingsforpr
otect
ingexpensi
veequi
pmentsuchas
tr
actorgaragesshouldbecentr
all
ylocat
edtoensuresecur
it
yoft
he
 equi
pment
.

 Ori
ent
ati
on/v
isi
bil
i
ty.Advant
agesshouldbetakenofthev
iew.Al
so,
t
hehighnoonsunshouldnothitdi
rect
lyi
ntothebui
ldi
ng.

 Soilt
ype.Far
m bui l
dingsshouldbeconstructedont
heinfert
ilepans
reser
vedforproductionpurposes.Al
so,soilwit
hahighbearing
capacit
ytocarrythewei ghtoft
hebuil
dingshouldbeconsidered.

 Direct
ionofprev
aili
ngwind.Strongwindshaveanadv erseef
fecton
thefeedinghabi
tsofanimals.Toensureagai
nstthis,
thebuil
dings
shouldbeconstructedontheleewar dsi
deofthefarm andwind
breaksplant
edont hewindwar dside.

 Posit
ionofthesun.Thi sshouldbet akenintoaccountbecausehigh
temperatur
eaffectstheanimal’sappet i
tewiththeconsequencesof
l
owerpr oducti
on.Thisissobecausehotsunr ayswill
affectani
mal
product
ion.Animalsfeedmor edur i
ngcool erhoursofthedayfor
exampleinthemor ningandev eningthandur i
ngthehot t
erhoursof
middayandl at
eafternoon.Asuf fi
cientsupplyofsunl
ighttopoult
ry
housesinthemor ningandev eningalsokeepseggpr oductionup.

 Thefarmer’sper
sonalwhimsorpanaroma/pref
erence.Themaj or
it
y
ofpeople/
farmerstendt
oattachspeci
alimport
ancet othescenery
andsocialamenit
iesint
helocal
it
y.Afarmersel
ectsaccordingto
hi
s/herowndecision

LAYOUTOFFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

Layoutoff
arm bui
l
dingsistheposi
ti
onorar
rangementt
othebui
l
dingsi
n
rel
ati
ontooneanotheronthefar
m.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edi
nlay
ingoutf
arm bui
l
dings

 Relat
ionshi
pbetweenonebuildi
ngandtheother
.Bui
ldi
ngswher
e
operati
onsofsi
milarnat
urethatcanbedoneataboutt
hesame
ti
meshoul dbeputtoget
her/
neareachother
.
  Fir
er i
sks.St
oresforfl
ammablemateri
alsshoul
dbepl aced
downwi ndofotherst
ruct
urest
ominimizefi
reri
sks.Forexampl
e
fuelstor
es.

 Fut
ureplansofexpansi
on.Thefarm st
eadlayoutshoul
dfaci
l
itat
e
hor
izont
alexpansi
onofthebuil
dingsonthefarm.

 Flexi
bil
i
ty.Thefar
m steadshouldbedesi
gnedt
obef
lexi
blei
nthe
faceofchangingrequi
rements.

 Economics.Themosteconomi
cal
desi
gnst
hatmeett
hemi
nimum
standar
dsshouldbeused.

 Enterpri
sebuil
dings.Bui
ldi
ngsforent erpr
isessuchaspoul
tryand
pi
gger ywhichgiveoffbadsmel lshouldbeconstruct
edata
di
st anceofatl
east30met ersawayf rom theoffi
cesandhome
steadsandshoul dbeplacedlastdownwi ndoftheotherst
ruct
ures.

 Latr
ines.Theseshouldbebui l
tatleastagooddist
anceawayf r
om
theresi
dentialhousesconsi
deringthewinddir
ecti
onandsmel l
.In
swampswher ethewatertableisbeyondthewatertabl
etoavoid
contaminationofthewaterextr
actedfrom t
heundergroundand
syst
em f orexampleboreholesandwel l
s.

 Animal st
ructures/houses.Animal housessuchascal fpensand
pensforoldani malsshoul dbebui l
tnearpast urel
andt oease
carr
iageoff odderandt oensuret hattheanimal eat
sgr assini
ts
fr
eshf orm withhighwat ercontent.So,itshouldnotbeal ong
dist
ancef r
om f encedgrassland/pasturestoani malpens.

St
ruct
ural
requi
rement
sofbui
l
ding

Eachpartofthebuil
dingalwayshastocar
ryaload.Their
onsheetsare
carr
iedbytheti
mberf ramesonwhichtheir
onsheetsarenail
edandthe
l
oadcar r
iedbytheti
mberf rameist
ransmi
ttedtofoundat
ionthr
oughthe
wall
,foundit
selfandfinal
l
yt ot
hesoil
.
Ty
pesofl
oads

 Deadloadscompr i
seoft
hemateri
alofconst
ruct
ion.Thi
sty
peof
l
oadisfixedi
nlocati
onandmagnit
ude.Forexample,t
heweightof
ther
oof,wall
s,beamsandpi
ll
arsetc.

 Li
vel
oads.Li
vel
oadsdev
elopt
hrought
heuseofst
ruct
ure.For
ex
amplea

o Av
ehi
clepassi
ngov
erabr
idge.

o Acar
pent
ernai
l
ingt
her
oof
.

o Ear
thquakesandot
hershockset
c.

 Concentrat
edloads.Concent
rat
edl
oadsar
ewei
ghtt
hatactona
fi
xedplaceforexample

o Thewei
ghtoft
hewal
lonasl
ab

o Thewei
ghtofpi
l
laront
hev
erandaet
c.

 Unif
ormlydi
str
ibut
edl
oads.Unif
ormlydist
ri
butedloadsar
eloadst
hat
exer
tthesameamountofforceoverthesurf
ace.Forexample

o Thewei
ghtoft
hemor
taront
hef
loor

 Nonunifor
mlydist
ri
butedloads.Nonunif
ormlydi
stri
but
edloadsar
e
l
oadsthatmaybecausedbyunev enuseofthebui
ldi
ngforexampl
e
cr
ibortheweightofsoi
lagainstaret
aini
ngwall
.

FUNCTI
ONALREQUI
REMENTSONDI
FFERENTFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

A.ANI
MALHOUSES

Qual
i
tiesofagoodani
mal
house

 Agoodani
malhousemustbest
rongenoughi
nthewal
l
stopr
otect
t
heani
malsfr
om wil
dani
malsandthi
eves.
Itshoul
dhaveahar dimpervi
ousfl
oorthatsl
opestooneendto
enableadequat
edrainageofli
qui
dmanur e.Thehardfl
oorshoul
dbe
coveredwit
hat hi
nlayerofstr
aworli
tt
er.

I
tshoul
dbeinadr
yandwel
ldr
ainedsi
tet
oreducepestanddi
sease
i
nci
dence.

 Thewall
sofagoodani
mal
houseshoul
dbest
rongandhi
ghenough
tokeept
heani
malsi
n.

I
tshouldhav
eawi
ndpr
oofwal
lont
hesi
def
rom whi
cht
hewi
nd
usual
l
yblows.

 Agoodanimal
houseshoul
dhav
east
rongr
ooft
okeepof
fther
ain
andsun.

I
tshoul
dhavealargespacebet
weenthetopsoft
hewal
landther
oof
f
orgoodvent
il
ati
on,adequat
eli
ghtandf
ortheani
mal
stolookout
.

I
tshoul
dhav
eawat
ert
roughandf
eedt
rough.

I
tshoul
dbenearanadj
acentdungheapdownsl
opeanddownwi
ndof
t
heanimal
housetoeasedisposal
ofthemanur
e.

Itshoul
dmakeeconomical
useoflocalconst
ruct
ionmat
eri
als
avail
abl
esuchassand,
wood,that
chetc.

 Thenf
loorshoul
dber
oughf
ini
shedt
oav
oidsl
i
ppi
ngbyt
heani
mal
s.

 Cal
fpensshoul
dhav
enom nodr
ought
sandshoul
dbewar
m.

 Thewall
sshoul
dbesmoothtoavoi
dscrat
chi
ngoftheanimal
’
sski
n.
Toensur
esmoothness,
thewal
l
sshouldbewell
plast
ered.

 Thebui
l
dingsf
orhousi
nganimalsshouldbewel
lvent
il
atedt
oal
l
ow
fr
eshai
rcir
cul
ati
onandforeasyvi
sibi
l
ity
.

B.BUI
LDI
NGSFORPROCESSI
NGEQUI
PMENT
 Basi
cqual
i
ties

 Processi
ngequi
pmentbui
ldingsshoul
dhav eeasyaccessf
or
tr
ansportoft
hecropandothermateri
alst
oandf r
om thebui
ldi
ng.

 Thebuil
dingf
orpr
ocessi
ngequi
pmentshoul
dhav
eeasyaccesst
o
machi
nery.

 Powersuppl
i
es.Theyshoul
dhaveadequat
epowersuppl
ytoai
din
runni
ngofmachi
neryi
nsidet
hebui
ldi
ng.

 Shouldbewellvent
il
atedt
oreduceonheatwi
thi
nthebui
l
dingandt
o
encourageeasycool
ingofmachiner
y.

 Shoul
dhav
eemer
gencyexi
tsi
ncaseoff
ir
e.

 Noi
seandt
emper
atur
einsul
ati
on.

 Thewallshoul
dbestrongenought
oresi
stt
hev
ibr
ati
oncausedby
theequi
pmentifany
.

 Thefl
oorshouldbefir
m enought
ohol
dtheequi
pmenti
nthef
aceof
thev
ibrat
ionscreat
ed.

 Pestcont
rol
equi
pmenti
fnecessar
y.

C.CROPSTORES

Acropst
orei
sacri
bofgranar
yoramorecomplexstr
uctur
esuchasthe
si
l
owhichisusedf
orkeepi
ngorpr
eser
vingcr
opproduceduri
ngst
orage.

Cropstorageref
erstothepr
eserv
ati
onofhar
vest
edcr
opsi
nanencl
osur
e
forf
uturesaleorconsumpti
on.

Thesimplestormorecommonhowev er,
aret
hecri
bsandgr
anari
es.These
areadvantageousbecauset
heyusual
l
ymadeoflocal
mater
ial
s.

DESI
RABLEFEATURES/
REQUI
REMENTSOFCROPSTORES

 Thef
loorshoul
dber
aisedabout50cm abov
egr
oundl
evel
toav
oid
 dampnessandupt
akeofwat
erbycapi
l
lar
y.

 All
postsandpil
lar
sshouldhavesmoot
hsurf
acestoavoi
ddamage
tothehandl
ersandthepackagi
ngandt
oreducepesti
nci
dence.

 Thestoresshoul
dbev erminproofforexample,byputti
ngmet al
defl
ect
or sonpoststostoprodent
sandot herpests.Thi
sshoul dbe
putabout50cm fr
om theground.Suchmet aldefl
ector
sst oprodent
s
l
ikerat
s,squir
rel
setc.fr
om cli
mbingandeat i
ngcr i
bs,granari
esetc.

 Theyshoul
dbethor
oughlyvent
il
atedorshoul
dhavegoodventi
l
ati
on
tol
etinfr
eshai
rtoreduceonthetemperat
urei
nthecropst
ore.

 Agoodcropstor
eshouldhavearai
nproofr
oof/l
eakproofroofto
pr
eventent
ryofwat
erinthestor
ewhichmayleadtorott
ingofthe
pr
oduce.

 Theyshoul
dbeeasyt
ocl
eananyt
ime.

 Theyshoul
dbesecuretoavoi
dtheftofpr
oduce/
shoul
dbeer
ect
ed
wherether
eissecur
it
yi.
e.t
hestore.

 Theyshouldbedustf
reeandbui
l
tinopenspacest
oreduceonpest
i
nver
sion.

 Theyshoul
dberel
ativ
elysafef
rom t
hehazar
dsi
.e.t
heshoul
dbe
er
ectedawayf
rom fuelst
ores.

 Theyshoul
dmakeappl
i
cat
ionofpest
ici
desr
elat
ivel
yeasy
.

 Theyshoul
dhavenocrevi
ces/
crackst
ohi
dest
oragepest
si.e.t
he
wall
sshoul
dbewellf
il
ledandwithsmoot
hsur
facest
oavoidentryof
st
oragepest
s.

D.FARM EQUI
PMENTSTORES

Qual
i
ties

 Theyshoul
dbepr
oper
lyencl
osedt
oensur
esaf
etyagai
nstt
hiev
es.
  Shouldhav
eahar
dfl
oort
oreducet
hedustandt
ocar
ryt
hewei
ghtof
theequi
pment
,

 Shoul
dhav
eagoodl
i
ght
ing,
bot
hnat
ural
andar
ti
fi
ci
al.

 Shoul
dhav
eawell
-drainedpi
tandastrongworkbenchsot
hat
si
mplemachi
nemaintenancecanbecarri
edout
.

 Shoul
dhaveawel
l
-dr
ainedconcr
eteopenout
sidef
orcl
eani
ngdown
themachi
nes.

FARM BUI
LDI
NGFAI
LURES

Farm buil
dingf
ail
uresar
esai
dtoar
isewhenabui
l
dingcannotser
vef
ori
ts
expected.

Causesoff
ail
uresoff
arm bui
l
dings

Far
m bui
l
ding

1.Foundat
ionf
ail
ures

Thesemayr
esul
tfr
om;

 Poorsoi
lcondi
ti
onsforexampl
easof
tcl
aysi
tet
hatencour
ages
si
nki
ngofthefoundat
ion.

I
nadequatedrai
nage.Thi
smaycausefloodi
ngoft
hef
oundat
ionand
t
hussofteni
ngofthebuil
dingmat
eri
al.

 Toosmallafoundat
ion.Thisoffer
st ooli
tt
leasur
faceareafor
tr
ansmissi
onoftheloadstothegr ound.Thesmallsur
facearea
causesahigherl
oadont hefoundation.

 Tooshal
l
owaf oundat
ion.I
fafoundati
onistooshal
l
owi twil
lnotbe
abl
etohandl
eloadssuchasthosethatar
isefr
om windsblowi
ngon
onesi
de.

2.Poormi
xi
ngoft
hebui
l
dingmat
eri
al.Ther
emayhav
ebeenmi
xi
ngof
 concr
ete,
poormixi
ngofmort
aret
c.whichencour
agesegr
egat
ionof
themater
ial
sandcreat
esaweakbond.

3.Useofi
nsuff
ici
entmat
eri
alsforexampl
eati
ebeam of“
4x2”inst
ead
of“
6x2”orconcr
etewi
thl
itt
lecementormor
tarwi
thtooli
tt
lecement.

4.Poorgr
adesofbuil
dingmater
ial
sforexamplepoor
lyburntbri
cks,
unt
reat
edti
mber,concret
ewit
hforei
gnmat er
ial
sli
keorganicmatter
.

5.I
nadequateconst
ruct
ionpracti
cesforexampl
eusi
ngmasonsand
bui
l
derslacki
ngthenecessaryexpert
ise.

6.Tr
ussspacing.Ift
hetrussesar
espr
eadwidel
ythepurl
i
nswi
l
lhav
e
nosuppor
ttof al
lbackonandsotheroofwi
ll
coll
apse.

7.I
nadequatejoi
nts.Thenail
i
ngmaybei
nadequat
eort
her
emaybe
manystrai
ghtjoi
ntsinthewal
l
s.

8.Poordr
aught
smanshi
p.Thepl
ansproducedbythedraught
sman
shi
pmayhavehadi
nher
itf
aul
tst
hataretransmi
tt
edtom thebui
l
ding.

E.STRUCTURALREQUI
REMENTS

FOUNDATI
ON/
BASECONSTRUCTI
ON

Afoundat
ionisthatpartofast
ruct
urewhi
chi
sindi
rectcont
actwi
tht
he
gr
oundandt r
ansmi t
sloadstot
heground.

NOTE:
Foundat
ionsshoul
dbei
naf
ir
m subsoi
l
.

Alll
oosedi
str
ibut
edear
th,
stor
es,
veget
ati
onandr
ubbi
shshoul
dbe
removed.

Wherethereisnol
i
kel
i
hoodoffrost,
great
erdept
hisnoadv ant
ageast
here
wil
lbenodamageduetoexpansionwhenthewaterf
reezesorther
ewi
llbe
nofrostheav
e.

I
fthesit
ehasalikel
i
hoodofaheav
yrainwash,
adequat
edrai
nsmustbe
i
nstal
l
edr oundt
hefoundat
iont
opr
eventt
hem bei
ngunder
mined.
Onsof twaterloggedsi
tes,t
hefoundati
onsshouldbelar
georpossi bl
ya
rei
nforcedconcreteraf
tshouldbeused.Becausethi
swillbeexpensiv
e,i
t
i
sadv isabl
et ochooseanalt
ernat
ivesi
te.Inswamps,pil
l
ar smadeof
concretesteelorti
mbercanbeusedt oerectf
oundati
on.

Qual
i
tiesofagoodf
oundat
ion

(
i) I
tshoul
dav
oidexcessi
vesi
nki
ng.

(
ii
) Avoiddi
ff
erent
ial
sinki
ngwhi
chl
eadst
ocr
ackedwal
landf
rame
fai
l
ures.

(
ii
i) I
tshouldbeasdur
ableasthesuperst
ruct
ureorev
enmor
e
dur
ablethant
hesuperst
ruct
ure.

(
iv) I
tshoul
dber
atpr
oofandt
ermi
tepr
oof
.

(
v) I
tmustbewel
ldr
ained.

(
vi) Agoodf oundat
ionshouldnotal
lowwatertoseepupwards
throught
hewallsbycapil
lar
y.Thisi
sachiev
edbyputti
ngawat
er
proofordamppr oofcour
seabovethepli
nthwall
/.

ACROSSSECTI
ONOFAFOUNDATI
ON

CROSSSECTI
ONSHOWI
NGLAYERSOFAHARDFLOORFOUNDATI
ON
FOOTI
NG

Thefooti
ngenl
argesthebear
ingar
eabet
weent
hef
oundat
ionandt
he
ground,
givi
ngl
esspressur
e.

Ty
pesoff
oot
ing

Ther
ear
etwocommont
ypesoff
oot
ingandt
hesei
ncl
ude;

o St
ri
pfoot
ing

o Padf
oot
ing

St
ri
pfoot
ing

Thi
sinv
olv
esacont
inuousf
oot
ingwhi
chr
unsal
l
-roundt
hewal
l
.

Padf
oot
ing

Thesear
espacedt
ogi
vet
henecessar
ysuppor
ttot
hecol
umns.

SI
TEPREPARATI
ON
Al
lsur
facev
eget
ati
on,
rubbi
sh,
stumpsandst
onesshoul
dber
emov
ed.

Thebui
l
dingpl
ani
ssetonthegroundi
nordert
oest
abl
i
sht
hedi
mensi
ons
oft
hesit
esusi
ngpegsandatapemeasur
e.

Obt
aint
her
ightangl
esusi
ngat
risquar
e.

Checkt
heaccur
acyoft
hemeasur
ementbymaki
ngsur
ethatt
hedi
agonal
s
ar
eequal.

ESTABLI
SHMENTOFTHEFOUNDATI
ON

Theprepar
ati
onoft
hef
oundat
ioni
sdoneaf
terset
ti
ngoutt
hebui
l
dingon
thegr
ound.

At
rench35cm wi
deandnotl
esst
han50cm deepi
sdug

Aconcretel
ayerof1:
2:4or1:
3:6cement
:sandandgrav
el(
inner
aggr
egates)r
especti
vel
yispouredi
ntot
hetrench.

Burntbr
icksorst
onesar
elai
dorbeddedont
opofconcr
etepour
edona
tr
ench.

Amort
armixedi
ntherat
ioof1:
2cement:
sandr
espect
ivel
yisusedt
obi
nd
t
hest
onesorbri
cks.

Theplinthwall
isr
aisedabout15cm/
0.15m abov
egr
oundl
evel
.Bey
ond
thatpoint,
themai
nwal l
begins.

Thepli
nthwal
lespecial
l
yonsoftclaysoi
l
sshoul
dbet
hickerandwi
der
thant
hemainwallthatri
sesf
rom aboveit
.

Adamppr oofcour se(D.P.

Csheet)isputontopofthepli
nthwall
15cm
abovethegr oundlev el
toreducemov ementofwaterbycapil
l
aryi
ntothe
wall
.Thisalsor educestermit
eef f
ect/
inf
il
tr
ati
on.TheDPCi sapolyv
iny
l
chl
ori
de( PVC)sheetwhi chprev
entsdamp.

Apoi
sonmayal
sobeusedandspr
inkl
edt
her
etopr
eventi
nfi
l
trat
ionby
t
ermi
tes.
Apol
eisthenfi
xedinaholeandsomeconcr
eteisthenpour
edt
oitwi
th
gr
adual
butfi
rmr ammingusi
ngarammingrod/st
ick.

CONCRETEFLOORS

Manymodernf
arm bui
l
dingsarebui
l
tonconcr
etef
loor
sbecauset
heyar
e
har
d,dur
abl
eandeasytoclean.

Suchmoder nfarm bui

ldi
ngincl
ude;cr
opstor
es,
animalhousesf
orexampl
e
pi
gstys,cal
fpens,offi
ces,f
armer’
shouse,
boysquart
ers,
drugst
ores,
garages,f
arm equi
pmentst or
esetc.

PROCEDUREOFMAKI
NGCONCRETEFLOOR

Whenthebui
ldi
ngcomesupt
hegr
oundl
evel
,l
ayhar
dcor
emai
nly
composedofbi
gstones.

Ontopofthehardcor
e,l
ayabi ndi
nglay
erofsit
emur ram.Compactt
his
l
ayertogetr
idofemptyspacesbetweentheboulder
s( bi
gst
ones)whi
ch
mayleadtocracki
ngoft
hefloor.

Ontopofthebindi
nglayerpoursi
l
tconcr
etei
nther
ati
o1:
2:4cement
:sand
andgrav
elrespect
ivel
y.

Aft
ert
his,
putalay
erofmortarofr
ati
o1:
8cement
:sandmi
xtur
eandadda
l
it
tl
ewatertomakeitsemi
dry.

Ifthef
loorist
obesmoot hpitacoatofwet
tedcementandfi
nishi
twitha
steelf
loat
.Forani
malbuil
dings,
aroughfi
nishi
susedtoprev
entinjur
yto
theanimalsduetosl
i
pping.

NOTE:

Thethi
cknessofthef
loordependsont
heamountofwei
ghtsuchaf
loori
s
expect
edtocarr
y.
Ali
ghtl
yloadedfl
oorr
equi
resaconcr
eteof5cm t
hicknessonapr
oper
ly
compactedfi
ll
.

Thefl
oorforani
mal
housesandst
oresf
orheav
yit
emsneedst
obe10t
o
15cm t
hick.

Forl
argeworkshopsandr
oomswithheavymachi
ner
yinst
all
ati
ons,
the
fl
oor
sshouldnotbelesst
han20cm t
hick.

Wherepossi
ble,
thef
loorforl
argewor
kshopsandroomswit
hheavy
machiner
yshoul
dbereinf
orcedwit
hsteel
barsnearthet
opandbot
tom
l
ayer
s.

THESUPERSTRUCTURE

Thesuperst
ruct
ureisalsoknownasthemai
nframe.Thisf
ramecanbe
madeoftimber,
blocks,
bricks,
mudandwatt
le,
metal,
reedset
c.

Thesuperstr
uct
urei
sthepar
toft
hest
ruct
urebet
weent
hef
oundat
ionand
ther
oofofthebui
ldi
ng.

Qual
i
tiesofagoodsuperst
ruct
ure/
mai
nfr
ame/
wal
l
s

 Agoodsuperstr
uct
ureshoul
dhaveenoughopeni
ngsi
.e.wi
ndows
andvent
il
ator
stoensur
eadequat
eventi
lat
ion.

I
tshoul
dbest
rongenought
ocar
ryt
hel
oads.

 Agoodsuperst
ruct
ure/
mai
nfr
ameshoul
dbest
rai
ghtt
oav
oid
br
eakage.

I
tshoul
dbeabl
etoper
for
mthef
unct
ioni
tisdesi
gnedf
or.

 Agoodsuperst
ruct
ureshoul
dbeeasyt
oconst
ructi
nanyl
ocal
i
ty.

 Agoodsuperst
ruct
ureshoul
dbecheaptoconst
ructi
.e.not
expensi
vei
nter
msofbuy i
ngmater
ial
sandconst
ructi
onf undsshoul
d
below.
NOTE:Thebuil
dingshoul
dbedesi
gnedsot
hatthewall
sareonl
yloaded
ver
ti
cal
ly
.Unlessspeci
all
ymade,t
heyar
enotcapabl
eoftaki
ngsi
deloads.

THEROOFFRAME

Thi
siscommonlymadeofwoodorst
eel
bar
sdependi
ngont
hepur
pose
oft
hehouseonwhi
chiti
stobeused.

Roof
shav
eabaseoft
russes,
whi
chsuppor
tthet
hat
chi
ngmat
eri
al.

Poororweakt
russescancauser
oofcol
l
apse,
especi
all
yift
her
oof
ingi
s
heavy
.

Arooft
russi
smadeupofatiebeam (
crossti
e)asabase,
twor
aft
ers
abovet
hebasetofor
m at
ri
angul
arstr
uctur
eandanumberofst
rut
sto
serv
eassuppor
ter
s.

Tr
ussesforf
air
lylar
gehousesar
enor
mallymade/
prepar
edont
hegr
ound
bef
oretheyar
eraisedontopoft
hewal
ls.

Aft
erthetr
ussesar
eposit
ioned,
purl
i
nsarenai
ledhor
izont
all
yont
he
raf
ter
s.Anditi
sonthepurl
inwheret
heroof
ingmater
iali
slai
d.

NOTE:

Theheightoft
het
russabovethewall
platedependsonthespanoft
he
houseandthenat
ureofthat
chingmater
ial
/r
oofingmater
ial
tobeused.

Iftheroof i
ngistobegrassorti
l
e,ri
seorpit
chofther
oofshoul
dbehigh,
0
preferablymakinganangleofover40 soastol
etwaterr
unoffeasi
l
yand
soi ncreasethedurabi
l
ityoft
heroof.

I
fcorr
ugat
edir
onsheet
s(C.
I.
S)ar
etobeusedasr
oof
ing,
ther
iseshoul
d
beonl
y1/4oft
hespanl
engt
h.

Howev er,
what
evert
hetypeofroof
ingmater
ialused,
iti
sadvi
sabl
eto
establ
ishast
rai
ghtl
ineatt
helowestendoftheeaveswheret
heroof
ing
start
s.
Thi
sisobt
ainedbypul
li
ngast r
ingatt
hebot
tom edgeoft
hesamel
evel
on
whi
chthefaci
aboardwil
lrestl
ater
.

Theroof
ingmat
eri
alcannowbel
aidont
hest
rai
ghtl
i
neoft
heeav
esgoi
ng
uptowar
dsther
idge.

THEDIAGRAM SHOWI
NGTHESTRUCTUREOFATRUSSANDSUPER
STRUCTUREWITHTHEASSOCI
ATI
ONLOADS

THEDI
AGRAM SHOWI
NGAROOFSTRUCTURE
THEPARTSOFABUILDI
NGFRAMESHOWI
NGROOFTRUSSESAND
PURLI
NINPOSI
TION

DI
FFERENTPARTSOFTHEROOFTRUSS

 Thebeam/
crosst
ie.Thi
sist
hebaseoft
het
russ.

 Raft
ers.Thesear
eattachedt
othebasetof
orm at
ri
angul
arst
ruct
ure.
Forgableroof
s,t
heseareusual
l
yinpai
r/
twoasshownabove.

 Strut.Thesear
enai
l
eddi
agonal
l
yont
othet
russf
orat
tachmentoft
he
thatch.

 Eav
e.Thi
sist
hepar
toft
her
aft
erst
hatext
endsbey
ondt
het
iebeam
ort
hewall
.

 Bargeboar
d/f
aciaboard.Thisisthefaceofther
aftert
hati
sexposed
atthel
owerendofthetruss.Itmaybet r
eatedorpaint
edtoav
oid
att
ackbyweatheragentsorinsectssuchasbeetl
es.
  Rafterbat t
en.Thisisresponsi
bleforholdi
ngther af
ter
sinposi
ti
on.
Ther i
giditytrusshol
dst hehousetogetheragainstt
hewindandother
forces.Itenablesforcestobetransmit
tedtot hewholestr
uct
ureso
thatthef orcewill
hav el
itt
leef
fect.

TYPESOFROOFS

i
. Domeshapedr
oof(
pur
poser
oof
)

i
i
. Fl
atr
oof

i
i
i. Gabl
eroof
i
v. Hi
proof

v
. Moni
torr
oof(
pur
poser
oof
)

BUI
LDI
NGMATERI
ALS

Thecommonbuil
dingmat
eri
alsormat
eri
alsusedf
orconst
ruct
ionoff
arm
bui
ldi
ngsi
ncl
ude;

o Concr
ete

o Bl
ocks

o Br
icks

o Mor
tar

o St
one

o Ear
th

o Bamboo

o That
ch
 o Met
al

o Ti
l
es

o Wood

o Pl
ast
ics

1.Concrete.Thisisami xtureofcementsandandsomegrav
el(
iner
t
aggregate)incorrectproport
ionswhi
chwhenmi xedwi
thwat
er
hardentof orm anarti
fi
cialst
one.

2.Cementi
sapul
ver
izedmateri
alcomposedofsi
l
ica,al
uminaandli
me.
Whenmixedwi
thwateri
tundergoesachemi
calchangeandset
sinto
sol
i
dmass.

Usesofconcr
ete

 Concr
etei
susedt
omakef
oundat
ions,
floorandwal
l
s.

 Whererei
nfor
cementi
srequi
red,
steel
rodsar
eputi
nformaki
ng
l
int
elsandbeams.

I
tisalsousedformaki
ngconcr
etebl
ocks,
post
s,pi
l
lar
s,sur
vey
or’
s
bench,marksetc.

STEPSTAKENI
NMAKI
NGGOODCONCRETE

Ther
ear
esev
eral
stepsi
nvol
vedi
nmaki
ngofgoodconcr
ete.Thesear
e;

a)Sel
ect
ingt
hei
ngr
edi
ent
s

b)Choosi
ngandcl
eani
ngt
hesi
tef
ormi
xi
ngt
heconcr
ete.

c)Pr
opor
ti
oni
ngt
hei
ngr
edi
ent
s.

d)Mi
xi
ngt
hei
ngr
edi
ent
s.

e)Maki
ngbr
acesandshapi
ngmoul
ds.

f
)Pl
aci
ngt
heconcr
etei
nthemoul
d.
 g)Fi
nishi
ngt
heconcr
ete.

h)Cur
ingt
heconcr
ete.

1.SELECTI
NGTHEI
NGREDI
ENTS

St
artbychoosi
ngt
heconcr
ete.

I
tshouldhav
ebeencar
eful
l
yst
oredandhav
enol
umps(
coagul
ated
par
ti
cles)
.

Cementshoul
dbekepti
nadr
ypl
acet
oav
oidabsor
pti
onofmoi
stur
eand
l
ossofstr
ength.

Thewatert
obeusedinmaki
ngconcr
eteshoul
dbecl
eanandf
reef
rom
aci
ds,
alkal
i
sanddecayi
ngmatt
er.

Theaggr
egatesareei
thercoar
seorfi
ne.Thefi
neaggregatesshoul
dpass
thr
ougha1/4inchmeshandt hecoar
seaggregat
esshouldnotpass
thr
oughi
t.

Thesandandaggregat
esshoul
dbeclean,har
dandfr
eef r
om or
gani
c
mat t
erasanyor
ganicmat
terpr
esentwil
ll
owerthest
rengthoft
he
resul
tantmi
x.

Note:Toensur egoodst
rengtht
heaggr
egat
esshouldbeassortedover
accordingtosizessot
hatthesmal
lpar
ti
cl
esjustf
il
lthespacesbetween
thelargepart
icles.

2.CHOOSI
NGANDPREPARI
NG/
CLEARI
NGTHEMI
XINGSI
TE

Themi xi
ngsit
eshouldbecl
ear
edandmadewat erproofi
fpossibl
e.Also
themixingsi
teshoul
dhavenofor
eignmat
eri
alssuchasorganicmatter,
softst
onesonsurfaceandhol
esandmadebyrats,squi
rr
elsetc.

3.PROPORTI
ONI
NGTHEI
NGREDI
ENTS

Proport
ioni
ngtheingr
edi
entsdependsont
het
ypeofwor
kforwhi
cht
he
concret
eisint
endedforexample;
 (
i) Str
ongconcr
eteisusedf
orcol
umnwal
l
s.Thi
sismi
xedi
nther
ati
o
1
of1par
t:12: 3part
sofcement
.

(
ii
) Standar
dconcr
etei
smi xedi
nrati
oof1part:
2part
s:4part
sof
cement:
sandandcoar
seaggregates(
grav
el)r
espect
ivel
y.

St
andar
dconcr
etei
ssui
tabl
eforconst
ruct
ionoff
loor
s,andf
oundat
ion.

(
ii
i) Medium concr
ete.Thi
sismixedintherat
ioof1part
:212par
ts:
5
par
tsofcement :
sandandgravel
/coar
seaggregat
esrespecti
vel
y.
I
tisusedformakingfoundat
ions.

(
iv) Leanconcret
e.Thi
sismixedi
ntherat
ioof1part
:3parts:
6par
tsof
cement:sandandcoar
seaggregat
es/gr
avel
respect
ively
.

I
tisusedf
ormaki
ngf
oundat
ions,
thi
ckwal
l
s.

Summar
yofsomet
ypi
cal
concr
etemi
xes

Cement Sand Coar

se …………….
.
aggr
egat
es

St
rong 1par
t 112par
ts 3par
ts Col
umns,
wal
ls.
2par
ts

St
andar
d 1par
t 2par
ts 4par
ts Floor
s,
foundat
ions.

Medi
um 1par
t 212par
ts 5par
ts Foundat
ion.

Lean 1par
t 3par
ts 6par
ts Foundat
ions,
thi
ckwall
s

4.MI
XINGCONCRETE

Mi
xi
ngconcr
eteshoul
dbedonet
hor
oughl
ytom ensur
eagoodbond.
Fi
rst
,sandi
smeasur
edoutandpour
edoutt
othegr
ound.

Cementi
sal
someasur
edoutandaddedt
othesand.

Sandandcementar
ethor
oughl
ymi
xedunt
ilt
hecol
ouri
suni
for
m.

Thesandcementmi
xtur
eist
henspr
eadoutandaggr
egat
esspr
ead
uni
for
mlyoveri
t.

Wateri
sthenaddedandthemixt
uret
urnedoverandovertomakesur
e
t
hateverypar
ti
cleofaggr
egat
eiscov
eredwit
ht hecementwat
ermixt
ure.

5.MAKI
NGSHAPESANDBRACI
NGTHEFRAMES

Thef
ramesmaybewoodenormet
all
i
c.

Theirmainf
unct
ioni
stohol
dtheconcr
etei
napr
opershapeunt
ili
t
hardens.

Thef
rameshouldbeadequat
ebr
acedorsuppor
tedt
ohol
dagai
nstt
he
pl
ast
icconcr
etepr
essur
e.

Thef
rameworkshouldbet
ightenought
opr
eventt
heescapeofwat
er
fr
om t
hecementwater.

6.PLACI
NGTHECONCRETEI
NTHEFRAME

Concret
eshoul
dbespadedint
othef
rameworkandt
heaggr
egat
eswor
ked
i
ntothemixtoobt
ainasol
idmassfr
eeofai
r.

Thiscanbeachi evedbyvi
brati
onsbutoneshoul
dav
oidoverwor
kingt
he
concrete.Other
wisethewaterandcementmaybedrawnoutl
eadi
ngto
segregation.

7.FI
NISHI
NGTHECONCRETE

Thet
ypeoff
ini
shi
ngdependsont
hespeci
fi
cjobr
equi
rement
sforexampl
e

(
a)Aresident
ial
housewoul
dneedasmoot
hfi
nishwhi
l
eapi
gger
yhouse
woulddowi t
haroughfi
nish.
Apigger
yhouse/
pigst
ywoul
dneedar oughfini
shav
oidssl
i
ppi
ngof
ani
malswhichmayleadt
obreakageofthei
rli
mbs.

8.CURI
NGCONCRETE

Thi
sisnecessar
ytogetconcr
etehar
denedenough,
denseandf
reef
rom
cr
acks.

Curi
ngalsoprotectconcr
etef
rom f
reezi
ng,
rai
nandr api
dcur
ing.Thus
concr
eteshouldnotbeexposedtothesundir
ect
ly.

Curi
ngtakesabout3to8daysf
ortheconcret
etogeti
tsmaxi
mum
st
rengt
hbuthardeni
ngofconcr
etetakespl
aceforupt
o28days.

I
tisnecessar
ytoapplywat
erf
orthefi
rst3daysandt
ocov
ert
heconcr
ete
wi
thmat er
ial
sforexampl
epol
ytheneormats.

NOTE:

Thest
rengt
hoft
her
esul
ti
ngconcr
etewi
l
ldependon;

(
i) Gr
eat
erpr
opor
ti
onofcementi
nthemi
xtur
e.

(
ii
) Degr
eeofmi xi
ngconcret
et hor
oughconcr
etemi
xingmakeseach
par
ti
cleoraggregat
ecoveredwithafi
l
m andcement.

(
ii
i) Methodsofcuri
ngthecementi
.e.i
tshoul
dnotbeexposedt ot
he
sundir
ect
lybecausethi
smayleadtodevel
opmentofcracks.

REI
NFORCEDCONCRETE

Althoughconcret
ei sstr
ongincompressi
on,i
tisweaki
ntensi
leand
therefor
eifanyconcretestr
uct
urei
st obeused,i
tmustberei
nfor
cedwi
th
steelbarswhichtakethetensi
l
estr
ength.

Thest
eeladdedshoul
dbecl
eanandf
reef
rom dustt
oensur
eagoodbond
tot
heconcret
e.

Rei
nfor
cedconcr
etei
susedi
ntheconst
ruct
ionofbeams,
fencepost
sand
col
umns.

ADVANTAGESOFCONCRETE

1.Concr
etei
sdur
abl
e

2.I
tisr
esi
stantt
oweat
her
,abr
asi
on,
decayandt
ermi
tes.

3.I
tiseasyt
ocl
eanespeci
all
ywhent
hef
ini
shi
ssmoot
h.

4.Concr
etei
sresi
stantt
ofi
re.

5.Concr
etehasal
owercostcompar
edt
ost
eel
.

6.Concr
etei
ssuper
iori
nst
rengt
htowood.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFCONCRETE

1.I
tisexpensi
ve.

2.I
tisbul
ky.

3.Concreteislowintensi
lest
rengt
handther
efor
eneedt
obe
rei
nforcedtoincr
easeit
stensi
lest
rengt
h.

4.I
tisnott
radi
ti
onal
i.
e.needsski
l
ledl
abourt
omakeanduse.

5.Concret
eisnoteasyt
orepai
randifi
tdev
elopdef
ect
sitmayhav
eto
bebrokenupandanewlayerputup.

6.Notsalv
ageabl
e.(cannotbeusedoncedamagedorwheni
tisli
kel
y
tobedamaged/cannotberecover
edtobeusedorbr
okenup,andre
usedthemater
ial
.

BLOCKS

Thesearepopul
arbui
ldi
ngmat er
ial
swhichar
emadeinvari
oussi
zesf
rom
di
ffer
entty
pesofsoil
s.Theycanalsobemadefr
om concr
ete.

Ty
pesofbl
ocks
Ther
ear
e3mai
nty
pesofbl
ocksandt
hesear
e;

o Sandbl
ocks

o Mur
ram bl
ocks

o Cl
aybl
ocks

 Sandbl
ocks.Thesear
emadefr
om ami
xtur
eofsandandcement
i
ntherat
ioof1:6andwat
er.

Theingredient
saremixedtot
herequi
redconsi
stenceandputi
nmoul
d
thenpressedfir
mlyei
thermanual
l
yorbymachines.

Theyaret
henr
emov
edf
rom t
hemoul
dsandl
eftt
ocur
eforatl
eastsev
en
(7)day
s.

Dur
ingthi
speri
od,theyhavetobeundercov
erandkeptdampf
ort
heend
oft
hisper
iodofit
sst r
engt
h,and80tom 90%by28days.

 Mur
ram bl
ocks.Thesearethecheapestt
omakesi
ncet
her
aw
mat
eri
als,
soilandwaterar
eavail
ableonthef
arm.

Ali
tt
lecementmaybeaddedabouti
nther
ati
o1:
25mur
ram gi
vesast
rong
bl
ock.

Thei
ngr
edi
ent
sar
emi
xedt
other
equi
redconsi
stenceandputi
nmoul
ds.

Themi
xtur
eist
henpr
essedf
ir
mlyei
thermanual
l
yorbymachi
nes.

Thebl
ocksar
ethensundr
iedorsuncur
edandmaybeusedst
rai
ghtaway
orf
ir
edinaki
ln.

NOTE:

Mur
ram bl
ocksar
eusedonsmal
lfar
ms.

Alt
houghthismethodisnotpermanentitcanlastqui
teal
ongt
ime
especi
all
yifthewal
lsarepl
asteredwit
hmor tar.
  Cl
ayblocks.Clayi
smixedwi t
hwat
er,
thepast
ebeat
em unt
ili
t
at
tai
nstherightconsi
stence.

Cl
aycont
ainshy
drousal
umi
nium si
l
icat
eandi
ronoxi
de.

NOTE:
Soi
l
sfr
om anthi
l
lsar
eusedasbl
ockt
oset
.

Thebl
ocksar
ecov
eredt
opr
otectt
hem f
rom di
rectheatandpr
event
cr
acki
ng.

Theyshoul
dbespr
inkl
edwi
thsomewat
erf
ort
hef
ir
st4day
s.

Theyshoul
dbel
eftt
ocur
e7t
o8day
sbef
oreuse.

NOTE:
Blocksar
eusedf
orconst
ruct
ingwal
l
sandf
oundat
ions.

BRI
CKS

Bri
cksar
eessent
ial
l
yhar
dandwel
lshapedpi
ecesofbakedcl
ayoranthi
l
l
ear
th.

Thesui
tabl
ety
pesofcl
ayar
eusual
l
yfoundi
nswampyar
eas.

PROCEDUREOFMAKI
NGBRI
CKS

 Sel
ectt
hesi
tewher
ether
eiscl
ay.

 Remov
ethev
eget
ati
oncov
erf
rom t
hear
ea.

 Scr
apof
fat
hinl
ayeroft
opsoi
ltoexposecl
ayt
hati
swel
lcompact
ed.

 Mixtheclaywithenoughwaterandpr
essi
twel l
toremoveexcess
water/
wor kedwell
i.
e.beat
entoaunif
orm consi
stencebecauseof
t
heirhighclaycont
ent.

 Concreteblocks.Amixof1:2:
3part
sofcement: cl
eansand:
gr
avel oraggregat
ebyvolumerespect
ivel
yissat
isf
act
oryfor
makingaconcr etebl
ock.

Howev
er,
arat
ioof1:
3:4par
tsofcement:
cleansand:
grav
eli
sal
so
accept
abl
e.

Thesebl
ocksar
emadei
nabl
ockmaki
ngmachi
ne,
thesi
mpl
estbei
ng
mould.

NOTE:
Car
eful
compact
ingi
snecessar
y.

Theblocksshouldbekeptdampforatl
eastfourdaysaft
ermoul
ding,
prematur
edryingoutwil
lcauseagr
eatreduct
ioninstr
ength.

GENERALPROCEDURESOFMAKI
NGBLOCKS

 Themater
ial
susedtomaket
hebl
ocksar
ethor
oughl
ymi
xedupt
o
ensur
eaunif
ormtext
ure.

 Theyar
emi
xedwi
thenoughwat
ert
omaket
hem wor
kabl
e.

 Themi
xtur
eist
henf
il
ledi
ntot
hemoul
dandwel
lcommed.

 Themat er
iali
sthenlef
ttof
ermentforanumberofday
sforthe
organi
cmat t
ertodecomposeandform pr
operbondsi
nthesoi
l.

 Themat er
ial
isthenr
ewor
kedandbeat ent
oensur
eauni
for
m
consi
stenceandguar
ant
eeplast
ici
ty.

 Thewel
lworkedcl
ayisputi
namouldofdesi
redsi
zeandpr
essed
fi
rml
yorrammedintoabri
ckmoul
d.

 Pr
essi
ngi
sdoneonaspeci
alpi
eceoff
latboar
dknownasapl
ate.

 Thefreshsof
tbricksarethenremovedfr
om t
hemouldandl eftt
o
dryonthedryi
nggr ound/
yard.Thi
sareamustbeprot
ectedfrom
animalsandchi
ldrentopreventdamagetot
hesoftbr
icks.

 Thesur
faceoft
hedr
yingy
ardmustbehar
dandl
evel
/f
lat
.

 Thebr
icksshoul
dbedr
iedunderashadet
oav
oidcr
acki
ng.

NOTE:
Theaddi
ti
onofal
lthecowdungandcutgrassorst
rawt
othemi
ximpr
oves
i
tsst
rengt
handreducest
heri
skofcr
acking.

Duri
ngt
hedr
yingpr
ocess,
bri
cksar
etur
nedr
egul
arl
ytomakesur
etheal
l
si
desar
euni
forml
ydry.

I
ncl
eardr
yweat
hert
hisexer
ciset
akes21day
s.

Aft
erthoroughdryi
ng,
bricksar
ethenburnti
nabr
ickki
l
nunt
ilt
heyt
urnr
ed.
Thi
sincreasesthei
rst
rengthanddur
abil
i
ty.

Thebur
ningt
akes12t
o14day
s.

Theyar
ethenal
l
owedt
ocool
downaf
terwhi
cht
heyar
ereadyf
oruse.

Br
icksar
eusedf
orconst
ruct
ionofwal
l
sandf
oundat
ions.

NOTE:Eart
h/mudbr
icksar
emadef r
om acl
ayandsandmi
xtur
ethr
ougha
si
mil
arprocesst
oaclaybr
ickone.

Ver
yof
tensoi
l
sfr
om anthi
l
lsar
epr
efer
redf
ort
hei
rhi
ghcl
aycont
ent
.

MORTAR

Mor
tari
sami
xtur
eofsandandcementi
nther
ati
o4:
1wi
thwat
eradded.

I
tsmai
nusei
stobi
ndbl
ocksorbr
ickst
oget
herdur
ingwal
lconst
ruct
ion.

Li
memaybeaddedorapr
opr
iet
arypl
ast
ici
zi
ngagentf
oreasi
erhandl
i
ng.

Thebl
ocksorbr
icksshoul
dbewet
tedf
ir
stt
oensur
eagoodbond.

I
tmayal
sobeusedf
orpl
ast
eri
ngwal
landf
ini
shi
ngof
ffl
oor
s.

STONE

Stoneissui
tabl
eforaper
manentst
ruct
ure,
butwi
l
lbev
eryexpensi
ve
unlessavai
l
ablel
ocal
ly
.

St
onesar
eshapedasr
equi
red,
andcl
eaned.
Stonescanbesuedtobui
ldwal
l
sjoi
ningt
hem wi
thpl
ast
er,
clay
,mor
tar
buil
dingl
imeorgypsum.

Theyar
eal
sousedi
nmaki
ngst
rongf
oundat
ions,
andf
loor
s.

NOTE:I
tisver
yhardtousest
oneswhenbui
l
dingasi
trequi
resahi
ghl
y
ski
l
ledl
abourmasori
.

EARTH

Thi
sisusedi
nthef
orm ofwor
kedmudt
omakef
oundat
ionsandwal
l
s.

Mudbl
ocksandbr
ickscanal
sobemadeoutofor
dinar
ycl
ayandsandy
soi
l
s.

Housesbuil
toft
hesemat
eri
alsarehowev
ernotper
manentbutcanl
ast
r
elat
ivel
ylongi
fcoat
edwi
thmor t
ar.

BAMBOO

Bambooi
susedasbui
l
dingpol
esandf
ormaki
ngcr
ibsandf
ences.

THATCH

Thati
susedasr
oof
ingi
nst
eadofcor
rugat
edi
ronsheet
sort
il
es.

Papy
russt
ems(
reeds)maybeusedf
ort
hat
chi
ngbutar
elesscommon.

METAL

Met
alf
ormsani
mpor
tantcomponentoff
arm bui
l
dings.

Thecommonestmet
alsusedar
est
eel
,al
umi
nium andcopper
.

Metalmaybeusedintheform ofbar
s,poles,
pil
l
ars,
pipes,
steel
rodsf
or
r
einfor
cement
,nai
ls,
wires,wi
renetti
ngetc.

Mai
nlymet
ali
susedf
ort
russes,
roof
sandpi
l
lar
s.

Dependi
ngonthepur
poseofthebuil
ding,st
eel bar
scanbeshaped
appr
opri
atel
ytomakebui
ldi
ngframesf orworkshops,
stor
es,
milki
ngsheds
et
c.

Corrugat
edi
ronandal
umi
nium sheet
sar
ever
ypopul
arf
orr
oof
ingonmost
far
ms.

I
fenoughar
eav
ail
abl
e,t
heycanbenai
l
edonf
ramest
omakewal
l
s.

NOTE:

Metalli
keanyot
herbui
l
dingmat
eri
almustbepr
otect
edagai
nstt
he
weather.

Theycanbeprot
ect
edbygal
vanizi
ngthem,
whi
chi
sthecoat
ingofmet
al
sur
facesbyzi
ncdur
ingel
ect
rol
ysis.

Theycanal
sobepai
nted.

TI
LES

Til
esactasroofi
ngmater
ials.Theyaremadefr
om sui
tabl
ecl
ays
contai
ninghy
drousal
uminium sil
icat
eandi
ronoxi
de.

PLASTI
CS

Thesear
erapi
dly
,bei
ngdev
elopedandwi
del
yiused.

Mostplasti
csdegr
adefai
rl
yrapidl
yinbri
ghtsunl
i
ghtandbecauseoft
his
arenotusedsowidel
yintr
opicalcount
ri
esasintemper
atecount
ri
esfor
exter
naluse.

I
nst
ead,
theyar
ewi
del
yusedoni
nter
nal
fit
ti
ngsandasf
il
ter
sfori
nsul
ati
on.

WOOD

I
nconstr
uctionwork,
woodmaybeusedast
imberf
orpol
es,
rai
l
s,pur
li
ns,
r
aft
ers,
trusses,
str
utsandt
iebeam.

Sawnti
mberproducesboar
dsofv
ari
oussi
zest
oser
vemanypur
poses,
e.g.
fl
oor
s,coi
l
ing,
furni
tur
e,f
aci
aboar
d.
Ti
mber
/woodhasanadv
ant
ageofbei
ngr
esi
stantt
oshockandv
ibr
ati
on.

I
tcanbeshapedandwor
kedbysi
mpl
etool
s.

MAI
NTENANCEOFFARM BUI
LDI
NGS

 Annuali
nspect
ion.Thisshoul
dbesyst
ematicall
ydoneandarecor
d
bookkeptnoti
ngthemai nt
enancewor
krequired.I
tshoul
dbedone
fr
om therooft
othefloor.

 Checkforandr
epl
acesl
i
ppedorr
eseal
damagedt
hat
cht
oav
oid
l
eakage.

 Sealof
fal
lcracksi
nthewal l
swithst
rongmor
tart
oav
oidt
hecr
acks
wideni
ngandthebuil
dingcoll
apsi
ng.

 Checkthei
nter
iorwir
ingsandfi
tti
ngandtheservi
ceinthehousei
.e.
watert
aps,
plumbing,etc.andr
epairt
hem i
fnecessar
y.

 Ensur
epr operdr
ainagewi thi
nandar oundthebuil
ding.Checkthe
manhole.Thecoversshoul dbeli
ftedandthebrickwor kwall
examined.Iff
oundbl ockedorwithcrackedwall
s,itshoul
dbe
unbl
ockedi mmediatelyandallcr
ackssealedoff.

 Theexteri
orsurf
aceshouldbeproperlyandregular
lypai
ntedto
prot
ectthem agai
nstsunshi
ne,wind,rai
nandf oraest
heti
creasons.
Thereshouldbethr
eelayerofpai
nting.Goodpainti
ngshouldbedone
ever
y5y ears.

 Checkfordestroypest
se.g.ter
mi t
es,rodent
sandbat
sthatmay
destr
oythewal l
sordepositwastesthatweakenorov
erl
oadpart
sof
thebuil
dings.

 Farm buil
dingst
hatcaneasil
ybedamagedbyani malsshoul
dbe
properl
yfencedoff
.Granari
esforexampl
eshouldbeproperl
yfenced
offtoavoidtheani
malsleani
ngagainstt
hem andremovingt
he
thatch.
  Pl
antwindbr
eaksont
hewi
ndwar
dsi
deofbui
l
dingt
oreducedamage
bywind.

 Plantgr
assaroundthehousetoreduceerosionundermini
ngt
he
foundat
ionofthebuil
ding.Mur
ram cobbl
est onesorbi
tumenmaybe
pouredaroundthebui
ldingtot
hesameef fect.

 Bigtr
eeswithstr
ongsurf
acesroot
sshoul
dnotbeal
l
owedtogrow
nearthebui
l
dingsastheroot
smaydamagethefl
oor
softhebui
ldi
ng.

FENCES

Afenceref
erst
oanenclosur
econstr
uctedonanycont
rol
humanand
ani
mal movementi
nsi
deandoutsi
dehisfar
m.

Fenci
ngistheact
ivi
tyi
nvol
vi
ngconst
ruct
ionofanenclosur
eont hef
armt
o
contr
olhumanandanimalmovementi
nsideandout
sidehisfar
m.

TYPESOFFENCES

Therear
emanytypesoffenceswhichcanbeusedbythefar
mer
dependi
ngonhi
spurposeandt heavai
l
abil
i
tyofmater
ial
sandfi
nance.

Fencesareusual
lycl
assi
fiedaccor
dingt
othemat
eri
alsusedt
oconst
ruct
them e.
g.deadandli
vefences.

 Deadfences.Thesear
efencesconstr
uctedfrom anon-
li
vi
ng
mater
ial
/thi
ng.Themateri
alsusedtoconstr
uctthem ar
e;

o Post
aandwi
re(
bar
bed,
plai
norwov
en)

o Post
aandwoodenr
ail
s.

o St
ones.

o Tr
enchf
ences.

o Br
icks/
blocks.

Exampl
es
 o Wi
ref
ences

(
i) Barbedwir
efence.Thi
stypeoffencei
smadeofordinar
yguage
wirewit
hbarbsonitspacedabout08t
o15cm apar
t.Thisf
encei
s
themostcommonl yusedonfarms.

However,i
tsmajordisadv
antageisthedamagei
tcandot
ohi
desandski
ns
off
arm animal
s,thusloweri
ngtheirqual
i
ty.

Deepcut
scanev
enr
esul
tinf
est
eri
ngwoundsunl
essappr
opr
iat
elyt
reat
ed.

(
ii
) Plai
nwirefence.Thi
sfencei
stheregul
argaugewi
rewi
thout
barbs.I
tisnotusedonmanyfarms.

I
tisnor
mal
l
yusedi
ncombi
nat
ionwi
thbar
bedwi
rei
nsi
ngl
est
rands.

Plai
nwi r
efencesar
eonl
ysuit
abl
eforqui
etani
malsthatar
eusedto
handli
ng.Forexampl
esheep,
andforani
malst
hathavedel
icat
eski
nsl
i
ke
[
pigs.

(
ii
i) Wov
enwi
ref
ence.

Ty
pes

o Woodenpost
s+chai
nli
nk

o Met
all
i
cpost
s+chai
nli
nk

o Concr
etepost
s+chai
nli
nk

Wovenwi r
efenceissomet
hingr
efer
redt
oaschi
ckenwi
re/
wir
enet
mesh/chai
nlink.

Thi
sismadeofpl
ainwi
rewov
eni
ntodi
ff
erent
,pat
ter
nst
omakeasheetof
wir
emeshornet.

I
tisnotcommononsmal
lscal
efar
msbecausei
tisexpensi
ve.

Howev
er,onint
ensi
vef
armsiti
susedforenclosi
ngpoul
tr
yandpi
gst
yruns
aswel
lasfenci
ngsmal
lstockl
i
kerabbi
ts,sheepandgoat
s.
Wher
eawovenwir
efenceisused,
thebott
om i
ntheground20to30cm of
t
hemeshar
eburi
edinthegroundt
oavoidani
malsli
ft
ingitupt
om escape.

Thr
eeorfourst
randsofeit
herplai
norbar
bedwi
rear
efi
xedont
hef
ence
bef
oret
hechainli
nkfenceisfi
xed.

WI
REFENCESFORDI
FFERENTANI
MALS

FOROLDCATTLE

I
tisrecommendedthatafourst
randwirefenceof1.5m i
nhei
ghtshould
havethel
oweststr
and45cm abovethegroundthenext3ocm abov
e,the
thi
rd30cm abov
eandthetop35cm from t
het hi
rd.

NOTE:Ift
hreest
randsareused,t
heloweststr
and(l
ine)shoul
dbe50cm
al
ongthegroundlev
el,
thenext40cm aboveandthelast45cm abov
ethe
secondst
rand.

Fourst
randedf
ence

Thr
eest
randf
ence
FORSHEEPANDPI
GS

Forsheepandpi gst
hef
irstst
randshoul
dbej
ustbel
owt
hesur
faceoft
he
ground,at
tachedtowov
enwi r
e.

Toensuret
heeffect
ivenessoft
hefence,wi
remeshisr
ecommendedand2
to3str
andsofbarbedwi r
eshoul
dbef i
xedabov
ethegr
ound.

NB:
Awel
l
-const
ruct
edandmai
ntai
nedf
enceshoul
dlast10t
o15y
ear
s.

(
iv) Woodenfence.Thesear
ecommoni
nfar
mingcommuni
ti
esi
n
EastAf
ri
ca.

Awoodenf encei safenceconsist

ingofbranchesoft
hornyt
reesstuck
betweencloselyspacedposts.Lat
erotherarefi
tt
edontopandinthisway
athickandstrongfenceismade.

Animprov
edwoodenf
encei
swov
enf
rom r
eedsf
ir
mlyt
iedonpost
sand
ther
ail
s.

Bet
terst
il
l,
somepeopl
emayusewoodenboardsand/bamboor
ait
sor
si
salpol
esbutt
hisr
equi
resenoughmoneyt
obuynail
s.

NOTE:Unlessthewoodmater
ial
sar
etr
eat
edwi
thwoodpr
eser
vat
ive,
woodenfencesarenotdur
abl
e.

(
v) Concr
ete/
stone/wal
lfences.Thesearenotusedext
ensi
vel
yin
small
scal
ef ar
mingbecaiuse4itisexpensi
ve.

Wheresuchaf encei sconst

ruct
edasanalter
nati
vel
yfenci
ng,thewal
l
s
shouldneverbeallowedtogetint
oastat
eofdi sr
epai
rbecauserai
nwater
si
nkingthr
oughcr ackscauseswall
stocol
lapseandstonestoget
displ
acedandsoon.
Anyl
i
ttl
efaul
tmaybeputr
ighti
mmedi
atel
ytopr
eventwor
segapsgr
owi
ng.

Onl ar
gefar
msandest at
esornofarmswi t
hal otofloosestones,such
fencesareusedforsmal
lencl
osurese.
g.stor
esandwor kshops.Theyare
normallywi
deatbaseabout0.6m andnarr
owingt o0.3m att
het op.The
heighti
sgeneral
l
y1.2m t
hisshapefaci
li
tat
espr operfl
owofwat erwhenit
rai
ns.

(
vi) Trenchfences.Thesefencesar
epopul
aramongfar
merswhol
i
ve
cl
oset o/
nearnational
parksandgamereser
veswher
ewil
d
animalssneakintofar
m anddamagecrops.

Atrenchi
sdugpar
all
eltot
heperi
meterf
ence.Thi
strenchi
sfai
rl
ywi
deand
deepenought
heholdti
ght
lyanyani
malt
hatfal
lsi
ntoit.

I
tismadeinsuchawaythati
tisnarr
owatt
hebot
tom anddoesnotal
l
ow
t
hatvi
cti
mt omovef
orwardsorbackwar
ds.

Whil
eonthei
rrout
inei
nspecti
on,f
armersnormal
lykil
lsuchani
mal
sfor
meate.
g.her
bivor
esforexamplecobs,
antel
opesetc.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

(
a)Tr
enchf
encesr
equi
ref
requentr
epai
r.

(
b)Dur
ingtherai
nyseason,t
hetr
enchmaycav
einormaybedamaged
bywil
danimalseasi
lytomakeafi
ord.

(
c)St
agnantwateri
nthetr
enchmaymakeabreedi
nggroundf
or
mosqui
toes,
thuscausi
ngmalar
iat
opeopl
einthear
ea.

(
d)Farm ani
malsmayfall
int
othetrenchandbreaktheirl
imbs,
especial
lyi
ffar
mersal
lowgrasstoovergr
owt hetrench,
camouf l
agi
ngit.

(
vii
) El
ectr
icf
ence.Thist
ypeoffenceismovabl
eandi
swi
del
yusedon
dai
ryandbeeffar
mst ocont
rolst
ock.
I
tcanbemov
edeasi
l
ytoanypar
toft
hef
arm.

Themaincomponent soft
hisf
encei
ncl
udepost
s,i
nsul
ator
sandfenci
ng
wir
e.I
naddit
ion,t
heremustbeacontr
oluni
tandasour
ceofelect
ri
ci
ty.
Thesour
ceofelectr
icit
ybat
ter
y.

Thesefencesar
esui
tablef
orcontai
ningcows,hor
ses,
mutesandpigs,but
l
essforsheepandgoatsasthei
rcoatsaret
hickandgi
vebet
teri
nsulat
ion.

Oneortwost
randsar
esuf
fi
cientdependi
ngont
het
ypeofani
mal
stobe
fenced.

Forexampl
e;

Forcattl
e,1st
rand67cm f
rom thegroundand;
forsheep,2st
randsofwir
ethef i
rstone30cm andt
heot
herone60cm
from t
hefrom t
hegroundareadequate.’

Whenthefencei
soperat
ingany6ani
malt
hatt
ouchest
hef
encewi
l
lgeta
shockt
houghnotenoughtoharmthem.

Acontr
oll
eri
sused,ofthet
ypethatisonforonetenth(
1/10)andof
ffor
ni
netent
h(9/10)ofever
ysecond.Thisgi
vestheanimalt
imetogetaway.

Cont
inuousl
ychar
gedf
encescausetheani
malt
ofreezesot
hati
tcannot
br
eakcontactwhi
chwi
llcausesev
eredi
scomf
ort
.

Inorderforanelect
ricfencetooperateef
fi
ci
entl
y,i
tisnecessarytohavea
goodear t
hconnectiontot hefenceuni
tandensur
ethatthereisnothi
ng
elseincontactwit
ht hewiretocompletet
hecir
cuit
.

NOTE:
Anel
ect
ri
cfencewor
ksbet
terunderhumi
dcondi
ti
ons.
ADVANTAGESOFELECTRI
CFENCI
NG

1.Thi
sfencei
sthemostsui
tabl
eforcont
rol
l
ingani
mal
s,par
ti
cul
arl
yin
st
ri
pgrazi
ng.

2.Thesy
stem al
l
owsf
orbi
ggerpaddocksandcheapermanagement
.

3.I
treducesl
abourr
equi
rement
scompar
edt
oot
hersy
stems.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFELECTRI
CFENCI
NG

1.I
tist
ooexpensi
vef
ormostf
armer
s.

2.El
ect
ri
cfenci
ngr
equi
resapowersour
ce.

3.Dangerofel
ect
ri
cshockf
rom l
i
ght
eni
nghenceneedf
orpr
otect
ionby
ear
thi
ng.

LI
VEFENCI
NG(
LIVI
NGFENCI
NG)

Li
vefencesaref
encescomposedmainl
yofgrazi
ngt r
eesorshrubs
pl
antedinrowswhi
chgrowthi
ckeranduni
for
m givi
ngtheappearanceofa
hedge.

Becauseoft
his,
theyar
eal
socal
l
edhedgef
ences/
thor
nfences.

I
nEastAf
ri
ca,
theyar
eal
socal
l
edhedgef
ences/
thor
nfences.
InEastAf
rica,
thepopul
arl
yusedt
reespeci
esorshr
ubst
hatmakean
eff
ecti
vefenceare;

o Maur
it
iust
hor
n

o Kei
appl
e

o Euphor
bia

o Cy
pre4ss

o Cact
us(
opunt
ia)

o Si
sal

o Ti
ckber
ry

o Fi
cus

o Cassi
a

o Wai
tabi
tthor
net
c.

Somei mport
antf
eatur
est
hatmakethesespeci
essomewhi
chr
epel
l
entt
o
theconfi
nedani
malsandi
ntr
oducer
sare;

(
i) Someoft hesepl
ant
shaveshar
ppr
otect
ivet
hor
nse.
g.wai
tabi
t
thor
n,cactusandsi
sal
.

(
ii
) Ot
herspeci
eshav
eani
rr
it
ati
ngsmel
l
.

(
ii
i) Somear
epoi
sonoust
oani
mal
s.

Adv
ant
agesofl
i
vef
ences(
li
vi
ngf
ences)

1.Theyar
echeap,easyt
oest
abli
shandcanbepl
antedinanyl
ocal
i
ty.
Thi
sisbecausepl
anti
ngmater
ial
sar
elocal
l
yavai
l
able.

2.Theymaybesl
owtoestabl
i
shbutneedamini
mum ofmaint
enance
mainl
ytr
immi
ngandfi
ll
i
ngingapsonceful
l
yestabl
i
shed.
 3.Whenmat ur
e,theyser
veasgoodwindbr
eaker
sast
heygr
owi
ntoa
bushespeci
all
ytall
var
iet
iese.
g.kei
appl
e.

4.Whenmat
ure,
actasasour
ceoff
uel
wood.

5.Requi
resl
i
ttl
ecapi
tal
.

6.I
tgi
vesaper
manentdemar
cat
iont
oset
tl
elanddi
sput
es.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofl
i
vef
ences(
li
vi
ngf
ences)

1.Theyt
akemanyy
ear
stogr
owandmakeanef
fect
ivef
ence.

2.Thei
rgrowthmaybei
rr
egul
arleav
ingsomegapswhichappearonl
y
l
atert
oallowbot
hani
malsandthi
evestopasst
hrougheasi
ly
.

3.Hedgeswit
houtthor
nscr
eat
egoodhi
dingpl
acesf
ort
hiev
es,
wil
d
ani
malsandvermin.

4.Hedgesrequi
reregul
art
ri
mmi
ngandi
nfi
l
li
ng,
whi
chi
sbot
hlabor
ious
andexpensi
ve.

5.Theycannotbeusedeff
ect
ivel
yforsubdi
vi
dingl
andi
ntopaddocks
forgr
azi
ngpurposes.

6.Someoft
hem arepoi
sonoustoli
vestockandcannotbeusedf
or
demar
cat
inggr
azingar
ease.g.keiappl
eandtickber
ry.

7.Tr
anspl
ant
ingmaybenecessar
yandt
hisi
stedi
usandl
abor
ious.

8.Hedgescanonl
ybeest
abl
i
shedi
nsui
tabl
ecl
i
mat
e.

9.Duetocompet
it
ionf
ornut
ri
ent
s,cr
opscannotbegr
ownv
eryneart
o
thehedge.

NOTE: Theelect
ri
cfence……………. al
sobet er
medali
vefence,
buti
tsl
if
eisa
di
ffer
entkindofli
feandsinceit
sconstructi
onmat
eri
alsi
swirei
thas
al
readybeenconsideredunderdeadfences.

MATERI
ALSFORFENCI
NG
 A.FENCI
NGWI
RES

Wi
rei
sahandyanddur
abl
emat
eri
alf
ormaki
ngf
ence.

Ther
ear
e3cat
egor
iesofwi
reusedi
nfenci
ngwor
ks.Thesear
e;

o Bar
bedwi
re

o Pl
ainwi
re

o Wov
enwi
re(
chai
nli
nk)

(
i) BARBEDWI
RE

Thi
sismadeofordi
narygaugewir
enor
mal
l
yofdoubl
eort
ri
plest
rand,
wit
h
bar
bslocat
edat8to15cm apar
t.

TYPESPFBARBEDWI
RES

Bar
bedwi
rear
eoft
wot
ypes;

 Hi
ght
ensi
l
ebar
bedwi
re.

 Lowt
ensi
l
ebar
bedwi
re

Hi
ghtensil
ebar
bedwi
re.Thi
sisthi
nnerandmor
eresi
stantt
ogr
eat
er
t
ensi
on.Iti
susual
l
ymoreexpensiv
eto……………………

Theycomei
nrol
l
sof600m/
780f
eet
.

Theyar
emadef
rom mi
l
dst
eel
.

Theydonoteasil
ybreakbecauset
heyr
esi
sthi
ghtensil
efor
cesandi
f
proper
lyf
ixedonthepostwil
lmakeamuchstr
ongerfence.

Lowtensil
ebar
bedwi
res.I
tist
hickerandmor ebr
it
tl
e(canbr
eakeasi
l
y)
butat
tract
smanybuy
ersbecauseofit
ssize.

I
thasbar
bswhi
char
ever
yshar
p.

I
tissuppl
i
edi
nrol
l
sof200m/
60f
eet
.
I
tismadef
rom or
dinar
ymi
l
dst
ruct
ure.

BARBS

Thesedi
scouar
age(bypr
icki
ng)anyani
mal
whi
chat
tempt
stpoj
umpov
er
orfor
cei
tswaythr
oughthefence.

However
,thei
rmajordi
sadvantagei
sthatt
heycauseser
iousdamaget
o
t
hehidesofstubbor
nanimals.

(
ii
) Pl
ainwi
re.Thi
swi
rei
sofr
egul
argaugeandwi
thoutbar
bs.

I
tisnor
mal
l
yusedi
ncombi
nat
ionwi
thsi
ngl
est
randsofbar
bedwi
re.

Whensuchst
randsar
ewel
lspr
iced,
twost
randsofnumber8.

(
ii
i) Wov enwi
re.Thi
sismadeofpl
aingaugewir
e,whi
chi
swov
eni
nto
var
iouspatt
ernsandi
smajor
it
yusedforpoul
tr
y.

(
iv) Thepatt
ernsrangef
rom 15cm t
o30cm squar
eandf
rom amesh
ornett
hatdoesnotall
owev ensmal
lani
malstogot
hrough.

B.FENCESTAPLES

Mostfenci
ngstapl
esaresmal
lnai
l
swhi
char
eshar
penedonbot
hendsand
bentandshapedli
kel
ett
erU.

Becauset
heyareshapedi
nfor
m ofl
ett
erU,
manypeopl
eref
ert
othem as
Ushapednai
ls.

I
tUshaped…………….
.pur
poseofhol
dingt
hewi
reei
therpl
ainorbar
bedon
t
hefencepost
s.

Howev
er,
onsmall
post
sanddropper
s,smal
lpi
ecesoft
hinbi
ndi
ngwi
re
may……………………………………………………………………………………………

C.WOOD

Onmostfar
mst i
mberi
sthecommonestmat
eri
alusedf
orf
arm st
ruct
ure,
suchasbui
l
dingsandf
ences.
Itmaycomefrom i
sol
atedtr
eesont
hefar
mi t
sel
f,fr
om l
ocal
woodorbush
sour
ces,orf
rom by
product
softi
mberi
ndust
ri
ese.g.sawmil
ls.

However,
lar
gequanti
ti
esar
eobtai
nedf
rom nat
ureorcul
ti
vatedfor
est
s.
Thesedays,
cheaperwoodf
ort
imberar
eusede.g.Al
bizi
a,Eucal
ypt
usetc.

TREATI
NGOFWOODMATERI
ALSANDFENCEPOSTS

Iti
simport
antt
hatwoodusedforconst
ruct
ionpurposesi
str
eat
edi
ffar
m
str
uctur
esaret
olast
.Thi
sisbecausewoodi spr
oneto:

 War
pingbecauseofdampness.

 Damagebyweev
il
sandot
heri
nsect
s.

 Rot
ti
ngasar
esul
toff
ungal
att
ackandweat
her
ing.

NOTE:Woodisusual
lyobt
ainedfrom i
tspr
imar
ysourcewheniti
sfr
esh
andwet.Toseasont
hewoodi thastobedri
edthor
oughl
y,pr
efer
abl
ybyai
r.

PRECAUTI
ONSTAKENWHENDRYI
NGTI
MBERBYAI
R(AI
RSEASONI
NG
TI
MBER)

I
tisdesi
rabl
etoprovi
dearoof
edshedorsomeki
ndofcov
ert
okeep
of
fdri
edsunshineandrai
n.

 Heapti
mberi nst
acksbutmustbesuppor
tedoffthegr
oundsoasto
all
owfreeci
rcul
ati
onbeneat
handavoidabsor
ptionofmoi
stur
efr
om
thegr
ound.

 Pi
lesofti
mbershoul
dbeseparat
edbywoodenr
ods(
sti
cker
s)t
o
al
l
owt hepassageofai
rthr
oughthest
ack.

Inordert
oav oi
dwarpi
ng,al
lthesupportsandst
icker
sshoul
dbe
spacedclosel
yenoughtobeartheweight.

 Thestackshouldbeparal
lelt
othegr
oundsuppor
ttoav
oidsli
ding
andbendingtheindi
vi
dualpi
ecesoft
imbershoul
dbearr
angedin
suchawayt hatrai
nwatercanrunof
fqui
ckly
.
CHEMI
CALTREATMENTOFTI
MBER

Iti
sbestdonebefor
etheti
mberi
smadeintost
ruct
ures,
becauseatt
hat
staget
hechemicalcanr
eachal
lpar
tsoft
hewood.

CHEMI
CALUSED

Avari
etyofchemi
cal
sar
eusedf
ort
het
reat
mentoft
imberagai
nstat
tack.
Theseare;

1.Pent
achl
oropher
iol
.Topr
eventat
tackbyweev
ilandot
heri
nsect
s.

2.Tr
ibut
yli
noxi
de.Topr
eventat
tackbyweev
il
sandot
heri
nsect
s.

3.Ol
dengineoi
l(Asatemporar
ymeasur
e).Topr
eventat
tackby
t
ermi
tesandotheri
nsect
s.

4.Di
eldi
ng.16%Diel
dingismixedi
n10l
i
ter
sofwat
er(
poi
sonous)
.Thi
s
pr
eventsatt
ackbyter
mi t
es.

5.Ar
seni
cpent
oci
de.Topr
eventat
tackbyf
ungi
.

6.Sodi
um di
chr
omat
e(NaCr
2O3)
.Forf
ungi
prot
ect
ion.

7.Coppersul
phat
e(CuSO4)
.Topr
eventat
tackbyf
ungi
.

8.Tar
.Forweat
herandf
ir
epr
otect
ion.

9.Cr
eosot
e.Forweat
herandf
ir
epr
otect
ion.

10. Pai
nt.Forweat
herandf
ir
epr
otect
ion.

METHODSOFWOOD/
TIMBERTREATMENT

Ther
ear
ethr
eemet
hodsusedt
otr
eatt
imberandt
heyi
ncl
ude;

o Vaccum/
pressur
etr
eat
ment
s.

o Soaki
ngmet
hods.

o Sapdi
spl
acement
/enddi
ff
usi
onmet
hod
VACCUM/
PRESSURETREATMENT

I
nthi
smet
hod,
pol
esofdesi
redsi
zeandl
engt
har
epeel
ed.

Thepeeledpolesar
ethenti
ght
lypackedi
nal
argecy
li
ndercont
aini
ngt
he
preser
vati
ve.I
nthecyl
inder
.

Thechemi
cal
isf
orceddi
rect
lyi
ntot
hem underv
eryhi
ghpr
essur
e.

Thi
sist
hebestmet
hodofwoodt
reat
mentbutr
equi
resv
erysophi
s.

SOAKI
NGMETHODS

Thesoaki
ngmet
hodsar
etwoandt
hesear
e;

o Hotandcol
dtr
eat
ment

o Col
dtr
eat
ment
/col
dsoaki
ng

HOTANDCOLDTREATMENT

Peel
edpostsar
esubmergedi
nanoi
ldr
um ort
ankcont
aini
ngt
he
appr
opr
iat
epreser
vat
ive.

Thecontai
nerisheat
edf
orappr
oxi
mat
ely2hour
sunt
ilt
hepr
eser
vat
ivei
s
aboutt
oboil.

Thent
hepost
sar
eal
l
owedt
ocool
int
hepr
eser
vat
ive.

Thewoodcell
swhi
chhaveexpandeddur
ingtheheati
ngprocessofnew
shr
inkdur
ingt
hepr
ocessofcooli
nganddrawup/takeni
nthepreserv
ati
ve.

COLDSOAKI
NG

I
nthi
smethod,
peel
edandseasonedpost
sar
eimmer
sedi
nthedesi
red
woodpr
eser
vat
ivef
or1to3days.

Thi
sal
l
owsthechemi
cal
tobedr
awnupsl
owl
yint
otheconduct
ingt
ubes
oft
hewood.

Thepost
sar
elat
err
emov
edandal
l
owedt
odr
ipdr
yaf
terwhi
cht
heyar
e
r
eadyf
oruse.

ENDDI
FFUSI
ON/
SAPDI
SPLACEMENT

Fr
eshl
ycutpost
sar
eimmedi
atel
ypackedi
nav
essel
cont
aini
nga
pr
eser
vat
ive.

Theyareal
lowedt
ost
andwi
tht
hei
rbot
tom enddowni
nthechemi
cal
for
about10days.

Later
,theotherendsoft
hepost
sar
edi
ppedi
ntot
hepr
eser
vat
iveunt
il
enoughistakenin.

Themethodisalsocal
ledsapdi
splacementbecausei
trel
i
esont
henat
ural
tr
anspi
rat
ionst
ream ofthewood.

Ast
hesapi
nthewooddr
iesout
,thechemi
cal
isdr
awni
ntot
hepol
e.

NOTE:Int
hismethod,i
tisnecessar
ytosoakt
hepost
swi
thi
n1t
o2hour
s
ofcut
ti
ng,bef
orethesapdri
esup.

FENCI
NGPOSTS

I
nmostcasesfencingr
equi
rewoodenmet
al,
orconcr
etepost
stof
orm
t
hei
rbasi
cstr
ucture.

Woodenpost
s,i
fwel
ltr
eat
edwi
thspeci
alchemi
cal
sar
esui
tabl
e.

Lessexpensi
veandeasi
l
yav
ail
abl
elocal
l
y

Tr
eesspeci
est
hatpr
oducet
imberr
esi
stantt
oinsectdamageandr
ott
ing
ar
e;

 Swamppal
m.

 Redcedar
.

 Bl
ackwat
tl
e.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Tr
eessui
tabl
etomaket
imberf
orl
i
vef
encear
e;

 Redf
lotpoker

 Bar
kcl
othf
ig

 Ober

NOTE:I
nsomecasesl
i
vepost
scanbeusedasst
rai
ner
sal
ongt
hef
ence
l
ine.

A.WOODENPOSTS

TYPESOFPOSTSTOPREPAREFORFENCI
NG

Thet
ypesofwoodpost
stopr
epar
eforf
enci
ngar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
our
;

o St
rai
ner
s/ki
ngpost
s/cor
nerpost
s.

o St
andar
ds/
ordi
nar
ypost
s.

o St
rut
s.

o Dr
opper
s.

1.STRAI
NERS/
KINGPOSTS/
CORNERPOSTS.

Theyar
ebi
gandnor
mal
l
yfi
xedatgat
es,
andi
ncor
ner
s.

Theyareal
waysbr
aced(
suppor
ted)byst
rut
ssot
hatt
heyr
esi
stt
hest
rai
n
ofthepul
loft
hewir
e.

Theyar
e2.
4m l
ongand10t
o18cm i
ndi
amet
er.

St
rai
nersareal
sousedatachangeofdir
ecti
onati
nter
val
sof200m i
na
st
rai
ghtrunandwheret
herei
sanobstructe.
g.adi
tch.

2.ORDI
NARYPOSTS

Techni
cal
l
ytheyar
eref
err
edt
oasst
andar
ds.

Or
dinar
ypost
/st
andar
dsar
eusedev
ery
wher
etohol
dwi
reupexceptat
gat
eandcor
ner
s.

Sincethewirepul
l
sthem i
nbothdi
rect
ions,
ther
eisl
essst
rai
nont
hem
thanthatexert
edonki
ngposts.

Or
dinar
ypost
sar
e1.
8m hi
ghand15cm i
ndi
amet
er.

Theyar
eset12t
o15m apar
t.

3.STRUTS.Str
utsar
eusedt obr
acet
hest
rai
ner
shencet
hei
rnamesof
suppor
ter
sorbutt
resses.

4.DROPPERS.

Thesearel
ong,thi
npi
ecesofwoodwhichareusual
l
ywovenupr
ight
betweenst
randsofwi
rewidel
yspacedbet
weenthepost
s.

Themai
nfunct
ionofdr
opper
sistoreducethewiresaganddi
scour
ageany
ani
malt
hatmaytryt
opushit
sel
fthr
ought hefence.

I
fwel
lti
edwi
thpi
ecesofpl
ainwi
re,
theycanst
ayi
npl
acel
onger
.

B.METALPOSTS

Met
alpost
sar
emostexpensi
veandar
erar
elyused.

Adv
ant
age

 Theydivi
deapast
ureforr
otat
ional
grazi
ngqui
ckl
yandeasi
l
y
especi
all
ywher
eelect
ricf
enci
ngisused.

C.CONCRETEPOSTS

Concret
eposts,
tooareexpensi
veforthesmall
far
meranddif
ficul
tto
makebutifpr
operl
ymadeandr einf
orcedwit
hmetalr
odsinsi
deeachpost
theywil
ll
astf
oralongti
me.

Thei
radvant
agei
sthatt
heycanbemadeathomewhent
hemat
eri
alsar
e
avai
l
able.
Theyar
eal
sonotspoi
l
edbywat
er,
rust
ingorwhi
teant
s.

Theyar
ehowev
er,
expensi
vet
omendwhenbr
oken.

ADVANTAGESOFUSI
NGWOODMATERI
ALS

 Woodi
seasi
l
yobt
ainabl
einmostar
eas.

I
tisr
elat
ivel
ycheapt
obuy
.

I
tiseasyt
owor
kwi
th,
requi
ri
ngnospeci
alski
l
l.

 Wit
hgoodt
reat
mentandmai
ntenance,
woodmat
eri
alsar
equi
te
dur
abl
e.

 Woodi
sli
ghtcompar
edt
ost
eel
andconcr
ete.

I
tcanbesal
vagedandr
eused.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofusi
ngwoodmat
eri
als

 Woodmat er
ial
saresuscept
ibl
etoat
tackbyter
mitesandbeetl
es,
especi
all
ywhennottr
eatedwit
hsuit
ablewoodpreser
vat
ives.

 Theyeasi
l
ydecayt
ofungal
damagei
fnotwel
ltr
eat
ed.

 Theybur
nqui
teeasi
l
yandar
eaf
ir
eri
sk.

 Woodcannotbeusedf
orawi
despanascompar
edt
oconcr
ete.

 Candev
elopdef
ecti
ntheknot
sandcr
acks.

FENCECONSTRUCTI
ON

Si
ncef
enci
ngisapr
erequi
sit
etoproperl
anduti
li
zat
ionl
iv
est
ock
i
mprov
ementandmanagement,i
tisi
mportantt
hati
tispr
oper
lydone.

Toputupafence,
af ar
merneedsvar
iousmat er
ial
s,t
ool
sandequi
pment
,
dependi
ngonthety
peoffencehe/
sher equi
res.

He/
shewi
l
lal
sor
equi
resomepat
ienceandconst
ruct
ionski
l
l.
Thecommont
ypeoff
enceseeni
nmostf
armsi
sthe“
postandwi
ref
ence”
.

Toer
ectsuchaf
ence,
afar
merwi
l
lneedt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ool
sandequi
pment
.

o Tapemeasur
e.

o St
icks(
usedt
omeasur
epl
acesf
orhol
es)

o Hol
edi
gger
s.

o Post
s.

o Wi
re.

o Suppor
ts.

o St
apl
es.

o Nai
l
s(ofv
ari
oussi
ze)

o Cl
awhammer
.

o Wi
rest
rai
ner(
fort
ight
eni
ngf
encewi
res)

o Rammi
ng(
fi
rmi
ng)st
ick.

o Dr
opper
s.

o Apai
rofpl
i
ers.

o Concr
ete/
mixt
uref
orr
ammi
ngt
hepost
s.

NOTE:
Mostoft
hesemat
eri
alsandt
ool
sar
eeasyt
ouse.

THEWI
RESTRAI
NER

Thewi
restr
ainerhasaver
yimport
antr
olei
nti
ght
eni
ng/
str
etchi
ngf
ence
wir
est
ight
lybefor
etheyar
estapl
ed.

Theti
ghtst
ret
chi
ngprevent
swiresfr
om sagging.Thi
sreducest
hechance
ofani
malescapi
ngorenter
ingt
hrought
hef ence.
NOTE:Theuseofawir
estr
aineri
snotli
mitedtofencingonlybutar
isef
or
handl
i
ngtel
egraphwi
reorf
oranyotherst
rainerort
ighteni
ng…………………

Howt
ouseawi
rest
rai
ner

 Gri
ppermar
kedAisat
tachedt
ooneendoft
hewi
re.Thegr
ipperi
s
fi
xedtot
hewir
e.

 Thesegr
ipper
shol
dti
ght
lyt
othewi
rebet
weent
hem.

 ThegrippersmarkedBar eat
tachedtothewi
reint
hesamewaybut
ontheot herendofthewiret
heshorthookbythel
everi
nther
ight
handintooneoft heli
nksofthechai
n.

 Thewireist
ight
enedbymovi
ngthelevert
owar
dgri
pperAand
hol
dingthet
ankchainbyt
helonghookonthel
ever
.

 Theshri
thooki
sremovedfrom t
hesl
ackchai
nandf
ixedont
he
sui
tabl
eli
nkonthet
ightchai
n.

 Theprocessi
srepeat
edunt
ilt
hewi
resar
eti
ghtenought
obest
apl
ed
ontheposts.

NOTE:
Careshouldbet
akensothatt
hepr
oceedi
ngl
inksar
epushedoutof
t
hewaytopreventt
hei
rbei
ngj
ammedbetweenthehookandt
helever
.

Howt
ouset
hewi
rest
rai
neratt
hepost

 Makeal
oopofwi
reandpassar
oundt
hepost
.

 At
tacht
hegr
ipper
sont
he……………………………………………………….

 Gr
ipont
hel
evert
othef
encet
obest
rai
ned.

 Thewir
eist
ight
enedi
ntheusual
wayunt
ili
tisst
ret
chedenought
o
befi
xedont
hepostwit
hstapl
es.

 Thewi
rel
oopr
oundt
heposti
sthenr
emov
ed.
Thi
sisthebestpl
anwhenstr
aini
ngpost
sarei
ronwi
thshar
pcor
ner
sor
l
argesquar
ewoodenpostsorwhenthewir
etobest
rai
nedi
sbar
bedwi
re.

NOTE: I
fthepostsar
eroundorifst
rai
ningfr
om t
rees,t
hewi
reshoul
dbe
broughtr
ightroundt
hepost,
theendoft hewi
rei
tsel
fmakesaloopr
ound
thepostortree.

Thi
sisav
eryconv
eni
entmet
hodofwor
kingt
hemachi
ne.

THEFENCI
NGHAMMER

Thisi
saspeci
alt
ypeofhammerwhi
chi
sdesi
gnedspeci
fi
cal
l
yforusei
n
fenci
ngwor
ks.

It
sheadisheav
ytohammeri
nst
apl
esandahookl
i
kest
ruct
uret
oremov
e
stapl
es.

I
tcanal
sor
efert
oasf
enci
ngpl
i
ers.

I
thasadev
icef
orcut
ti
ngf
enci
ngwi
rest
other
equi
redl
engt
h.

Thef
enci
nghammeri
sresponsi
blef
orhammer
ingi
nandr
emov
ingout
st
apl
es.

NOTE:Acl
awhammerisal
soi
ncommonusef
orf
ixi
ngst
apl
esonor
f
enci
ngwir
eontopost
s.

HOW TOESTABLI
SHAFENCE/
STEPSTAKENI
NTHEERECTI
ONOFA
FENCE

(
PROCEDUREOFFENCECONSTRUCTI
ON)

 Est
abl
i
sht
heboundar
ies.

 Clearthel
and/v
eget
ati
onwher
et hef
enceli
nei
stopasst
oawi
dthof
atleast2m t
oall
owamplewor
kingspace.

 Usepegst
osett
hecor
ner
soft
hel
andt
obef
enced.

 Bysi
ght
ingagui
der
ope,
thepegsar
etosett
heposi
ti
onofpost
sina
 str
aightl
i
netheaveragespaci
ngbetweenonepostandanot
heri
s4
to6m or14m apar
tif4dropper
sarefi
xedinbet
weenthem.

 Betterst
art
ingt
odi
gholes,
thenumberofcorner
sandgatestobein
thefenceshoul
dbeknown
as………………………………………………………………r equi
redandtheappropr
iat
e
sizeofthepost
.

Al
lot
herpostswil
lbeordi
nar
yexcepti
nspecial
caseswherethef
encei
s
l
ongandstr
aightandst
rai
ner
smayber equi
redint
hecenter
.

Onest
rai
nerandt
wost r
utsareneededforeachcor
ner
,whi
l
etwost
rai
ner
s
andt
wostrut
sareneededforeachgate.

 Setcor
nerandgat
epost
stoget
herwi
tht
hei
rsuppor
ter
sateachend.

 Digpostholesjustwideenoughtot
akethesi
zeofthepostand
subsequentl
yearthonconcreter
amming.Theconcret
emi xedin
proport
ionsof1cement :
3sand:5gr
aveli
sadvi
sablepart
icular
lyf
or
cornerpostsandstrai
ners.

Thehol
esforcor
nerpost
sshoul
dbe90cm deepwhi
l
ethosef
oror
dinar
y
post
sshoul
dbe75cm deep.

Thehol
esfort
hest
rut
sshoul
dbedug1.
5m awayf
rom t
hest
rai
ningposti
n
thef
encel
i
ne.

Thestr
ainingpostshoul
dbenot
chedaf
ewcent
imet
ersbel
owt
het
opt
o
takest
ruts.

 Fitthepostsandst
rutsi
nthei
rrespect
ivehol
es,pl
acingaf l
at
strai
ningpostfi
rml
y.Post
sshouldbe2m abovethegr ound.Pour
theconcreteormort
arinsmal
lquantit
iesandram f
requently
.

Aft
ertheholeisfi
l
led,heapsoi
labout20cm hi
ghar
oundt
hebaseoft
he
postt
of aci
l
itat
erainwaterr
un-
off.

 Nai
lthest
rut
stocor
nerandgat
epost
swi
th1.
5cm nai
l
s.
  Thenf i
xthewi r
esstart
ingfr
om thel
owerone.Takeontempor
ary
st
r andofwireroundfencebetweent
hestrai
ners.Li
neupandf
ixal
l
otherpostsalongthi
swi r
e.

 St
ret
chandst
apl
ethatst
randofwi
reont
othepost
.

Int
hiswayputupt
her
emai
ningst
randsofwi
reunt
ilt
hef
encei
s
complet
e.

NOTE:
Someti
messuit
abl
ehori
zont
alhol
esareboredthroughthepost
sfor
wi
rest
opassthr
oughandst
apl
ingi
sonlydoneatcornerposts.

AWELLLABELLEDDRAWI
NGOFAFENCE

CALCULATI
ONSI
NVOLVEDI
NFENCI
NGFARM LAND

Beforethefenceiserected,thefar
merhastogetthepri
orknowledge
aboutthe,numberoff encingpoststobeputi
nthefence,numberof
barbedwireroll
srequiredandt henumberoff
enci
ngstaplestobeused.

Thi
sisgotbycal
cul
ati
onsi
nvol
vedinfenci
ng.Aftert
hecal
culat
ions,
he/
shewill
alsobeabl
etoknowtheexpensesrequir
edi
nfence
cal
cul
ati
ons.
I
mpor
tantcal
cul
ati
onsi
nvol
ved

1.Det
ermi
ningt
henumberoff
enci
ngpost
srequi
red.

I
nordertodet
ermi
nethenumberoff
encepost
srequi
re,
thef
armerhast
o
f
ir
stestabl
i
shtheper
imet
erofl
and.I
.e.

Per
imet
er=2(
lengt
h+wi
dth)

=2(
L+W)

OR

Per
imet
er=l
engt
h+wi
dth+l
engt
h+wi
dth

=L+W+L+W

I
nfenci
ng,
per
imet
eri
smeasur
edi
nmet
ers.

Todet
ermi
net
henumberofpost
srequi
red,

Di
vi
det
heper
imet
erwi
tht
hespaci
ngbet
weent
hepost
s.

Butt
heact
ual
numberofpost
sisgi
venby
;

Numberofpost
s= per
imet
er +1

Di
stance(
spaci
ng)bet
weenpost
s

So,
thef
ormul
aisN+1

Wher
eN = per
imet
er

Di
stancebet
weenpost
s

And1=aconst
ant

2.Det
ermi
ningt
henumberofr
oll
sofbar
bedwi
res

Thi
sisgotby
;

Numberofr
oll
sbet
weenbar
bedwi
res= per
imet
erxnumberofst
rands
 Si
zeoft
her
oll
sofbar
bedwi
re

3.Det
ermi
ningt
henumberofst
apl
es

Thenumberofst
apl
est
obeusedi
nfenci
ngi
sdet
ermi
nedby
;

Numberofst
apl
es=numberofpost
sXnumberofst
rands

USESOFFENCES

1.Perimeterfencingestabl
i
shesf ar
m boundar ies.Inordertoclaim
ownershipoflandort heri
ghttousel and, t
heboundar iesofeach
parceloflandmustbecl earl
ydemar cated.Toagr eatextent
permanentest abli
shmentofboundar ieshelpst oreduceland
di
sput esbetweenneighbors,part
icularl
yinar easwherepopul ati
on
pressureonlandi shi
ghandquar relsov erl
andar ecommon.

2.Pheri
pheral(
per
imeter)f
enci
ngkeepsoutunwant edvi
sit
orsli
ke
tr
espassers,
thi
evesandevenwil
danimals.Thereisabsol
utepri
vacy
i
tint
rudersofal
lsetsarebar
redf
rom ent
eringthefarm.

3.Doubl
efencingisanef
fect
ivemeasur
ef orcont
rol
li
ngt
icksaswel
las
di
seasesthatcoul
dbespreadfr
om ei
therfarms.

4.Somef encetypessuchasl
ivef
encesser
veaswindbreakersto
pr
otectcropsagai
nstdrywi
ndsandcanactassour
cesoff uel
wood.

5.Int
ernalf
enceshel
pintheest
abl
ishmentofpaddocks.Thekindof
arr
angementmakesitpossi
blet
om pract
icer
otati
onalgrazi
ngwhich
canhelpinwori
ncontr
ol.

6.Paddockf enci
ngalsomakesiteasyt
oconfi
neanimalsfordif
fer
ent
speci
fi
cr easons,
e.g.i
sol
ati
ngsickonesf
ordiseaseorpestcont
rol
orcal
ving.

7.Fenceshelpfar
mersav oi
duncont
rol
ledbreedi
ngonthei
rfar
ms,
si
ncet her
eisnochanceofindi
scr
iminat
emat i
ng.Bul
lsar
ekept
separatel
yandarer
eleasedwhentherei
sacowonheat .
 8.Fencesmakei teasyforf
armerstor egul
atet
heamountofwater
suppli
edtoli
vestockpaddocks,especial
l
ywhenwatert
roughsar
e
welldi
str
ibut
edt hr
oughoutthepasture.

9.Fencesmaybeusedi nmi xedf

armingtoprot
ecthomeand
neighbor
ingcropsf
rom animaldamage.Thecropsal
sobenef
itf
rom
themanur e.

10. Onmi xedfar

msf enci
nghelpsthefarmer ’
scroppingprogram,
e.g.l
eyf armingformutualcoexi
stenceofcropsandani mals.The
farmerpl ansinsuchawayt hatcroprot
ati
onr el
easesf al
l
owl andand
l
eypast ur estobeusedforgrazi
ngwhi l
ethelandwhi chhas
previouslybeenresti
ngisusedforcropsandsoon.Thi si
sknownas
alter
natehusbandr y
.

11. Thenet
workofint
ernal
fencesi
npaddocksandot
herl
ayout
addst
hebeautyofor
gani
zati
ontofar
ms.

12. I
nternalf
enceshelptoconfinerpart
icul
arty
pesofani
malsin
onearea,fori
nstanceseparat
ingy ounganimalsf
rom ol
dones,
heal
thyfrom si
ck,malesfrom females.

13. Fencesreduceli
vest
ockr
equi
rementont
hef
arm asl
i
vest
ock
donothavetobef ol
l
owed.

14. Fencesenabl
eni
ghtpaddocki
ngoft
heani
mal
stoenabl
ethem
feedatnight
.

15. Fencingleadstogr
eat
eref
fi
ci
encyintheuseoflandandwat
er
resour cese.g.i
tprev
entsov
ergr
azingorov
ercrowdi
ngatwater
points.

LI
MITATI
ONSOFFENCES

Ther
ear
esomedi
sadv
ant
agesoff
encesandt
hesei
ncl
ude;

 Fencesr
equi
resubst
ant
ial
capi
tal
expendi
tur
etoest
abl
i
sh.Thi
s
 i
nv ol
vesthecostandtranspor
tofthemater
ial
s,t
heprepar
ati
onof
thefencesboundary
,theerect
ionofthef
enceandthedemarcat
ion
ofpaddocks.

 Fenci
ngr
equi
resconsi
der
abl
elabort
oest
abl
i
sh.

 Fencesdenyani
malsthechanceoff
eedi
ngf
reel
y,f
indi
ngt
heear
li
est
growthandthebestf
eed.

 Toomanyf encesdi
videthelandi
ntosmal
lpar
cel
sandmachi
ner
y
cannotbeusedconvenient
ly.

ANI
MALHUSBANDRYSTRUCTUREORANI
MALHANDLI
NGLAYOUTS

Thesearestr
uct
uresusedwhenhandl
i
ngf
arm ani
mal
sforspeci
fi
c
purposes.

Ani
mal
handl
i
ngl
ayout
sincl
ude;

o Thecr
ush.

o Pl
ungedi
p/cat
tl
edi
p/di
ptank

o Spr
ayr
ace.

o Handl
i
ngy
ards.

THECRUSH

Acr ushisafarm st
ruct
ureusedinhandli
ng/encl
osi
nganimal
s,witha
holdingyardandafencednarrowpassageinwhichanimal
sarerestr
ained
fordiff
erentki
ndsofrouti
neanimalhusbandrypr
act
ices.

Afarmeri
sadvi
sedtohaveasmallcr
ushandcoll
ecti
ngpennear
bysothat
ani
malscanberopedi
nthecrushandpull
edupbythetyi
ngpost
.Thi
s
sol
vesthepr
obl
em ofl
aborofchasi
ngstubbor
nanimals.

Iti
seasytospr
ayseveralani
malsinasi
mpleopencrush,
buti
feach
ani
mal i
stobeproper
lytr
eated,
theymustbesepar
atedbysl
iprai
l
swhi
ch
pr
eventt
hem f
rom bunchi
ngt
oget
herandhol
dingbehi
ndeachot
her
.

USESOFACRUSH

Acr
ushi
susedt
oconf
ineani
mal
sfort
hef
oll
owi
ngoper
ati
ons;

1.I
tisuseddur
inghandspr
ayi
ngorhanddr
essi
ngt
ocont
rol
ticks.

2.I
nject
ingort
reat
ingani
mal
sagai
nsti
nter
nal
diseasese.
g.
v
accinati
on.

3.Itisuseddur
ingdr
enchi
ngordewor
mingagai
nsti
nter
nal
par
asi
tes
e.g.worms.

4.Forar
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
ionoper
ati
ons.

5.Forapply
ingident
if
icat
ionmar
kssuchasbr
andi
ng,
eart
aggi
ng,
ear
notchi
ng,tat
tooi
ngetc.

6.Fordehor
ning.

7.Fort
aki
ngt
hebodyt
emper
atur
eoff
arm ani
mal
s.

8.Forcl
oseexami
nat
ionofsi
ckani
mal
s/obser
vat
ionofsi
ckani
mal
s.

9.Forcar
ryi
ngoutpr
egnancyt
est
s.

10. Formi
l
king.

NOTE:Thelengthofthecr
ushisinf
luencedbyt
hef
armer
’schoi
ceoft
he
numberofcatt
lehe/shewishest
ohandl e.

TYPESOFCRUSHES

Themai
nty
pesofcr
ushesi
ncl
ude;

(
i) A3postcr
ush/Vshapedcr
ush.

(
ii
) Acont
inuouscr
ush.

A3POSTCRUSH
A3postcr
ushisal
socal
l
edaVshapedcr
ushorVt
ypecr
ushi
tsshape
r
esembl
eslet
terV.

I
tisusedf
orhandl
i
ngoneani
mal
atat
ime.

ACONTI
NUOUSCRUSH

Thisi
sacr
ushusedf
orconf
ini
ngt
woormor
eani
mal
s/manyani
mal
sata
ti
me.

Someofsuchcrusheshaveholdi
ngyar
dsi.
e.assembl
yyardwhereani
mals
aregat
her
edbeforeoperat
ionsandt
hedrai
ningyar
dwheretheyarel
eftt
o
dri
pdryaf
terspr
ayi
ng.

Cont
inuouscr
ushhasv
ari
abl
elengt
hdependi
ngont
henumberofani
mal
s
tobehandl
edatati
me.
Acont
inuouscr
ushwi
thhol
dingy
ardsf
orhol
dingmanyani
mal
satat
ime

NOTE: I
ntheconti
nuouscrush,t
wopar al
l
elfences1m apartatthebase
and1.2m apar
tatthetopareconstructedusingstr
ongpostsi.e.wideat
thetop…………………………………………Thef loorandsideshouldbemadeof
concret
eandslantgentl
ysothatthereisnoaccumul at
ionofrubbish.

HANDSPRAYI
NGI
NACRUSH

Thesmall
far
merwit
h1to10exoti
ccows,sheeporgoat
sdoesnotr eal
ly
needacommunal
dipunl
esst
hereisoneonl
y1t o2km f
rom hi
s/herfar
m.

I
tisbet
terf
orhi
m/hert
ohav
eacr
ushandahandpumpandspr
ayathome.
Reasonswhyasmal lscal
efarmerisadv
isedt
ohaveacr
ushandusei
tfor
spray
inghi
s/herani
mal soradvant
agesofacr
ush

Theadv
ant
agesaf
armerenj
oysher
ear
e;

1.Ther
eisnori
skoflossinmi
lkproduct
ionduet
otr
ekki
nghi
s/her
ani
malstoafarof
f,communaldipbat
.

2.Afar
merhascompletecont
rol
ofhi
sani
mal s.He/
shecanalsodo
pr
opermixi
ngofthedi
pwashandwater
,thusensuri
ngcor
rectdi
p
washst
rength.

3.Thereisnori
skofhis/
herani
malscoll
ect
ingorspr
eadingdi
seases
bycomi ngi
ntocont
actwit
hotherani
malseit
heronthewaytoorat
thedip.

4.Afar
mercanspraybot
hhi
s/hersi
ckandpr
egnantani
mal
swi
thout
ot
herli
vest
ock.

5.Acrushenablesafar
merto……. .
andbeawareoftheparasi
te
si
tuati
oni
nhisf ar
m.Iti
sindeedaneff
ici
entandsat
isf
actor
ymet
hod
ofti
ckcontr
ol f
orsmall
scalefar
mers.

6.I
tischeapt
oconst
ructasi
nmostar
east
hemat
eri
alsar
eav
ail
abl
e.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofusi
ngacr
ush

1.Acr
ushi
snotdur
abl
ei.
e.caneasi
l
ybebr
okenbyl
i
vest
ock/
ani
mal
s.

2.Usi
ngacr
ushi
sav
erysl
owmet
hodoft
ickcont
rol
.

3.Sprayi
nganimalsusi
ngacr
ushasahandli
ngstr
uct
uremaybe
i
neffi
cienti
nthatt
heani
malsmaynotbecover
edwellwi
tht
he
acari
cide.

4.Useofacrushwast
esacar
ici
desi
ncet
heacar
ici
dei
snotr
eusedas
i
nadiptank.

5.Acr
ushmaynotbeabl
etohandl
ethecal
vesasacasewi
thaspr
ay
 r
ace.

THESPRAYRACE

Asprayr
aceisafarm st
ruct
uredesi
gnedinsuchawayt hatani
mal
sar
e
washedbyacar
ici
deunderpressur
edeli
ver
edthroughnozzles.

Theani
mal
swal
kfr
om t
hecol
l
ect
ingy
ardt
hrought
heent
rancer
ace.

Theyar
emadeent
ir
elywetwi
thdi
pwashspr
ayi
ngt
hrought
henozzl
es.

Thenozzlesar
eplacedatstrat
egicpl
acesonthesi
de,f
loorandoverhead
pepesandatsuchanglesthattheani
malsget
swettedfrom al
lsi
desand
onallsi
des.

Theacri
cidei
sdr
awnfrom asump(reser
voi
r)t
hroughacentri
fugalpump
dri
venbyanengi
neortr
actorP.
T.O,andi
sthenci
rcul
atedunderpressur
e
thr
oughthepi
pesandnozzl
esinaracewhereani
malsaresprayed.

NOTE:
Acar
ici
desr
efert
ochemi
cal
susedf
orcont
rol
l
ingt
icks.

P.
T.O PowerTakeOf
f

BASI
CPARTSOFASPRAYRACE

o Si
dewal
l
s.

o Thespr
aypi
pesy
stem wi
thnozzl
es.

o Gui
der
ail
s.

o Del
i
ver
ypi
pe.

o Anagi
tat
or.

o Suct
ionpi
peandf
ootv
aluedowni
nthesump.

o Pumppr
imi
ngpi
pe.

o Fi
l
termeshorsi
eve.
 o Pr
essur
egauge

o Dr
ainagepi
pe.

o Dr
ivi
ngengi
neort
ract
orwi
thpowert
akeof
f(P.
T.O)

o Washpi
t.

MAJORPARTSWI
THTHEI
RFUCNTI
ONS

 Ent
rancegate.Thi
spr
ovi
dest
hepassagef
orent
ryofani
mal
sint
he
col
l
ectingyard.

 Col
l
ect
ingy
ard.Apl
acewher
eani
mal
scol
l
ectdur
ingspr
ayi
ng.

 Ent
rancer
ace.Thi
sal
l
owsani
mal
stowal
kandent
ert
hespr
ayr
acei
n
asi
nglefi
l
eoroneatati
me.

 Sprayraceposi
tion.Thisi
stheareawhere,nozzl
esarepl
acedat
str
aightpl
acesont heside,
floorandover
headpipest
oensure
adequatewetti
ngoft heani
mal passi
ngthrought
herace.

 Sump/
reser
voi
r.Forst
orageofacar
ici
de.
  Suct
ionpi
pe.Thi
ssuckst
heacar
ici
def
rom t
hesumpt
othedel
i
ver
y
pi
pe.

 Deli
verpipe.Thi
st akesawaypumpedacar i
ci
def r
om thesuctionpipe
toothersmallpipeswher enozzl
espassouttheacari
cideinall
dir
ecti
onst oensurethoroughwetti
ngoftheanimalpassingthrough
thesprayrace.

 Retur
nwashpipe.Thisist
hepipewhi
challowstheexcessacari
ci
de
dri
ppi
ngofff
rom sprayedani
malstor
etur
nt ot
hesump/ reser
voi
r.

 Plugcap.Thisclosesther eturnwashpi peandonlyopenedduring

thecourseofspr ayi
ngt heanimalsusingthesprayrace.Thecapis
fastenedtopreventforeignmat er
ial
ssuchasdust ,l
eav es,
small
i
nsect sandstonesfrom ent er
ingthesumpwhi chcanl eadto
contaminati
onoft heacar i
cideinthetank.Fast
eni
ngt heplugcap
alsopreventr
ainwat erfrom enter
ingthesump.

 Drai
ningrace/ exi
trace.I
tisaracethroughwhi
chanimalsmove
cut/
providesapassagef oranimalstomov eoutaf
terbei
ngspray
ed
i
naspr ayr ace.Thisshouldbelongerthant
heentr
anceraceandwit
h
gentl
yslopingconcr et
efloor
.

 Guardrail
s.Ther
eshoul
dbeatleast3guar
drai
lsonthei
nsidewhi
ch
ensurethatani
malswal
kthr
oughthepassagewayoneaft
erthe
other
.

 Draini
ngy
ard.Thi
sistheareawheretheani
malsaregatheredafter
sprayi
ngt
oenablethem dr
ywellbefor
emov i
ngoutforgrazing.

Aim.Theyareconfi
nedi
nthedrai
ningy
ardtopreventtheacar
ici
defal
lon
grassbecauseani
malsmayeatsuchgrasscont
ami nat
edwiththe
acari
cide.

 Exi
tgat
e.Thi
spr
ovi
desapassagef
ort
hespr
ayedani
mal
stomov
e
out
.
ASIMPLESPRAYRACESHOWI
NGTHEMODEOFOPERATI
ONOFTHE
PI
PELINEANDNOZZLES

Commonl
yusedacar
ici
desar
e;

o Bacdi
p.

o Suponadi
p.

o Del
naw.

NOTE:

Nozzlesshoul
dbelocat
edalongpipesatpar
ti
cul
arpoi
nts,
pointi
ngin
all
dir
ectionsanddeli
ver
inganev
endi st
ri
buti
onofacar
ici
deorotherspr
ay
toensure………………………………….

Thefootbat
hshouldbeputi
nanent
rancecr
ush.Thel
engt
hoft
hef
oot
shoul
dbe4m long.

Usesoft
hef
ootbat
h

 Forcl
eansi
ngt
heani
mal
’
shouse.
NOTE2:

Thespacei
nthespr
ayr
acei
snotl
argeenoughf
oranyani
mal
sto
t
urnr
ound.

I
tshouldhav easmooth,wal
landthefl
oorshoul
dbeofconcret
eto
al
lowtheacaricideledbackfr
om t
heconcret
eslopi
ngfl
oort
oasumpf r
om
whereiti
sfil
teredandpumpedbacki nthesy
stem.Smoothwal
lsreduce
chemicalwastage.Theroofshoul
dbeleakproof
.

Pr
ecaut
ionst
akendur
ingspr
ayi
ng(
stockmanagementatt
hespr
ayr
ace)

 Al
lspr
aynozz
lesmustbekeptcl
ean.

 Thescr
eenthatf
il
ter
stheacar
ici
demi
xtur
eret
urni
ngt
othesumo
mustbekeptcl
ean.

 Wat
eri
nthef
ootbat
hmustbechangedper
iodi
cal
l
y.

 Theent
ranceanddr
aini
ngr
acesmustbekeptcl
ean.

 Theanimalsshoul
dbear r
angedinasingl
efil
eastheyentertherace.
Thisensur
escompletecover
ageofanimalswitht
heacarici
de.This
i
sachievedbyconstr
ucti
nganarrowsprayracewhichprevents
tur
ningoftheani
malwithi
ntherace.

I
tshoul
dbecheckedthatt
heanimalsli
ftthei
rtai
l
sastheygo
t
hrought
hesprayracesot
hatundertai
l wett
ingt
akepl
ace.

 Thelongfr
ingeofhai
rcover
ingtheupper
, i
nnersurf
aceoftheears
andthetai
lswit
chshoul
dbecutt o5cm f
rom thetai
lendtoachiev
e
bet
terwett
ingoftheear
sandt hetai
lswi
tch.

 Youngcal
vesbeingspray
edf ort
hefir
stti
mecanbeencour agedto
gothr
oughtheracewithpressur
ereducedorelsepassedi
ntothe
racei
nagroupwi t
hthesprayoffandthenshoweredwithf
ullspr
ay.

 Whenadul
tcat
tl
ear
ebei
ngspr
ayedf
ort
hef
ir
stt
ime,
theycanbe
 runthr
oughtheraceonceort
wicewi
thoutbei
ngpassedt
o
accust
om them t
oit.

 Theani
mal
sshoul
dwal
kwi
th……………………….
.t
oav
oidspi
l
li
ng.

AFTERSPRAYI
NG

Theremai
ningquanti
ti
esofthedir
tyspr
aywash( 400to500li
ter
s)shoul
d
bepumpedouti nt
oafencedoffpi
torexcesspoolandthewholeunt
il
thor
oughl
ycleanedandnozzl
esclear
edbyt heci
rcul
ati
onofcl
eanwater.

Afewcubi
ccenti
metersofwat
ershoul
dbel
efti
nthesumptokeept
he
f
ootval
uemoistandtoprev
entcr
acki
ngoft
hesumpfloor
.

Final
lyplugther
etur
nwashpi
peatt
heex
itoft
hespr
ayr
acet
okeepout
rainwater.

Adv
ant
agesoft
hespr
ayr
ace

 Asprayr
acei
squi
ckerandcanspr
aymor
eani
mal
sperhourt
hana
pl
ungedi
p.

I
tcanspr
aysmall
stocksuchassheepandgoat
smor
eeasi
l
ysi
nce
t
heydonothav
etoswimt hr
oughasinadipbat
h.

 Pr
egnantandsi
ckani
mal
sar
eal
soeasi
l
yspr
ayed.

 Thespraywashisoftenf
reshandatabett
erconcent
rat
ionofdi
p
wash,si
ncejustenoughi
smadef ort
heday,af
terwhi
cht he
remai
ningdi
rtywashcanbet hr
ownoff.

 Theini
tialcostofbui
ldi
ngsprayraceandi
nst
all
i
ngasumpi
shi
ghbut
cheaperinthelongrunthanconstr
ucti
ngapl
ungedi
p.

Itdoesnotr
equi
remuchlabourasi
sthecasewi
thot
hermet
hods
suchashandspray
inganddippi
ng.

 Ther
eisl
essr
iskofacci
dent
ssi
ncet
her
eisnoswi
mmi
ng.
  Thesmal
lcapaci
tymakeschangi
ngt
heacar
ici
deeasyand
economi
cal
.

I
treduceswast
ageofacar
ici
desi
ncet
heacar
ici
dei
srecy
cledandr
e
used.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
hespr
ayr
ace

I
trequi
resbet
tert
echni
cal
ski
l
linmai
ntenanceoft
heengi
neandt
he
pump.

I
nwetweat
hert
henozzl
est
endt
ocl
ogwi
thdi
rti
nthewash.

I
tisexpensi
vet
oconst
ructandr
unandonl
yeconomi
cal
wit
hav
ery
l
argeherd.

I
trequi
resasour
ceofpowert
opumpt
heacar
ici
de.

I
ncaseofpowerf
ail
ure,
thesy
stem maybei
nef
fi
cient
.

THECATTLEDI
P/PLUNGEDI
P/THEDI
PTANK

Adiptankisafar
m st
ruct
ureconst
ruct
edsolelyt
ocont
rol
ticksbyt
otal
submergenceoft
heanimalsi
ntheacari
cide.

Adi
ptankconsi
stsofanentr
ancegate,
anentr
ancerace,
afl
oorbat
h,a
swi
m bat
h(washtank)
,exi
trace,
col
lect
ingy
ardet6c.

Mostcat
tl
edipshav
eastandar
dcapaci
tyof13,
000t
o22,
000l
i
ter
sand
t
hesearedi
psforol
dani
mals.

Forsmallst
ocksuchasgoatsandsheep,
thei
rdi
pbat
hsar
esmal
l
erwi
tha
capaci
tyof2000to2500l
it
ers.

Apl ungedi
pisconstruct
edofbri
ckorst
oneandhasst
rongwal
l
st hatar
e
plaster
edwithcementont hei
nsi
detoavoi
danycr
acksandf
aci
li
tatethe
returnoft
hesplasheddipwash.

CONSTRUCTI
ONOFTHEDI
P
Thi
sinv
olv
esdi
ggingat
renchint
hegr
ound120cm wi
deatt
hesur
face
nar
rowi
ngdownto60cm wi
dthatt
hebase.

Thet
renchshoul
dbe5m l
ongatt
hebaseupt
othesl
opi
ngexi
t(r
ump)
.

Thesl
opi
ngexi
tshoul
dhav
e2.
4m hor
izont
aldi
stanceupt
ogr
oundl
evel
.

Thedi
pwashi
scont
ainedi
nthi
sar
ea.

Theroofshouldbeleakpr
oofby
……………………………………corr
ugatedir
on
sheet
s(sheetsshapedint
oaseri
esofr
egul
arf
oldsl
i
kewaves).

Pr
ovi
deanent
rancer
aceaswel
lasanexi
trace.

Theent
ranceandexi
tracesshoul
dhav
econcr
etef
loor
s.

NOTE:
Theexi
traceshoul
dhaveaconcr
etefl
oorsl
ant
ingbackwar
dst
o
al
l
owthedi
pwasht oret
urnt
othedi
ptank.

OPERATI
ON

Theanimalsarel
edf
rom t
hecol
l
ect
ingy
ardwhi
chi
sfunnel
shaped
i
ntot
heentrancerace.

Theentr
ancer
acecontai
nsafootbat
h.Thi
scont
ainscl
eanwat
ert
o
washsoi
lofft
hehoovesoft
heani
mal s.

Theanimalst
henplungeoffajumpoffstageandswimthr
ought
he
dupwash.Totheopposi
tesideofthedi
ptank,ther
eisarumpwit
h
l
adder
s/stepst
oenableani
mal st
ocomeout .

Theanimalsthenenterthedr
aini
ngrace/dr
aini
ngpenandar
e
al
lowedt ostayt
hereforsomet imetodrybefor
etheyar
eledoutt
oav
oid
contaminat
ionofthepastures.

Theexcessdi
pwashdr
ainsi
ntot
hedi
pwasht
oav
oidacar
ici
de
wast
age.

NOTE:
Thecol
l
ect
ingy
ardshoul
dhav
eahar
d………………….
.……………
mudf
rom t
he………….
.

FUNCTI
ONSOFDI
FFERENTPARTSOFACATTLEDI
P

Acat
tl
edi
pconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts;

1.Entrancegate.Thisallowsent
ryofani
mal si
ntothecollecti
ngyar
d.
Itisopenedwhenani malsar
eenter
ingthecoll
ecti
ngy ardand
closedaftert
her equir
ednumberofanimalshasent er
ed.The
closingoftheentrancegateprev
entsanimal
sf r
om mov i
ngaway
from thecoll
ecti
ngy ard.

2.Col
lect
ingpen/yar
d.Thi
sisapenwher
eani
mal
sar
egat
her
ed
dur
ingtheprocessofdi
ppi
ng.
3.Entrancer
ace.Thi
sall
owsanimalst
owalkint
otheswim bat
h/di
p
tankinasingl
efi
leoroneatati
me.Iti
sshort
ert
hanthedrai
ning
race.

4.Footbath.I
tcontainswaterwhi
chshouldbekeptcleantoremove
dirtf
rom t
hehoov esoftheani
malswalkingthr
oughtheentrance
racetoavoidcontaminati
onoft
heacaricidei
nthediptank.

5.Jumpof fpoi
nt.I
tisapartwhichsetst
heanimaltojumpint
othe
dipwash/acar
ici
deforcompletesubmergedorcoveragewi
tht
he
chemical.

6.Thedi
ppingt
ank.Thi
sisthepartwheretheani
malsar
e
submer
gedintheacar
ici
desoluti
on.I
tis2m deep.

7.Anexi tr
ump.Thisshouldbeconstructedinsuchawayt hati
tis
slopi
ngwi t
haser i
esofstepsrunni
ngf rom thebasesur
faceupto
thegroundsurface.I
thasahor i
zontal
di st
anceof2.4m.The
slopi
ngexitrampal l
owsanimalstowal koutoftheswim bat
h
withoutdif
fi
cul
ty/wit
hease.

8.Sidewal
l/
gui
dewall
.Thisi
smadeinsuchawayt hati
tisanar
row
paththr
oughwhi
chtheatt
endantwalksandguidesanimal
sinthe
swim bat
husi
ngaforkedsti
ckdur
ingdippi
ng.

9.Thesplashwal l
.Thi
sshouldbesmoothenoughtoreturnt
he
spl
ashedacar i
cidebacki
ntotheswi
m bat
h.Thisreduceswast
age
oft
heacar i
cide.

10. Theroof
.Theroofshoul
dbeconst
ruct
edusi
ngcor
rugat
edi
ron
sheet
sandshoul
dbel eakpr
oof
.

11. Exitrace.Thi
sisaracewhichprovidesapassagef orthe
animalstocomeoutaf t
erdippi
ng.Itshouldbelongerthanthe
entr
ancer aceandshouldalsohaveasl ant
ingconcret
ef l
oort
o
al
lowt he………. .
backi
ntotheswim bath.
 12. Draini
ngyard.Forgatheri
nganimalsafterdi
ppi
ngforsome
ti
met oall
owt hem t
odryt hor
oughl
ysot hatnoacari
ci
deiscarr
ied
fort
hepasture.Drai
ninganimalsprev
entscontaminat
ionoft
he
past
urewiththeacarici
de.

13. Exitgat
e.Pr
ovidesanoutl
etforani
malstomoveoutf
or
gr
azingaft
erdry
ingthor
oughl
yinthedrai
ningy
ard.

ESSENTI
ALSOFAGOODCATTLEDI
P

Agoodcat
tl
edi
pshoul
dhav
ethef
oll
owi
ngqual
i
ties;

QUALI
TIES

Agooddipshoul
dbesitedonawel
l
-dr
ainedl
andwi
thadequat
e
spaceforhol
dingt
hecatt
le.

Agooddi
pshoul
dhav
eaper
manentsuppl
yofwat
er.

Thefootbath,
dipt
ank,
drai
nager
aceandcol
l
ect
ingy
ardshoul
dbe
madeofconcret
e.

Agoodcatt
ledipshoul
dhav
eal
eakpr
oofr
ooft
okeepof
frai
nwat
er
andmi
nimizeev
aporati
on.

Thedrai
ningr
aceshoul
dbesl
ant
ingbackwar
dst
odi
rectt
heexcess
acar
icidebacki
ntodipt
ank.

Thediptankshoul
dhav
eenoughcapaci
tyt
ohol
denoughacar
ici
det
o
covert
heanimal.

Thecol
lect
ingy
ardshoul
dhav
eenoughspacet
ohol
dal
ltheani
mal
s
t
obedi
pped.

I
tshouldhaveacatwal
korguar
dwal
ltoenabl
etheat
tendantgui
de
ani
mal
sthroughthedi
ptank.

Thef
looroft
hedi
pshoul
dnotbet
oosl
i
pper
yast
ocauseacci
dent
s.
 Itshoul
dhav
easoakpi
ttoenabl
eeasyandsaf
edi
sposal
oft
heused
aacar
ici
de.

Theent
rancer
aceshoul
dhaveafootbat
htowasht
hehoov
esoft
he
ani
malsandt
oenablecont
rol
offootr
ot.

Thej
umpoffst
ageshoul
dbegent
lysl
opi
ngt
oenabl
etheani
mal
s
easi
l
ycomeoutoft
hedipt
ank.

Thedryi
ngorexi
traceshoul
dbelongenoughtoenabl
etheani
mal
s
dr
ywetbef
oregoi
ngouttothepast
urel
andforgrazi
ng.

Itshouldhaveasumpt ofil
tert
heacar
ici
deasf
lowsbacki
ntot
hedi
p
t
ankf
rom thedrai
ningorexi
trace.

Thewall
softhediptankshoul
dbesmoothtom enabl
ethespl
ashi
ng
acar
icidef
lowbackint
ot hedi
ptankdur
ingdi
ppi
ng.

Thefl
oorandthewall
softhedipt
ankshoul
dbel
eakpr
ooft
oav
oid
l
ossofacar
ici
debyseepagei
ntothesoi
l
.

Fact
orsconsi
der
edbef
oreconst
ruct
ionofacat
tl
edi
p

1.Ther
emustbeanabundantsuppl
yofwat
er.Thi
smaybeobt
ained
fr
om apond,
ari
ver
,adam, aspri
nget
c.

2.Itmustbeasnearaspossi
blet
othecent
eroft
hegr
azi
nggr
oundst
o
avoi
dlongjour
neyst
oandf r
om.

3.Itmustbeconstructedonafi
rm gr
oundi
nordertokeepthedipt
ank
i
ntact
.Soilconservati
onmeasur
esshoul
dbetakenaroundthedi
p
areat
oav oidsoi
lerosion.

4.Asitewit
hanatural
depressi
onsuchasval
leywhi
chi
ndi
cat
e
dr
ainagedif
fi
cul
ti
esorsubject
edtofl
oodi
ngshoul
dbeavoi
ded.

MI
XINGTHEACARI
CIDESFORDI
PTANK/
CREAMI
NG

Thepr
ocessofmi
xi
ngt
heacar
ici
def
orusei
nthedi
ptanki
sknownas
cr
eami
ng.

1.Chooset
het
ypeofacar
ici
det
obeused.

2.Mi
xtheacar
ici
deaccor
dingt
othemanuf
act
urer
’si
nst
ruct
ions.

3.Puttherecommendedquantit
iesofacarici
deint
oar eser
voi
r(mixi
ng
drum)andaddal it
tl
ewater
.Stircont
inuousl
yuntil
asmoot hcr
eamy
substanceisobt
ained.

4.Addmor
ewat
ert
ofi
l
lther
eser
voi
r.

5.Pourt
hemi
xtur
eint
othedi
ptank.

6.Addmorewaterandcont
inueagi
tat
ing(
sti
rr
ing)t
hemi
xtur
eusi
nga
l
ongst
ickorpole.

7.Topupt
het
ankt
other
ecommendedl
evel
.

8.Passt
hrough20t
o30headsofcat
tl
etost
irt
heacar
ici
demi
xtur
e.

9.Theseani
mal
sshoul
dthenber
edi
pped(
dippedagai
n).

NOTE:Dipf
lui
dsareconcent
rat
edandpoi
sonousandshoul
dbedi
l
uted
bef
oreusedinthedi
p.

CALCULATI
ONSI
NVOLVEDI
NACARI
CIDEMI
XING.

Exampl
e

1.Thebacdipacari
cideist
obeusedinadipt ankwhosecapacit
yis
14,
000li
ter
s.Ther ecommendedmixingr
ati
oi s1:
500.Cal
culat
ethe
amountofacari
cidetobeaddedt
ot hewater.

Sol
n

Mi
xi
ngr
ati
o=1:
500 1/
500

Capaci
ty=14000

Amountoft
heacar
ici
det
obeaddedt
othewat
erwi
l
lbe
=1x14000

500

=28l
i
ter
s.

2.Theacari
cideXistobeusedadipt
ankwhosecapaci
tyis18600
l
it
ers.Theacar
ici
deistobemixedi
nther
ati
oofacari
cidetobe
addedtothewater
?

Sol
n

=1x18600

100

=1x186

=186l
i
ter
s.

3.Ifthel
evelindiptankatstartofdi
ppi
ngis15000li
ter
s,thel
eveli
ndip
tankaft
erdippingis12400liter
s,t
heamountofwatertobeaddedis
2600li
ters.Ift
her ecommendedacari
ciderat
ioi
s1:500,cal
cul
atethe
amountofacar ici
det obeadded?

= 1 X2600

500

=1X26

=26

=5.
2li
ter
s
PRECAUTI
ONSTOBETAKENWHI
LEDI
PPI
NGANI
MALS

Theanimalst
obedippedshoul
dfi
rstbegi
venwat
erbecauset
hir
sty
ani
malswi
lldri
nkorli
ckt
hewash.

Dippi
ngshoul
dbedonei
nthemor
ningwhent
heweat
heri
scool
/l
ate
ev
eni
ng.

Di
ppingshoul
dbedonefai
rl
yondr
yday
s.Dur
ingr
ainyday
s,t
he
chemi
calmaybewashedoff
.

Si
ckandpr
egnantani
malswit
hinanadvancedstageofpr
egnancy
suchasamonthofcalvi
ngshoul
dnotbedipped.Thesecanbehand
spray
ed.

Di
pal
lcat
tl
eint
hef
arm.

Cat
tl
eshoul
dbedi
ppedandal
l
owedt
oent
ert
hedi
poneatat
ime.

Makesur
ethatt
her
eisenoughwat
eri
nthef
ootbat
h.

Makesurethatyourun20to30ani
malst
hrought
hediptankfi
rstt
o
st
irt
hemixt
ureandt heani
malsshoul
dberedi
ppedatt
he`endofthe
di
ppi
ngoperat
ion.

Havethepr
eparat
ionfordi
ppi
ngar
rangedt
hepr
evi
ousday
.Di
ppi
ng
commencesearl
i
erthenextday.

Compl
etedi
ppingearl
yenoughsothatt
helastani
malt
ogot
hrough
wi
l
lhavesomehourstodryandgrazebef
orei
tgetsdark.

All
owtheani
malssomeminutesi
nthedr
aini
ngy
ardi
nor
dert
odr
ain
backdi
psol
uti
onint
otheswi
m bath.

Thesheepshouldnotbedippeddur
ingt
hebr
eedi
ngseasonf
orf
ear
t
o…………….
theinj
uryt
ot hepeni
s.

Alway
sfol
l
owt
hemanuf
act
urer
’si
nst
ruct
ionsbef
oreusi
ngt
he
al
car
ici
de.
 Thesoi
ledanddonest
rai
nedwool
ontheswit
chofthesheepshoul
d
ber
emov edwit
hashearbef
oredi
ppi
ngtoav
oidacar
ici
decont
aminati
on.

Whenchangi
ngtheupwashsol
uti
onav
oidpol
l
uti
ngpast
uresand
wat
erfort
heanimal
s.

Dippi
ngshouldbeafi
xedfar
mr out
ine.Dependi
ngonthedi
pwash
usedandti
cksatur
ati
on,
itcanbedoneonce,twiceort
hreet
imesaweek.

Cleanyourbodyt
horoughl
yi.
e.wel
lbyusingcleanwaterandsoap
andensureacar
ici
decont
aminati
on.Thi
sisbecausethechemical
sare
poi
sonoustoman.

Af
terdi
ppi
ng,
recor
dal
ltheani
mal
sdi
ppedi
nadi
precor
dbook.

ACARI
CIDESUSEDFORDI
PPI
NG/
SPRAYI
NG

o Benzene,
Hexachl
orat
e(BHC)

o Bacdi
p

o Cooper
tox

o Suponacl
i
p

o Gamat
ox

o Toxapi
ner

o Ar
seni
cper
otoxi
de