SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

AG STRUCTURE
LECTURE NOTES
2024/2025

LECTURER: D.C Nathaniel

MTech in hydrology and water resources engineering
 Course outline
Building materials:
steel framing
cladding elements
cement
concrete mixture
timber.
Analysis and design of light Laboratory:
structures: Field visits to study design features of field
steel structures.
reinforced concrete
timber columns
retaining walls
roofing elements.
Design of grain and silage storage
structures.
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 Principles of farm structures
Importance of farm structures
Study objectives
• Farm structures form an important part of
• Understand the importance, benefits and
any farming enterprise and are required for
design characteristics of farm structures
the following:
• Be able to explain the three approaches
• The farmer and his employees require
used to determine the economic feasibility
dwellings.
of building investment
• Farm animals, including poultry are
• Be aware of the building plans and
housed part-time or full time in
specifications
buildings.

• Buildings are required for certain

activities such as shearing,
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 • milking, sorting and grading of farm • Just as a return from feed or labor cost

products. is expected, a benefit from a building

investment should also be anticipated.
• Buildings are necessary for the storage of
Benefits that a building should provide:
farming requirements and implements,
• Facilities for an efficient operation.
farm produce, feeds and food.
• An environment providing good health
• Buildings or rooms are necessary for a
and sanitary conditions
workshop and for office from which the
• Comfortable surroundings for both stock
farm is managed.
and workers.
• Farm structures/buildings represent a • Desirable conditions for production and
production or storage cost. storage.

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 • equipment constructional requirements
• Agriculture is not static, Changes and
improvements in techniques take place • This should be of the different kinds of

continuously. farm structures/buildings.

• Farm buildings also must be continuously • In addition, the farmer must be conversant

improved, altered with practical buildings.

• The buildings can be expanded to comply • Even if he/she has no intention of expanding

with the changing needs of agriculture. his/her farm buildings,

• The modern farmer, therefore, must have a • the existing buildings require regular

sound knowledge of the; maintenance or improvements,

• Planning principles • which the farmer must carry out or

supervise.
• Layout
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Planning, Design and Erection of Farm Buildings
• Therefore, initially, the farmer must find out
• Buildings can last for 30 years or more. all he/she can in connection with the

• Errors in the planning, design or erection buildings he/she intends to erect or alter.

may therefore be a source of danger for • Before embarking on the venture, he should
many years. discuss it with his/her family and his/her

• Faulty buildings will also push up the neighbors.

operational costs of the enterprise. • if possible, with farmers who specialize in his

• The nature of such buildings, rest primarily specific branch of farming.

on the shoulders of the farmer. • He must try especially to obtain information

on costs and returns to determine the
profitability of the project.
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• The farmer should obtain answers to the • likely from the project?
following:-
• When constructing a farm
• How much will it cost? structure/building, the expense must be
• Will funds for the project be readily justified.
available? • Effort should be made to estimate the cost
• Will the quantity and or quality of the and determine the feasibility of the
product be increased because of the investment.
project? • Three approaches used to determine the
• Will it save labor? economic feasibility of building investment
are:-
• Will it make management easier?

• what net increase in income will be

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• Present practice theory:- • In which the cost of a building is provided for
• which of the building like others already after all other costs have been deducted from
existing in the area is assumed to be the gross income.
justifiable. • Several factors must be considered in planning
• Percentage of the gross income:- a building:

• If the cost of the proposed building is • This is in order to obtain the greatest
considered at a reasonable amount to number of benefits at a reasonable cost.
allow for annual building cost, then the • Some of these design factors are:-
investment is justified.
• The functional requirements of the
• Residual after cost theory: enterprise e.g., space, temperature, light,
physical protection, sanitation and safety.
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• The efficiency of the system including: • The suitability of materials, including such

• mechanization, centralized operation, characteristics as;

circular travel, and bulk handling of • durability, fire resistance,

materials. • cost,
Design characteristics of farm structures • upkeep,
• Structural design should be adequate to • ease of cleaning,
sustain the loads to which the building will be
• insulating value
subjected.
• appearance.
• Maintenance costs should be reasonable one,
which will provide the desirable length of life.

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 • Examples of planned flexibility include such
• Economy of construction. Costs are
features as;
reduced by choosing ;
• large doors level floors, truss
• module (standard) dimensions,
construction
• Standardize, material and components
• a large electrical service designed to
• Profitable sub- assemblies.
allow the addition of several circuits.
• Flexibility of design that will allow;
Building Plans and Specifications
• production methods for the proposed • A building usually starts with a drawing.
enterprise to be altered.
• The building plans are drawings necessary as
• also a completely new enterprise to be an aid in:
established with minimum expense.

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 • locating, drawing represents 1000mm or 1m on the

• arranging and fitting out buildings ground or structure.

• estimating quantities of materials. II. Different types of drawings

• In building construction, different kinds of
• Furthermore, building plans are essential to:
drawing, each with a specific purpose, are
• prescribe to the builder what is to be done
used.
• are always drawn on scale.
• The following types are in general use:

I. scales • Locality plans or sketches

• The drawings are prepared according to scale. • These plans show environment,
• A numerical scale 1:100 means that 10mm roads, farm boundaries and/or other
on the buildings.

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 the existing and proposed:-
• The purpose is to locate the building site
• roads, buildings
• Site plans
• Fences
• These plans show the layout of the
buildings in relation to each other and to • watering points

other objects. • Pipelines

• This type of drawing must be according • septic tanks

to scale. • electric cables
• It is essential for the proper planning and • telephone poles
layout of the farmstead
• trees.
• Must also indicate the positions of
• Site plans are important to;

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• Site plans are important to; • true north

• show exactly where the proposed • direction of prevailing winds

buildings are to be erected in relation to • They show exactly what is needed.

existing buildings; • They show what the proposed building(s)
• indicate where builders must proceed will look like.
carefully near underground cables and • how the various spaces within the
pipes building(s) are placed
• indicate where they may connect to • The general construction; location of
existing facilities. principal elements.
• The following information is important: • components and assembly details.
• contours
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• Very often they contain all the information
that is required to erect the building(s).

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• Component drawings • The specifications state what materials and

• These are drawings of components or mixtures are to be used

details of a building. • how the materials are to be treated and

• They give more details on the nature of applied

certain components • how the site must be prepared and left

• How they must be fitted into the whole • time allowed for completion, etc.

• How they must be made

III. Specifications
• The instructions contained in the drawings
must be supplemented by a written
document called the specifications.
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 Any Any
Question Question
? ?

?
?

THANK YOU

LECTURER: D.C Nathaniel

 UNIVERSITY OF JUBA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

COURSE: AGRICULTURAL STRUCTURES

YEAR: 4TH Year 2024

LECTURER: D.C Nathaniel

 BUILDING MATERIALS
Study objectives
• Know the several factors needed to be considered in • Know earth as a building material
choosing the materials for a construction job • Be aware of different types of materials used for soil
• Understand wood characteristics stabilization

• Be aware of defects in wood • Be aware of the suggested uses for various concrete
grades and nominal mixes
• Know the different methods of seasoning timber
• Know the ingredients of concrete
• Know wood/timber preservation and wood
preservatives • Be able to calculate the amount of materials needed
for construction
• Understand the methods of wood preservation
• Be aware of the test for silt and the slump test
• Be aware of manufactured Boards
• Know other building materials: metals, glass,
• Know the various organic materials as building
plastics, paint
materials
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 • A wide range of building materials is available including:
for rural building construction. • Type and function of the building and the
• The proper selection of materials to be used specific
in a particular building can influence: • characteristics required of the materials
• the original cost used, i.e.,

• maintenance; • great strength

• ease of cleaning • water resistance

• durability • wear resistance

• appearance. • attractive appearance, etc.

• Several factors need to be considered in • Transportation costs.

choosing the materials for a construction job,
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• Economic aspects of the building in terms of • Cultural acceptability or personal
original investment and annual cost of preference.
maintenance:
I. Wood
• Availability of materials in the area. • Wood is a commonly used building material
• Availability of the skilled labor required to in many parts of the world because of its:
install some types of materials. • reasonable cost
• Quality and durability of different types of • ease of working
materials.
• attractive appearance
• Selection of materials with properties
• adequate life if protected from moisture
dimensions and means of installation that
and insects.
are compatible.
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 • Some species are used in the form of small poles
• However, forests are a valuable natural
for light construction.
resource that must be protected;
• while other species are allowed to mature so that
• Marginal rainfall.
timber (lumber in many countries) may be sawn
• Thus, as good a material as wood is, there from the large logs.
are regions where other materials should
• while other species are allowed to mature so that
be considered first simply on a
timber (lumber in many countries) may be sawn
conservation basis.
from the large logs.
• Wood for building is available from many
• The species that produce small inexpensive poles
different species with widely varying
in rather short growing periods
characteristics.

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 (those which drop their leaves sometime during
• often grows in the fringes of agricultural
the year) is spoken of as hardwood.
land and can be used without danger to
the ecology of the region. • while those cut from coniferous (needle-bearing)
trees are spoken of as softwood.
Hardwoods vs. Softwoods
Wood Characteristics
• Strength: Strength in wood is its ability to resist
breaking when it is used in beams and columns.

• strength is not only related to the species

and moisture content and defects.
A-Hardwood B-softwood
• Strength is also quite closely related to
• Wood cut from deciduous trees density.

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• Hardness: Hardness is the resistance to • Deflection/Bending: Woods that are stiff

denting and wear. resist deflection or bending when loaded.

• Hard woods are more difficult to work but • Stiff woods are not necessarily very strong.

are required for : • They may resist bending to a point and

• tools, then break suddenly.

• tool handles, • Tough woods will deflect considerably

before breaking.
• flooring
• Even after fracturing, the fibers tend to
• other applications subject to wear,
hang together and resist separation.
where a high polish is desired.
• Tough woods are resistant to shock
loading.
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 • Pre-boring to 75% of nail size avoids splitting.
• Warping: Warping is the twisting, bending,
bowing distortions shown by some woods. • Workability: Workability such as sawing,
shaping and nailing is better for soft, low-
• The method of sawing and curing affects
density woods than hard woods.
the amount of warping
• They usually cannot be given a high
• Some species are much more prone to
polish.
warping than others.
• Natural decay resistance: This particularly
• Nail holding resistance: Nail resistance for
important in the warm humid regions of East
hard woods is greater than for soft woods.
and Southeast Africa.
• woods that are so hard are subject to
• There is a wide range of resistance shown by
splitting when nailed lose much of their
different species.
holding ability.
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 selecting materials.
• However, for all species, heartwood (darker
Defects in Wood
center area of the tree) is more resistant
than the sapwood (lighter outer area of the • Defects to watch for in selecting timber are:
tree). • Brittle heart, found near the Centre of many
• In addition to selection for natural decay tropical trees.
resistance, wood preservatives should be • It makes the wood break with a brittle
considered fracture.
• where contact with the ground is likely. • Wide growth rings indicate rapid growth
• Paint holding ability: This differs between resulting in thin-walled fibers;
woods • with consequent loss of density and
• As a rule, this should be considered when strength.
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 • Knots are the part of a branch, which has
• Fissures include checks, splits, shakes and
become enclosed, in a growing tree.
resin pockets.
• Dead knots are often loose thereby
reducing the effective area, which can
take tensile stress.

• Knots also often deflect the fibers

reducing strength in tension.

• Decay, which results from moisture levels

between 21 and 25% in the presence of air:

A- Brittle heart, B- Wide growth rings

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 • In agricultural buildings, wood is often used
in the form in which it has grown, i.e., round
•
poles.

• In some areas where enough trees are

A-Wood knot
grown on the farm or in local forests;

• wooden poles can be obtained at very

low cost.

• reduces the strength of the wood and

spoils its appearance.

• Insect damage caused by borers or

A-Wood decay
termites.
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 Poles and timber
• These poles have many uses in small
Wooden Poles
building construction such as:
• In agricultural buildings, wood is often used
• columns for the load bearing structure,
in the form in which it has grown, i.e., round
rafters, trusses and purlins.
poles.
• Smaller dimension sticks are often used
• In some areas where enough trees are
as wall material or as framework in mud
grown on the farm or in local forests,
walls.
wooden poles can be obtained at very low
• Insect damage caused by borers or termites.
cost.

• These poles have many uses in small

• building construction such as:

•
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• columns for the load-bearing structure, • In low to medium altitude areas with sandy

rafters, trusses and purlins. soils and low rainfall, Casuarina Species
produces straight and durable poles.
• Smaller dimension sticks are often used as
wall material or as a framework in mud • In coastal areas, mangrove poles are widely

walls. used for posts in walls and trusses in roofs.

• Unprocessed round wood material can be

joined by being nailed or tied with string or
wire.

• A special connector has been developed to join

round wood in trusses where several members
A-Casuarina B- mangrove) may have to be connected at each point.

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 • In low to medium altitude areas with sandy
• columns for the load-bearing structure,
soils and low rainfall, Casuarina Species
rafters, trusses and purlins.
produces straight and durable poles.
• Smaller dimension sticks are often used
• In coastal areas, mangrove poles are widely
as wall material or as a framework in
used for posts in walls and trusses in roofs.
mud walls.
• Unprocessed round wood material can be
• In high altitude areas several species of
joined by being nailed or tied with string or
acacia produce good building poles.
wire.
• Acacia melanoxylon (Australian Blackwood)
• A special connector has been developed to join
is very resistant to attack by termites
round wood in trusses where several members
• but grows a bit slower than eucalyptus.
may have to be connected at each point.

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 Sawing Timber • paint holding ability

• The rate at which a tree grows varies with • wear resistance of the final piece.
the season. • There are several methods of sawing a log into
• The resulting growth rings of alternate high boards and planks
and low density form the grain in the sawed Which gives different ways for the growth
]•
timber (lumber). rings to relate to the surface, i.e.,
• The method of sawing has considerable • more or less parallel to the surface in plain
]
effect on the; sawn and at right angles in radial sawn.
• appearance, • Radially sawn boards shrink less and are less
]
• resistance to warping, liable to cup and twist and are easier to

•Shrinking season.
]
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• Unfortunately, methods of cutting which produce • Such pieces, called off cuts, can be

a high proportion of quarter-sawn timber are sometimes obtained at low cost and

wasteful used for rough building.

• Therefore, only used to produce material for

high-class joinery work.

• Off cuts: Because the tree is tapered and

cylindrical and boards and planks are rectangular,

• the outer pieces will come off with tapered

edges and less than full dimensions
throughout the length.

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 Seasoning of timber particular the unprotected ends:
• The strength, stiffness and dimensional
• shrink before the interior.
stability of wood are related to its moisture
• surface cracking and splitting result, and ring
content.
and heart shakes may extend.
• Hence, if wood is dried (seasoned) before
• Some timber species are more difficult to season
use, not only can higher strength values be
satisfactorily than others.
used in design, but a more durable structure
will result. I . Air Seasoning

• Timber must be stacked, supported and • Timber should be protected from rain and the

sometimes restrained so as to minimize ground.

distortion during seasoning. • This is by stacking so air can circulate freely around

• If drying is too rapid, the outer parts, in all surfaces.

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Air seasoning diagram • Thus the risks of twisting and cupping and
attack by fungi and insects are minimized.

• In favorable conditions, thin softwoods can

be air seasoned in weeks.

• but in unfavorable conditions some

hardwoods require a year or more.

II. Artificial Seasoning

• Artificial seasoning can be either moderate or
rapid depending on;

• the temperature of the air injected into

the chamber where the timber is piled.
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• the rate at which the air is circulated and • This method is expensive and can only be
extracted from the chamber. applied on small quantities of timber.

Artificial seasoning • Timber can be artificially seasoned from the

green condition.

• but often hot air seasoning is used only at a

later stage after most of the moisture has
been removed with air seasoning.

• Smoke seasoning is a moderate process and

involves placing the timber over a fire.

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• It can take a month or two depending on on the building site.
the size and type of wood being seasoned. • Timber should be protected from moisture on
• This method is considered to be both a the building site.
seasoning and a treating method for timber. • Close piling and covering with tarpaulins delays
• Presumably it protects the timber against the absorption of atmospheric moisture.
pest attacks and increases durability. • particularly in the interior of the pile.
• However, it is not very reliable and can lead Timber grade standards and sizes
to splitting of the timber because of lack of
• Grades: Grades are established by various
control of the heat from the fire.
government agencies.
Care of seasoned timber
• Even within one country more than one grading
• Timber should be protected from moisture system may be in use.
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• For small construction jobs, the grade may • The dimension indicates the actual size as sawn.
not be important, but in large projects Smoothing will reduce the timber to less than
where materials are bought by specification; the dimension size.

• it is important to indicate the grade Grade and size diagram

standard being required.

• Grades that provide specific information in

structural design are most useful.

• Sizes: Timber in East and Southeast Africa is

available in a number of S.l. metric sizes, but
not all are available in all localities.

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• Timber Measurement for Trade: Timber is Timber preservation
normally sold in meter (or foot) running • The main structural softwood timbers of East and
length; Southeast Africa are not naturally durable.
• however, the price may be calculated per • If used in conditions subject to fungal, insect or
cubic meter when sold in large quantities. termite attack, they will fail after some time.
• Basic lengths are from 1.8 to 6.3m although • To avoid this, the timber used in permanent
pieces more than about 5.1m are scarce and structures should be treated with a preservative.
costly.
• Effective preservation depends on the
preservative and how it is applied.

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• An effective preservative should be; • If a structure is correctly designed and built, and
• poisonous to fungi and insects, the moisture content of its timber does not

• permanent, exceed 20%,

• Able to penetrate sufficiently, • a preservative treatment is generally

unnecessary as protection against fungal
• Cheap and readily available.
attack.
• It should not corrode metal fastenings
• Where the above conditions are not present,
• The timber should not be rendered more
• there will be a risk of fungal decay, and
flammable by its use.
proper preservation is recommended.
• It is sometimes desirable to have a preservative-
treated surface, which can be painted.

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 Wood preservatives • It has many of the properties required of a
• Creosote: Creosote is an effective general preservative,

• but it increases flammability, is subject to

• evaporation,

• cannot be painted.

• It should not be used on interiors if the

• purpose preservative, characteristic smell would be objectionable.

• Cheap and widely used for exterior work • Unfortunately, creosote has been found to be a

and to a lesser degree inside. carcinogen and must be used with caution.

• It is a black-to-brownish oil produced by the

distillation of coal-tar,
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• Coal tar: Coal tar as a preservative is not as • Un leachable metallic salts: These are mostly
effective as the creosote produced from it. based on copper salts.
• Tar is less poisonous, • A combination of copper/chrome/ arsenate is
• it does not penetrate the timber because used.
of its viscosity. • The copper and arsenical salt are the toxic
• it is blacker than creosote and it is preservatives.
unsuitable for interior woodwork. • They are rendered non-leaching (cannot be
washed out) by the chrome salt acting as a fixing
agent.

• A “vacuum-pressure” process impregnates the

timber.

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• Preservation by metallic salt is being
• they are comparatively odorless
increasingly used since the treated surfaces
• colorless
• are odorless
• the timber can be painted.
• can be painted or glued.
• Used engine oil: Used engine oil can often, at
• Water-soluble preservatives: These are not
least in small quantities, be obtained free of
satisfactory for exterior use.
charge.
• they are liable to be removed from the
• The oil contains many residual products from
timber by rain.
combustion and some of them will act as
• They are, however, very suitable for interior preservatives.
work, as:
• but it is not nearly as effective as commercial
preservatives.
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 commonly applied by this method.
• It can be thinned with diesel fuel for better
• Water-borne preservatives must be applied with
penetration
the pressure treatment if the timber will be
Methods of Wood Preservation
exposed to rain or ground moisture.
• To be effective in preservation, three main
• Surface-applied water-borne preservatives quickly
methods of preservation:
leach away leaving the timber unprotected.
• Pressure impregnation: The timber is placed
in a horizontal steel cylinder. It is one of the
best ways to apply preservatives to the
wood.

• Creosote is the main preservative used, but

un-leachable metallic salts are also
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• Open tank treatment: This method is • As the timber and preservative cool the timber
commonly known as steeping or soaking contracts and the partial vacuum created causes
• It is used for relatively small quantities of the liquid to be gradually absorbed into the
timber. timber.

• i. Hot and cold steeping: The tank with the Diagram hot and steeping
preservative and timber is heated to nearly
boiling.

• Held for one to two hours and then allowed to

cool.

• During the heating period the cells and the air in

the cells expand and some of the air is expelled.

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• Superficial preservation: This method includes • None of these surface treatments are as
dipping, spraying and brush application. effective as the pressure and open-tank systems,

• The preservative only penetrates the timber

• slightly.

• The wood must be seasoned, and the surface

should be dry and clean before application.

• Greater penetration generally results if the

preservative is applied hot,

• especially if creosote is used.

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 Manufactured building boards
• The timber should have two coats at least;

• the first coating allowed to dry before • There are a number of building boards made

the next is applied. from;

• Creosote is the most common preservative • wood veneers

used for this method. • the waste products of the timber industry.

• Superficial treatment with clear liquids is not • This are convenient and economical materials to
recommended since the proper application use in building construction.
is difficult to control. • In general, they offer excellent bracing for the
building frame.

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• They save labor because they are available •

in large sizes requiring a minimum of fitting.

• Some manufactured boards are designed

with rather specific characteristics such as

• fire resistance,
• The grain of each succeeding veneer is turned
• ease of cleaning, 90° from the previous one
• high insulating value or resistance to • Resulting in a board that has considerable
weathering. strength, rigid in all directions.
• i. Plywood: Plywood is produced by gluing • Waterproof glue is most commonly used giving a
together three to seven veneers that have product that is highly resistant to moisture.
been peeled from logs.
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• Waterproof glue panels should always be • They save labor because they are available in
chosen for farm buildings. large sizes.

• As the wood itself is not waterproof, the • At least one pair of corresponding veneers will
panels are still subject to swelling and have the grain at right angles to the grain of the
shrinking from moisture changes. core.

Other Manufactured building boards

I. Blockboards and laminboards: These are

made of strips of wood from 8 to 25mm wide.

• glued together and covered with one or

more veneers on each side.

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• Thus, if the finish grain is to run parallel with • So that the particles lie in random fashion with
the core; their longer dimensions parallel to the surface of

• there must be at least two veneers per the board.

side. • Strength and rigidity generally increase with

• The same appearance, grades and types of density.

glue listed for plywood also apply to •

blackboards.

• Blackboard panels are often used for doors.

II. Particleboards: These are formed by

pressing chips or flakes of wood between pairs
of heated platens.
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• That alone is not a measure of quality, as
moisture resistance varies considerably.

• Most particleboards should not be used in

moist locations.

III. Soft boards: Soft boards are made from

uncompressed woodchips or sugarcane fibres.

• Normally mixed with water and glue, giving

a density below 350 kg/m³.

• They are inexpensive and can be used for

wall or ceiling surfaces that are not subject
to high moisture conditions.
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• Soft boards have little resistance to rupture
• It contains a large percentage of fibre, which has
and must be supported frequently (300 to
high tensile, bending and straining capacity.
400mm) when installed.
• However, bamboos have some shortcomings
• The 2400 by 1200mm size is most common
which limit their application.
in thicknesses of 6.4 to 25mm.
• The low durability of bamboo constitutes one of
Other organic building materials
its most serious defects .
• Bamboo: Bamboo is a perennial grass with
• Along with its flammability and its tendency to
over 550 species found in the tropical,
split easily, this usually prevents the use of nails.
subtropical and temperate zones.

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• It is mainly used in building construction for • hydraulic-setting binders to make various types of
wall poles, frames, roof construction, roofing boards, wallboards, blocks and shingles.
roofing and water pipes.
• Thatch: Thatch, whether grass, reeds, palm or
• After splitting, to form flattened boards or banana leaves, is susceptible to decay due to
woven wall, floor and ceiling panels. attack by fungi and insects and to destruction by
Natural Fibers: Natural fibers have been used fire.
for building since ancient times. • Grass: The use of thatched roofs is common in
• Fibrous materials can be used by many countries and suitable grass can be
themselves as roofing material or for walls found almost everywhere.
and mats. • When well laid and maintained it can last for
• Natural fibers can also be combined with 10 to 20 years or longer.

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• A good quality thatching grass must be • Reeds can be woven into mats for use as wall or
fibrous and tough with a minimum length of ceiling panels, shade roofs, etc.
one meter.
• The mats can be easily plastered.
Reeds: Reeds must be dry before use as
• In tropical areas thatch from untreated reeds
building material
may last only one year, but if well laid, treated
• Can be impregnated or sprayed with and maintained;
copper-chrome preservatives to prevent
• it can last 5 to 10 years.
rotting.
Sisal Stems: Sisal poles have limited structural
• Ammonium phosphate and ammonium
strength and durability.
sulphate are used to protect the reeds
• They are sometimes used for wall cladding in
against fire.
semi-open structures, such as maize cribs.
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• The poles can be split and are joined in the Coir Waste: Coir is the by-product of coconuts.
same way as bamboo. • The husk is used for making coir mats,
Sisal Fiber: Sisal fiber is one of the strongest cushions and as fuel.
natural fibers. • It can be mixed with cement, glue or
• It has traditionally been used as resins.
reinforcement in gypsum plaster sheets. • to produce low-density boards ;
• Sisal fibers have the ability to withstand • having good insulating
degradation due to bacteriological
• sound absorption properties
attack better than other organic fibers.
• It can be compressed to make building
• They are attacked by the alkalinity of
boards.
cement.

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• It is also used as reinforcement in cement Straw: Straw, if supported by a framework of

for making roofing sheets. wooden poles, can be used to construct temporary
walls.
• Elephant Grass: Elephant grass is a tall plant
similar to bamboo, but with the difference • Straw has also been used as raw material for

that the stem is not hollow. manufactured building boards.

• The fibers of the grass can be used to partly Natural stone products: Natural stones are strong

or wholly replace the asbestos in net and in compression

corrugated roofing sheets. • They are generally extremely durable.

• However the sheets are more brittle and • Though deterioration may result from soluble
have a slightly lower strength than asbestos- salt action, wetting and drying, or thermal
cement sheets. movement.
1•
• According to the manner of their geological Sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and
formation; limestone are used extensively for building.
• all stones used in building fall into one • They are not difficult to work and yet are
of three classes: quite durable.
• Igneous • Coral stone is found in coastal areas where chips
• Sedimentary or small stones are used in mud walls.

• metamorphic. • Coral stone is also cut into blocks, and although

not very strong, can be used in foundations and
Igneous rock are mostly very hard and cliff
walls in multistorey houses;
cult to cut to size and shape.

• they are very durable

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 Earth as building material • it to keep the inside of a building cool when the
• Earth is one of the oldest materials used for outside is hot and vice versa.
building construction in rural areas. • It is a good noise absorbent.
• Advantages of earth as a building material are: • It is easy to work using simple tools and
• It is resistant to fire. skills.

• It is cheaper than most alternative wall • These qualities encourage and facilitate self-help
materials and community participation in house building.

• It is readily available at most building • Despite its good qualities, the material has the
sites. following weaknesses as a building material:

• It has very high thermal capacity that • It has low resistance to water penetration
enables resulting in crumbling and structural failure.
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 • It has a very high shrinkage/swelling ratio ; for many purposes.

• resulting in major structural cracks Soil Stabilization: The aim of soil stabilization is to
when exposed to changing weather increase the soil's resistance to destructive
conditions. weather conditions in one or more of the following

• It has low resistance to abrasion ways:

• requires frequent repairs and • By cementing the particles of the soil

maintenance when used in building together, leading to increased strength and

construction. cohesion.

• However, there are several ways to overcome • By reducing the movements (shrinkage and

most of these weaknesses swelling) of the soil when its moisture

content varies due to weather conditions.
• This makes earth a suitable building material
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 • By making the soil waterproof or at least • Sand or clay
less permeable to moisture.
• Portland cement
• A great number of substances may be used
• Lime
for soil stabilization.
• Bitumen
• Because of the many different kinds of soils
• pozzolanas (e.g., fly ash, rice husk ash,
and the many types of stabilizers, there is
volcanic ash)
not one answer for all cases.
• Natural fibres (e.g., grass, straw, sisal,
• It is up to the builder to make trial blocks
sawdust)
with various amounts and kinds of
• Sodium silicate (water-glass)
stabilizers.
• Commercial soil stabilizers (for roads),Resins,
• Stabilizers in common use are:
whey, molasses, gypsum, cow dung
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 1. Cement: • The hydraulic cement set and harden in water
• Cements are adhesive and cohesive
and give a product which is stable.
materials for bonding together particles of
• Portland cement is one such.
solid matter into a compact durable mass.
• Cement can be manufactured either from natural
• Its primary function being to bind the fine
cement stones or artificially by using calcareous
(sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate particles
and argillaceous materials.
together.
• The examples of natural cements are Roman
• Cements used in construction industry may
cement, Puzzolana cement and Medina cement
be classified as hydraulic and non hydraulic.
• Those of artificial cement are Portland cement
• The latter does not set and harden in water
and special cements.
such as non-hydraulic lime or which are
unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.
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• The finer the cement particles, the larger the • Additional water evaporates leaving voids, which
surface area; reduce the density
• which is available for hydration by water. • therefore, strength and durability of the end
• the more rapid the setting and products.
hardening, occurs. • The most frequently used cements are
• Cement is normally sold in 50 kg bags. • Type I — Normal or general purpose

• Occasionally is available in bulk at a lower • Type II — Moderate sulphate resistant

price. • Type III — High early strength
• In the process of hydration, the cement will • Type IV — Low heat of hydration
chemically bind water corresponding to about • Type V — Sulphate resistant
one-quarter of its weight.
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 • Early hardening may be useful where ;
Ordinary Portland cement is the least
• early stripping of farm work
expensive and by far the most widely used
• early loading of the structure is required.
type of cement.

• It is suitable for all normal purposes.

• Rapid-hardening Portland cement is more

finely ground

• It has a faster chemical reaction with water

and develops strength more rapidly.

• It has the same strength after 7 days that

ordinary Portland cement has after 28 days.

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Low-heat Portland cement develops strength
very slowly.

• It is used in very thick concrete work ;

• where the heat generated by the

chemical reactions in ordinary Portland
cement would;

• be excessive and lead to serious

cracking.

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 Pozzolana: • The silica content constitutes more than half the
• A pozzolana is a siliceous material. weight of the pozzolana.

• In finely divided form, can react with lime in • Artificial pozzolana includes;
the presence of moisture at normal
• fly ash from the combustion of coal in
temperatures;
thermo-electric power plants
• Which pressures to form compounds
• burnt clays and shales
possessing cementous properties.
• blast furnace slag formed in the process of
• mixtures are highly variable and
iron manufacture
unpredictable.
• rice husk ash and the ash from other
• A wide variety of materials, both natural and
agricultural wastes.
artificial may be pozzolanic.

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 • Replacing up to 30% of the Portland cement with
pozzolana will ;

• produce 65 to 95% of the strength of

Portland cement concrete at 28 days.

• The strength nominally improves with age since

pozzolana reacts more slowly than cement

• At one year, the same strength is obtained and

• It takes two to three times the volume of
aggregate (sand and stone).
pozzolana required to make concrete with
the same strength as with Portland cement

• This adds to the cost of transport and

handling.
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 2.Concrete: • Strength is gained gradually, depending on the
• Concrete is a building material made by mixing speed of the chemical reaction.
cement paste (Portland cement and water) and
• Admixtures are sometimes included in the
aggregate. concrete mix to achieve certain properties.
• The cement paste is the "glue" that binds the • Reinforcement steel is used for added strength,
aggregate particles together. particularly for tensile stresses
• The strength of the cement paste depends on
Properties of Concrete:
the relative proportions of water and cement;
• hardness
• a more diluted paste being weaker.
• Durability
• Once the initial set has taken place concrete
• Imperviousness
cures well under water.
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 • Mould ability reaction is slower and strength development is

• It is a poor thermal insulator delayed

Ingredients
• high thermal capacity I. Cement
• Ordinary Portland cement is used for most farm
• It is not flammable
structures.
• has good fire resistance
• It is sold in paper bags containing 50kg or
• Concrete is a relatively expensive building
approximately 37 liters.
material for farm structures.
• Cement must be stored ;
• The cost can be lowered if some of the
• in a dry place
Portland cement is replaced with pozzolana.
• protected from ground moisture
• when pozzolanas are used the chemical
for periods not exceeding a month or two.
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• Even damp air can spoil cement.

• It should be the consistency of powder when

used.

• If lumps have developed, the quality has

decreased,

• It can still be used if the lumps can be

crushed between the fingers.

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Grade Nominal mix Use
C7 1:3:8 Strip footings; trench fill foundations; stanchion bases; non
reinforced foundations; floors with very light traffic; mass
C10 1:4:6 concrete, etc.

1:3:6

1:4:5

1 :3:5
Cl5 1:3:5 Foundation walls; basement walls; structural concrete; walls;
reinforced floor slabs; floors for dairy and beef cattle, pigs and
C20 1:3:4 poultry; floors in grain and potato stores, hay barns, and
machinery stores; septic tanks, water storage tanks; slabs for
1:2:4 farm yard manure; roads, driveways, pavings and walks;
stairways.
1:3:3
C25 1:2:4 All concrete in milking parlours, dairies, silage silos and feed

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 and drinking troughs; floors subject to severe wear and
C30 1:2:3 weather or weak acid and alkali solutions; roads and pavings
frequently used by heavy machinery and lorries; small bridges;
C35 1:1.5:3 retaining walls and dams; suspended floors, beams and lintels;
floors used by heavy, small-wheeled equipment, for example
1:1:2 lift trucks; fencing posts, precast concrete components.
C40 Concrete in very severe exposure; prefabricated structural
elements; pre-stressed concrete.
C50

C60

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II. Aggregate: • Test for Silt is done by putting 80mm of sand in a
• Aggregate or ballast is either gravel or
200mm high transparent bottle.
crushed stone.
• Add water up to 160mm height.
• Those aggregates passing through a 5mm • Shake the bottle vigorously and allow the
sieve are called fine aggregate or sand contents to settle until the following day.
• Those retained are called coarse aggregate • If the silt layer, which will settle on top of the
or stone. sand, is less than 6mm the sand can be used
• The aggregate should be hard, clean and without further treatment.
free of silt and vegetable matter. • If the silt content is higher, the sand must be
• Too much silt and organic matter makes the washed.
aggregate unsuitable for concrete.
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 • Cork the bottle and shake it vigorously for 30
seconds and leave it standing until the
following day.
• If the liquid on top of the sand turns dark
brown or coffee colored, the sand should not
• Test for Organic Matter is done by putting be used.
80mm of sand in a 200mm high transparent • "Straw" color is satisfactory for most jobs,
bottle. but not for those requiring the greatest
• Add a 3% solution of sodium hydroxide up to strength or water resistance.
120mm. • some ferrous compounds may react with the

• Note that sodium hydroxide, which can be sodium hydroxide and cause the brown color.

bought from a chemist (dangerous to skin)

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• The maximum amount of water includes the
• Normal values for coarse aggregate are 1500 to
moisture in the aggregate.
1650 kg/m3.
• Normal moisture content of naturally moist • Completely dry and very wet sand have the same
sand is 2.5 to 5.5%. volume

Density is the weight per volume of the solid • due to the bulking characteristic of damp sand it

mass excluding voids. has a greater volume.

• The bulk density of a typical naturally moist sand
• Normal values for density of aggregate
is 15 to 25% lower than coarse aggregate of the
(sand and stone) are 2600 to 2700 kg/ m3
same material, i.e.,
• For cement 3100 kg/m3.
• 1300 to 1500 kg/m3.
Bulk density is the weight per volume of the
• Size and Texture of Aggregate affects the
aggregate including voids.
concrete.
1•
 crushed stone, allows greater adhesive forces to
• The larger particles of coarse aggregate may
develop but will give less workable concrete.
not exceed;

• one quarter of the minimum thickness • The sum of the ingredient volumes will be

of the concrete member being cast. greater than the volume of concrete, because
the sand will fill the voids between the coarse
• In reinforced concrete the coarse aggregate
aggregate.
must be able to pass between the
• The materials normally have 30 to 50% greater
reinforcement bars;
volume than the concrete mix;
• 20mm being normally regarded as
maximum size. • 5 to 10% is allowed for waste and spill.

• Aggregate with larger surface area and • The cement added does not noticeably increase

rough texture, i.e., the volume.

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Example 1 • The volume of the ingredients is proportional to

• Calculate the amount of materials needed to the number of parts in the nominal mix.

construct a rectangular concrete floor 7.5m • In this case there are a total of 10 parts (1 +3+6)
by 4.0m and 7cm thick. Use a nominal mix in the mix.
of 1:3:6. 50 kg of cement is equal to 37L. • but the cement does not affect the volume so
Solution only the 9 parts for sand and stone are used.

• Total volume of concrete required = 7.5m x Cement = (2.84 x 1)/9 = 0.32m³ or 320
4.0m x 0.07m = 2.1m³ Sand = (2.84 x 3 ) / 9 = 0.95m³
• Total volume of ingredients, assuming 30% Stone = (2.84 x 6 ) / 9 = 1.89m³
decrease in volume when mixed and 5%
• Number of bags of cement required = 320/37 =
waste = 2.1m³ + 2.1(30% + 5%) m³ = 2.84m³
8.6 bags, i.e., 9 bags have to be bought.
1
Weight of sand required = 0.95m³ x 1.44
What will the basic strength and the volume of mix
tones/ m³ (
be if 2 bags of cement are used. Additional
= 1.4 tones assumptions:
Weight of stone required = 1.89m³ x 1.60 Solution
tones/m³ = 3.1 • Moisture content of sand: 4% Moisture content
of stones: 1.5% Bulk density of the sand: 1400
tones Maximum size of stones = 70mm x 1/4 =
kg/m³
17mm
• Bulk density of the stones: 1600 kg/m³
Example 2
• Solid density of aggregate materials: 2650 kg/m³
Assume a 1:3:5 cement - sand - stone concrete Solid density of cement: 3100 kg/m³
mix by volume using naturally moist • Density of water: 1000 kg/m³
aggregates and adding 62 liters of water.
1
1. Calculate the volume of the aggregate in the 3. Calculate the amount of water contained in the
mix. aggregate

• 2 bags of cement have a volume of 2 x • Water in the sand 311 kg x 4/100= 12 kg

37L= 74L • Water in the stones 592 kg x 1.5/100= 9 kg
• The volume of sand is 3 x 74L= 2221 4. Adjust amounts in the batch for water contents in
• The volume of stones is 5 x 74L= 3701 aggregate.

2. Calculate the weight of the aggregates. • Cement 100 kg (unaltered)

• Sand 222/1000 m³ x 1400 kg/m³ = 311 • Sand 311 kg - 12 kg = 299 kg

kg • Stones 592 kg- 9 kg= 583 kg
• Stones 370/1000 m³ x 1600 kg/m³ =
592 kg
1
Total amount of;

• dry aggregate = 299 kg + 583 kg = 882 kg

• Water = 62 kg + 12 kg + 9 kg = 83 kg

5. Calculate water- cement ratio and cement -

aggregate ratio.

• Water - cement ratio = (83 kg water) /

100 kg cement = 0 83

• Aggregate - cement ratio = (882kg

aggregate) / 100 kg cement = 8.8

1
 Mixing • A simple hand-powered concrete mixer can be

Mechanical mixing is the best way of mixing manufactured from an empty oil drum set in a

concrete. frame of galvanized pipe.

• Batch mixers with a tilting drum for use on • The drive can easily be converted to machine
building sites are available in sizes from 85 power.
to 400 litre • Hand mixing is normally adopted on small jobs.
• Mixing should be allowed to proceed for at
• Mixing should be done on a close- boarded
least 2.5 minutes after all ingredients have
platform or a concrete floor near to where the
been added.
concrete is to be placed
• For small-scale work in rural areas it may be
• Never on bare ground because of earth
difficult and rather expensive to get a
contamination.
mechanical mixer.
1
• The following method for hand mixing is water is spread over the mixture

recommended: • the mixing continued, all ingredients

• The measured quantities of sand and being turned over at least three times in

cement are mixed by turning over with a the process.

shovel at least 3 times. • use as little water as possible to get a

• About three-quarters of the water is added workable mix.

to the mixture a little at a time. • All tools and the platform should be cleaned

• Mixing is continued until the mixture with water ;

becomes homogeneous and workable. • when there is a break in the mixing at the

• The measured quantity of stones after end of the day

being wetted with part of the remaining

1
 Slump Test
• The slump test gives an approximate
indication of the workability of the wet
concrete mix.

• Fill a conically shaped bucket with the wet

Consistency Slump Use Method of
compaction
concrete mix and compact it thoroughly. High 1/2 - 1/3 Constructions with narrow passages and/or Manual
workability complex shapes. Heavily reinforced concrete.
Medium 1/3 - 1/6 All normal uses. Non-reinforced and normally Manual
• Turn the bucket upside down on the workability reinforced concrete.
Plastic 1/6 - 1/12 Open structures with fairly open Manual or
mixing platform. reinforcement, which are heavily worked Mechanical
manually for compaction like floors and
pavings. Mass concrete.
Stiff 0 - 1/2 Non-reinforced or sparsely reinforced open Mechanical
• Lift the bucket, place it next to the structures like floors and pavings which are
mechanically vibrated. Factory pre-
fabrication of concrete goods. Concrete
concrete heap and measure the slump blocks.
Damp 0 Factory prefabrication of the concrete goods. Mechanical or
Pressure
as shown in Figure.
1
 Placing and Compaction • The concrete should be placed with a shovel in
• Concrete should be placed with a minimum layers no deeper than 15cm
of delay after the mixing is completed, and
• Should be compacted before the next layer is
certainly within 30 minutes.
placed.
• Special care should be taken when • When slabs are cast, the surface is levelled out
transporting wet mixes. with a screed board
• The vibrations of a moving wheelbarrow • Also is used to compact the concrete mix as soon
may cause the mix to segregate. as it has been placed to remove any trapped air.
• The less workable the mix is, the more porous it
• The mix should not be allowed to flow or be
is and the more compaction is necessary.
dropped into position from a height greater
• For every percent of entrapped air the concrete
than 1 meter.
loses up to 5% of its strength.
1
• However excessive compaction of wet mixes
Curing Concrete:
• Concrete will set in three days but the chemical
brings fine particles to the top resulting in a
reaction between water and cement continues
weak, dusty.
much longer.
• Manual compaction is commonly used for
• If the water disappears through evaporation, the
construction of farm buildings.
chemical reaction will stop.
• It can be used for mixes with high and
• It is therefore very important to keep the
medium workability and for plastic mixes.
concrete wet (damp) for at least 7 days.
• Wet mixes used for walls are compacted by
• Premature drying out may also result in cracking
punting with a batten, stick or piece of
due to shrinkage.
reinforcement bar.

1
• During curing the strength and impermeability surface from dry winds.

increases and the surface hardens against • This is particularly important in tropical
abrasion. climates.

• Watering of the concrete should start as soon • Temperature is also an important factor in curing
as the surface is hard enough to avoid • For temperatures above 0° C and below 40° C;
damage.
• strength development is a function of
• It should not be later than 10 to 12 hours temperature and time.
after casting.
• At temperatures above 40°C
• Covering the concrete with sacks, grass,
• The stiffening and hardening may be faster than
hessian, a layer of sand or polythene helps to;
desired and result in lower strength.
• retain the moisture and protects the
1
 Reinforced Concrete: • Concrete subject to tension loading must be
• Concrete is strong in compression but reinforced with steel bars or mesh.
relatively weak in tension. • The amount and type of reinforcement should
• The underside of a loaded beam, such as a be carefully calculated
lintel over a door, is in tension. • Alternatively, a standard design obtained from a
• for stresses in a concrete lintel. reliable source should be followed without
variation.

• Concrete floors are sometimes reinforced with

welded steel mesh or chicken wire

• Placed 25mm from the upper surface of the

concrete, to limit the size of any cracking.
1
• However, such load-distributing
reinforcement is necessary only when

• loadings are heavy.

• the underlying soil is not dependable

• when cracking must be minimized as in

water tanks.

1
 3.Metals:
• Several ferrous metals (those containing
iron) are useful in farm building
construction.
• reinforcing bars
• Steel consists of iron plus a small
percentage of carbon in chemical
combination.

• High-carbon or hard steel is used for tools

with cutting edges. • implement frames.

• Medium-carbon steel is used for structural

members such as

• "I" beams
1
• Low-carbon or mild steel is used for pipe, • Brass is a corrosion resistant alloy of copper and

nails, screws, wire, screening, fencing and zinc, which is used extensively for building

corrugated roof sheets. hardware.

• Non-ferrous metals such as aluminum and

copper are corrosion resistant.

• They are often chosen on that account.

Copper is used for electric wire, tubing for
water supply and for flashing.

• Aluminum is most commonly used for

corrugated roofing sheets, gutters and the
accompanying nails.

1
 • also completely brittle so there is no permanent
Glass:
• Glass in buildings is required to resist loads set or warning of impending failure.

including • The support provided for glass will affect its

• wind loads strength performance.

• impact by persons • Glass should be cut to give a minimum

clearance of 2mm all around the frame to allow
• animals
for thermal movements.
• sometimes thermal and other stresses.
Plastics
• Generally the thickness must increase with
• Plastics have low thermal conductivity and
the area of glass pane.
thermal capacity.
• Glass is elastic right up to its breaking
• Though thermal movement is high.
point.
1
• They resist a wide range of chemicals and • Polythene is tough, water- and oil proof and can be
do not corrode. manufactured in many colors.

• However, they tend to become brittle with • In buildings it is used for;

age. • cold water pipes
• Most plastics are combustible and may • plumbing and sanitary ware
release poisonous gases in a fire.
• and polythene film (translucent or black).
• Some are highly flammable, while others
are difficult to burn.

Plastics are classified as:

Thermoplastics: which always soften

when heated and harden again on
1
• Film should not be unnecessarily subjected Thermosetting Plastics: The main use of

to prolonged heat over 50°C or to direct thermosetting plastics in buildings is as

sunlight. • impregnates for paper fabrics,

• The translucent film will last only one to • binders for particle boards,
two years when exposed to sunlight. • adhesives paints
• The carbon pigmentation of the black film • clear finishes.
increases resistance to sunlight.
• Phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite) is used for
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) will not burn and electrical insulating accessories.
can be made in rigid or flexible form.
• Urea formaldehyde is used for particle board
• It is used for rainwater goods, drains, pipes, manufacture.
ducts, electric cable insulation, etc.
1
 Paints and to rooms like a kitchen or a dairy where
Paints: Paint preserves, protects and decorates hygiene demands easily cleaned surfaces.
surfaces and enables them to be cleaned
• White and other light colors reflect more light
easily.
than dark colors
• All paints contain a binder which hardens.
• can be used in rooms like a sitting room or a
• Because of the cost involved, few buildings workshop to make the room lighter.
in the rural areas are painted.
Painting: Adequate preparation of the surface to
• When paint can be afforded priority should be painted is essential.
be given to surfaces likely to rust, rot or
• The surface should be smooth (not shiny for this
decay
would not give good anchor), clean, dry and
• because of exposure to rain or dampness stable.

1
• Old, loose paint should be brushed off • Priming paints are used for the first coat to seal

before a new coat is applied. and protect the surface and to give a smooth
surface for subsequent coats.
• Most commercial paints are supplied with
directions for use • They are produced for application to wood,
metal and plaster.
• which should be read carefully before the
work is started. • Undercoating paints are sometimes used to
obscure
• The paint film is usually built up in two or
more coats • the primer, as a further protective coating

• The paint film is usually built up in two or provide the correct surface for the finishing
more coats. paint.

1
 • fungicidal
• Finishing paints are produced with a wide
• insecticidal, etc.
range of colors and finishes (e.g., matt, semi-
matt, gloss).

• Some commonly used types of paint for farm

structures are detailed below.

• many others are manufactured with special

properties like;

• water and chemical resistance

• heat resistance

• fire retardant

• anti- condensation
1
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN, ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING PRODUCTION
Study objectives
• Be able to describe traditional and post
Be able to describe categories of applied loads
tradition building
Know different structural elements
• Know the building life of farm buildings
Understand the stability of farm buildings
• Be aware of farm building repairs and
Know the different loads on building components
maintenance, insurance and taxes
Be aware of facings and cladding on farm buildings
Know the footings, foundations and different
types of walls in farm buildings, floors, roofs,
doors, windows, stairs and ladders
Be aware of electrical installation of farm buildings

1
 Structural Design • They must be selected carefully to be suitable for

• A structure is designed to perform a certain the type or types of loading .

function. • These loads are determined during the structural

• To perform this function satisfactorily it design procedure.

must have sufficient strength and rigidity. Structural elements and loading
• Economy and an attractive appearance are Applied Loads
also of importance in structural design.
• This fall into three main categories: dead loads,
• The many building materials available differ wind loads and other imposed loads.
greatly in their resistance to loading:

• This is in relation to their use in various

building elements.
1
 Dead loads:
• These are loads due to the self-weight of all permanent
construction, including roof, walls, floor,

• The self-weights of some parts of a structure, e.g., roof

cladding,

• can be calculated from the manufacturer's data sheets.

• The self-weight of the structural elements cannot be

accurately determined;

• until the design is completed.

• Estimates of the self-weight of some members must be made

before starting a design analysis
1
• The values checked after the design. • Imposed loads include;

Imposed |live loads: • earthquake loads

• These are loads related to the use of the • wind loads and snow loads where
structure and to the environmental applicable;
conditions,
• Sometimes referred to as superimposed loads,
• Examples: weight of stored products
because they are in addition to the dead loads.
• equipment, `

• livestock,

• vehicles,

• furniture and people who use the

building.
1
 Wind loads: construction of a building.
• These are imposed loads
Dynamic loads:
• but are usually treated as a separate • Dynamic loading is due to the change of loading,
category owing to their transitory nature resulting directly from movement of loads.
and their complexity.
• For example, a grain bin may be affected by
• Very often wind loading proves to be the dynamic loading if filled suddenly from a
most critical load imposed on agricultural suspended hopper.
buildings. Structural Elements :
• Wind loads are naturally dependent on I. Cable:
• Cables, cords, strings, ropes and wires are flexible
wind speed.
because of their small lateral dimensions in
• but also on location, size, shape, height and relation to their length
1
• They have therefore very limited resistance II. Column:
to bending. • Rods or bars under compression are the basis for
vertical structural elements such as :
• Cables are the most efficient structural
elements • Columns

• They allow every fiber of the cross section • Stanchions

to resist the applied loads up to any • piers and pillars.

allowable stress. • They are often used to transfer load effects from
• Their applications are however, limited by beams, slabs and roof trusses to the foundations.
the fact that they can be used only in
III. Ties and Struts:
tension.
• When bars are connected with pin joints and the
• `
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resulting structure loaded at the joints; IV. Beam:

• a structural framework called a pin • A beam is a member used to resist load acting
jointed truss or lattice frame is across its longitudinal axis.
obtained. • It resists by transferring the effect over a distance
• The members are only subjected to axial between supports - referred to as the span.
loads • The span that a beam can usefully cover is
• Members in tension are called ties while limited due to the self-weight of the beam, i.e.,
members in compression are called struts. • it will eventually reach a length when it is
only capable of supporting itself.

• This problem is overcome to a degree with the

hollow web beam.
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• The arch can be shaped such that, for a
particular loading.

• All sections of the arch are under simple

compression with no bending.

• Arches exert vertical and horizontal thrusts

on their supports

• This can prove troublesome in the design

of supporting walls.

• This problem of horizontal thrust can be

removed by connecting a tension member
between the support points.`
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 V. Frames: • Pole barns are usually built with a relatively

• These include portal frames, pole barns, simple foundation.

and post and-beam. • The foundation is deeper than usual and

• Portal frames may be made of steel, backfilled with rammed earth.

reinforced concrete or timber. • Pole barns are braced between columns and

• With wider spans the structural rafters in each direction.

components become massive if timber or • The braces serve to reduce the effective length of
reinforced concrete is used. compression members and the effective span of

• Hence, steel frames are most common for rafters and other beam members.

spans over 20m` • This leads to a structure with a low-cost form of

construction.
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• A shed type building is a simple • concrete beneath the post, or the base of the post

construction consisting of; can be set into concrete.

• beams (horizontal or sloping) VI. Stability:

• supported at their ends on walls or • Stability problems in a building are due to mainly

posts. horizontal loads such as those resulting from:

• There may be one or more intermediate • wind pressure,

supports depending on building width. • storage of granular products against walls

• Purlins running longitudinally support the • soil pressure against foundations

roof covering. • sometimes earthquakes.
• Like the poles in the pole barn, the • Overturning of external walls is counteracted by the
foundation can consist of a simple pad of support of perpendicular walls and partitions.
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• Diagonal bracing is used to make framed long sides

walls and structures stiff. • However, when the wind loads occur at the gable

• Long braces should preferably transfer the ends;

load with a tensile stress to avoid buckling. • the frames may need extra support from

• Braces are usually supplied in pairs, i.e., on longitudinal bracing.

both diagonals

• This is because one will always be in

tension independent of wind direction.

• Portal or rigid frame buildings are normally

stable laterally

• when the wind pressure acts on the

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 Elements of construction: • methods to process them and form them into
building units and components,
• The choice of materials and the way they
are put together to form building elements • structural principles.

such as foundation, walls, floor and roof: stability and behavior under load,

• This always depend largely upon their • building production operations

properties relative to environmental • building economics.
requirements and their strength properties.
• A foundation is necessary to support the building
• The apprehension of building construction and the loads that are within or on the building.
thus involve an understanding of nature
• The combination of footing and foundation
and characteristics of a number of
distributes the load on the bearing surface
materials;

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 • keeps the building level and plumb and load to be supported.

reduces settling to a minimum. • If for some reason the load is concentrated in one

• When properly designed, there should be; or more areas

• little or no cracking in the foundation • that will need to be taken into consideration.

• no water leaks. • Once the load is determined, the soil bearing

characteristics of the site must be studied.
• The footing and foundation should be
I. Soil Bearing:
made of a material that will not fail in the
presence of ground or surface water. • The topmost layer of soil is seldom suitable for a

• Before the footing for the foundation can footing.

be designed; • The soil is likely to be loose, unstable and contain

• it is necessary to determine the total organic material.

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• Consequently, the topsoil should be normal amount of rainfall.

removed • The bearing capacity of soil is related to the soil

• Then the footing trench deepened to type and the expected moisture level.

provide a level, undisturbed surface for the II. Site Drainage:

entire building foundation. • It is desirable to site any building on well-drained
• If this is not feasible because of a sloping land.
site, the footing will need to be stepped. • However, other considerations such as access;
• The footing should never be placed on a • roads, water supply, existing services or a
filled area unless there has been sufficient shortage of land may dictate a poorly drained
time for consolidation. area.
• This usually takes at least one year with a • If a building site with poor natural drainage must be
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used, it may be improved by ; III. Walls:
Walls may be divided into two types:
• the use of contour interceptor drains or

• subsurface drains • Load-bearing walls support loads from floors and

roof in addition to their own weight.
• This is to cut off the flow of surface water
or to lower the water-table level. • Also resist side pressure from wind and, in some
cases, from stored material or objects within the
• Apart from protecting the building against
building.
damage from moisture, drainage will also;
• non-load-bearing walls which carry no floor or roof
• improve the stability of the ground
load.
• lower the humidity of the site
• Each type may be further divided into external or
enclosing walls, and internal dividing walls.

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1
• The term partition is applied to walls, Types of Building Walls:
either load-bearing or non-load bearing, • There are various ways to construct a wall and many
dividing the space within a building into different materials can be used
rooms. • They can be divided into four main groups.
• Good quality walls provide ; • Masonry wall, in which the wall is built of individual
• strength and stability. blocks of materials such as;

• weather resistance. • brick, clay or concrete blocks, or stone,

• fire resistance. • usually in horizontal courses bonded together

• thermal insulation. with some form of mortar.

• sound insulation.

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• Several of the earth derived products, wide roof overhangs.
either air dried or fired, are reasonable in
cost and well suited to the climate.

• Monolithic wall, in which the wall is built

of a material placed in forms during the
construction.

• The traditional earth wall and the modern

concrete wall are examples.

• The earth walls are inexpensive and

durable if placed on a good foundation

• protected from rain by a rendering or

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Frame wall, in which the wall is constructed as
a frame of relatively small members;

• Usually, timber forms a load-bearing

system at close intervals with facing or
sheeting on one or both sides.

• Offcuts are low-cost materials to use for a

frame wall covering.

Factors which will determine the type of wall to

be used are:

• The materials available at a reasonable cost.

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 • Availability of craftsmen capable of
using the materials in the best way.

• Climate

• The use of the building - functional

requirements.

IV. Facings and Claddings: a. Facings

• Refer to panels or other materials that are
applied as external coverings on walls for
protection from the elements or for
decorative effects

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• Facings or claddings are particularly useful for;
• Various shingles, larger size tiles, both
• protecting and improving the appearance of vertical and horizontal
the walls of earth structures
• Horizontal timber siding and building
• Which by themselves may be eroded by rain and boards that are suitable for cladding e.g.
become quite unsightly.
• plywood
• Facings generally have little or no structural
• asbestos-cement board
strength
• Corrugated steel roofing is also satisfactory.
• Must be attached to a smooth continuous
surface. Plaster or small size tiles are examples.

• Cladding differs from facing in that the materials

have some structural strength.
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 V. Floors: ground-level grades are probably adequate for most
situations.
• well-built floor offers protection from
• Floors may be built at ground level, i.e. on the soil
• vermin
within the building, in which case they are called
• rodents
solid or grade floors
• is easy to ;
• They may be supported on joists and beams in
• Clean which case they are called suspended or above-
• dry grade floors.

• Durable • The finished level of a solid floor should be at least

• For farm buildings, including homes, simple 150mm above outside ground level as a protection

floors offering hard, durable surfaces at against flooding.

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• The topsoil should be removed and Concrete makes a more durable, harder and cleaner

replaced with coarse material before the floor.

actual floor slab is constructed. • Properly constructed concrete floors can be made

• Tamped soil is often satisfactory for the dry enough for grain storage or the farm home.

floors of animal shelters and perhaps the • The polythene sheet prevents moisture from
homes of subsistence farm families. reaching the concrete slab

• They should be designed a little above the • The layer of sand or mortar protects the sheet
ground level outside the building from being punctured.

• Will be improved by being stabilized with

ant-hill clay, cow dung, lime or Portland
cement.

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 Construction of solid floors : • A 1:2:4 should be adequate over a good firm
a) built at ground level:
• The concrete mixture chosen to be used in base.

a solid floor will depend on the ; • The floors in a creamery or slaughterhouse are

• severity of use subjected to acid erosion and require a richer mix of

concrete (1:2:3) to give a durable surface.
• type of loading.
b) Suspended or Above-grade Floors :
• For a deep litter building or a subsistence i) Timber Floors
farm dwelling a mix of 1:3:6 by weight. • Suspended timber ground-level floors are useful on

• Floors that will be exposed to heavy loads, sloping sites

as in a bag grain store or a farm repair • where much filling would be required to level the
shop, will need to be stronger. ground for a solid floor.

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• Timber ground-level floors must be well ground at least 45cm.

protected against moisture, fungus and • The supporting piers are frequently built of timber
termites but are better if made of stone, concrete or steel.

• Must therefore be raised above the ground. • Hollow concrete blocks reinforced and filled with

The space under such a timber floor should be concrete make a strong support.

high enough to ensure;

good ventilation

to allow a person to crawl underneath to

inspect the floor.

• Termite protection is more likely to be

effective if the floor is raised above the
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• Metal termite shields should be fitted to; • greater fire resistance

• the top of the foundation wall • better sound insulation than that of a
timber floor
• Also to steeper walls and piers.
• It is generally too expensive to find applications in
• Beams of steel, timber or concrete may be
farm buildings.
used ;
V. Roofs
• to support upper floors when the span
is over 5m. • A roof is an essential part of any building in that it

c) Suspended Concrete Floors provides the necessary protection from;

• rain
• The main advantage of a reinforced-
concrete suspended floor is its; • Sun

•
• wind, heat and cold.
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• Flat and pitched roofs: A roof is called a flat roof drains off rainwater more quickly.
Types of Roofs
roof ;
a). Flat Roofs
• when the outer surface is within 5° of • The flat roof is a simple design for large buildings.
horizontal • Simple beams can be used for spans up to about 5m
• whereas a pitched roof has a slope of • With longer spans it is necessary to use deep
over 5° in one or more directions. beams, web beams or trusses for adequate support.
• Climate and covering material affect the • Since farm buildings often need large areas free of
choice between a flat or pitched roof. columns
• In hot, dry areas the flat roof is common • flat roofs with built-up roofing are not
because it is not exposed to heavy rainfall. common.
• In areas of heavy rainfall a steeply pitched • Flat roofs are prone to leak.
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• To prevent pools of water from collecting b). Earth Roof
on the surface; • Soil-covered roofs have ;

• they are usually built with a minimum • good thermal insulation

slope of 1:20 to provide drainage. • high capacity for storing heat.

• The traditional earth roof is subject to erosion

during rain

• Hence requires steady maintenance to prevent

leakage.

• The roof is laid rather flat with a slope of 1:6 or less.

• The supporting structure should be generously

designed;
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 • preservative - treated or • The durability of the mud cover can be improved
by ;
• termite-resistant timber of poles
• stabilizing the topsoil with cement
• inspected and maintained periodically,
• it can be waterproofed by placing a plastic
• The sudden collapse of this heavy
sheet under the soil.
structure could cause great harm.
• However, the introduction of these improvements
adds considerably to the cost of the roof.

• The improved earth roof therefore is a doubtful

alternative for low- cost roofing

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• Should be considered only in dry areas where supports.
soil-roof construction is known and accepted. • Also wide buildings with this type of roof will
c). Mono-pitched Roof have a high front wall;

• Mono-pitch roofs slope in only one direction • which increases the cost
and have no ridge. • leaves the bottom of that wall relatively
• They are easy to build, are comparatively unprotected by the roof overhang.
inexpensive and are recommended for use on • When using corrugated steel or asbestos-
many farm buildings. cement sheets;
• The maximum span with timber members is • the slope should not be less that 1:3(17 to
about 5m. 18°).
• wider buildings will require intermediate • Less slope may cause leakage as strong
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• Less slope may cause leakage as strong
columns favors the gable roof.
winds can force water up the slope.
• The gable roof may be built in a wide range of
d). Double-pitched (Gable) Roof pitches to suit any of several different roofing
• A gable roof normally has a center ridge materials.
with a slope to either side of the building.

• With this design a greater free span (7 to

8m) is possible with timber rafters than
with a mono-pitch roof.

• Although the mono-pitch design may be

less expensive in building widths up to 10m
the inconvenience of many support
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 e). Hip Roof
• A hip roof has a ridge in the center and four • it should be recommended only where it is

slopes. necessary to protect mud walls or

• It is much more complicated in its • Un plastered brick walls against heavy driving

construction. rain and for wide buildings to reduce the height

of the end walls.
• Four gutters are needed to collect the rain
water from the roof

• It does not mean that there is any increase

in the amount of water collected.

• Since this is an expensive and difficult way to

roof a building:
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 f. Conical-shaped Roof
• The conical roof is a three-dimensional short spans and to either circular or small square

structure that is commonly used in rural buildings.

areas. • It does not allow for any extensions.

• It is easy to assemble and can be built with • If modern roofing materials are used there is
locally available materials; considerable waste

• making it inexpensive. • This is because of the amount of cutting necessary

• It must be constructed with a slope to obtain proper fit.

appropriate to the roofing materials used to

prevent it from leaking.

• The conical roof design is limited to rather

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 vi. Doors
• Doors are essential in buildings to ;
•
• provide security

• protection from the elements

• while allowing easy and convenient entry and exit.

• Farm buildings may be served adequately with

unframed board doors

• while homes will need more attractive, well-framed

designs that close tightly enough to;

• keep out dust and rain

• allow only minimal air leakage.

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• Large openings can be better served by may need to be increased to 250cm.
rolling doors rather than the side-hinged • Shop or barn doors need to be considerably larger
type. to give access for tools and machinery.
General Characteristics of Doors
• Strength and stability: Doors must be built of
• Size: Doors must be of adequate size. material heavy enough to withstand normal use and

• For use by people only, a door 70cm wide to be secure against intruders.

and 200cm high is adequate. • They should be constructed of large panels such as

• However, if a person will be carrying loads plywood or designed with sturdy;

with both hands, e.g. 2 buckets; • well secured braces to keep the door square,

• 100 to 150cm of width will be required. thereby allowing it to swing freely and close

• If head loads will be carried, door heights tightly.

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• For a door to be inconvenient for someone
the best control and the least inconvenience.
to break in, it should have;
• An external door that swings out is easier;
• a heavy, well-braced door mounted on
heavy hinges • to secure

• fastened with 'blind' screws • wastes no space within the building

• fitted with a secure lock will make it. • exit is easier in case of emergency.

• Door swing: Edge hung doors can be hung • However, unless it is protected by a roof overhang

at the left or at the right or a verandah;

• operate inwards or outwards. • it may be damaged by rain and sun.

• Careful consideration should be given to • An inward swinging door is better protected from

which edge of the door is hinged to provide the weather.

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• Weather resistance and durability: It is Types of Doors
• Unframed doors: Very simple doors can be made
desirable to use materials that are not
from a number of vertical boards held secure with;
easily damaged by weathering
• horizontal rails
• To further improve the life of the door by
keeping it well painted. • a diagonal brace installed in such a position
that it is in compression.
• Special considerations: under some
circumstances fireproof doors may be • These are inexpensive doors and entirely

desirable or even required. satisfactory for many stores and animal buildings.

• In cooler climates insulated doors and • Framed doors: A more rigid and attractive assembly

weather-stripping around the doors will includes;

help to conserve energy. • a frame around the outer edge of the door held

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 • together at the corners with mortise screws.

• tendon joints. • If the inner panel is made up of several boards

• The framed door can be further improved braces are needed.

by; • If the one or two panels are made of plywood, no

• rabbeting the edge of the frame rails braces will be required.

• setting the panels into the grooves 10 • Large barn or garage doors will need the bracing

to 20mm. regardless of the construction of the center panels.

• The door can be hung on strap or tee • Flush Doors: Flush panel doors consist of a skeleton

hinges frame clad with a sheet facing such as plywood.

• since there is an outer frame the door can • No bracing is necessary and the plain surface is

also be hung on butt hinges with hidden easy to finish and keep clean.
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• Flush panel doors are easily insulated • Rolling Doors: An alternative to double-hinged
during construction if that is necessary. doors for large openings is one or more rolling

• Double Doors: Large door openings are doors.

often better served by double doors. • They often operate more easily, are not as affected

• If hinged doors are used, the smaller by windy conditions nor as subject to sagging and

double doors are not as likely to sag and warping as the swinging doors.

bend • The rolling doors are usually mounted under the

• They are much less likely to be affected by eave overhang and are protected from the weather

wind. when either open or closed.

• Usually opening one of the double doors • It is true that they require space at the side of the

will allow a person to pass through. doorway when they are open.

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• There are several designs to suit a variety • and light while at the same time restricting the
of situations. For example: movement of animals and people

• One large door rolling one way from

the doorway.

• Two doors rolling in opposite directions

from the doorway.

• Two doors on separate tracks rolling to

the same side.

• Half-Door or Dutch Door: Doors that are

divided in half horizontally allow the top
section to be opened separately to let in air
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 vii. Windows reduce heat radiation or closed to keep out driven

• Windows provide light and ventilation in a rain or dust.

building • Screening may be needed for protection from

• Also allow those within to view the insects.

surrounding landscape and observe the • Shutters, either top-or side hinged, are
activities in the farm yard. commonly used to provide the needed

• In sitting rooms and work rooms where protection.

good light and ventilation are important; • Side- hung glazed windows, glass or timber

• the window area should be 5 to 10% of louvers are also used.

the floor area of the room.

• Windows sometimes need to be shaded to

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• Shutters: These are basically small doors from the wall to let the water drip clear of the
and are constructed as unframed, framed face of the building.
or flush shutters. • The window shutter can be side hinged or top-
• Because of the smaller size only two rails hinged.
are required • A top-hinged shutter has the advantage of shading
• The timber can be of smaller dimensions. the opening;

• The principles of construction are the same • when kept open as well as allowing ventilation
as for doors. while preventing rain from entering.

• However, when the frame for the shutter is

recessed in the wall;

• the sill must be sloped and extend out

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• Glazed windows: Glazed windows are relatively
expensive but are most practical in cold areas.

• When temperatures are low, the window can be

shut while daylight still enters the room.

• Frames for glazed windows are available in wood

and metal, the latter being more expensive.

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 vii. Stairs and ladders • For slopes between 1:3 and 1:0.8 (18 to 50°);

• The angle, as determined by height and the • stairways are possible

horizontal distance available; • although 30 to 35° is preferred.
• will determine getting from one level • Angles steeper than 50° require a ladder or
to another. ladder-stairway.
• For a slope up to 1:8 (7°), a ramp is • Temporary ladders should be set up at 60 to
suitable for; 75°.
• walking and pushing a wheelbarrow. • A fixed ladder may be vertical if necessary.
• For walking alone, a 1:4 (14°) slope is
satisfactory if it remains permanently dry.

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1
 Design of animal shed.
Study objectives
• Be aware of the needs of Diary Barn • Be aware of the Classification of poultry houses
• Be aware of the design needs of pigs houses
• Know the different types of dairy barns,
• Be aware of the design needs of sheep houses
Understand the dairy design considerations.

• Know the factors to consider when planning a dairy

barn.

• Know the design specifications of each component

of the dairy barn.

• Be familiar with some model Layouts of Dairy Farms

• Know the different needs of poultry farming

• Know the Criteria for selection of poultry site

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 Dairy barns: • Milk straining, weighing, cooling and cleaning of
Factors to consider when planning dairy barns:
• When planning a new dairy farm, the size and the milk utensils require significant labour.

location of the barn in relation to the entire • Therefore, the location of a well-planned milk
farm, the fields, roads, drainage channels, house should be carefully chosen.
prevailing winds and landscaping are of • Before a new dairy barn is planned the future
importance expansion of the business should also be
• The requirements of the dairy cows and calves considered.
should also be considered before any • The size of the hard is usually determined on
construction work is undertaken. the basis of the total quantity of fodder the
• The location of the fodder and feeder storage farm is capable of producing annually.
buildings should be included in the plan.
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• Generally, it is economical to produce fodder on • In tropical countries, it is better to have
the farm and to buy concentrates from the enclosed facing in the east west direction.
market. • The location of the feed and fodder stores w.r.r
• The dairy barn, when properly located should barn should be planned so that the minimum
have a good approach from the highway, as well time is spent in taking the supplies to the barn.
as from the farmhouse. • The topography of the barn site determines the
• The milk house is best located on a clean, well- drainage pattern required.
drained site near the barn, but separated from it • Drainage should be diverted around the barn
by a 6 m-long paved passage. by proper grading of the surrounding land.
• It should face the road and be provided with
doors fixed with wire mesh to keep off the flies.

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• Besides the natural rainwater, water used in Types of Dairy barn:
grooming the cows, and cleaning the barn and • There are three general types of barns.
dairy utensils has to be disposed off.
i) Stanchion barn
• It is desirable to have paved approaches to the
ii) The loose housing barn with milking room
dairy barn, since this prevents stagnation of
iii) The open-air barn
water and mud formation.
i) Stanchion barn
• Under these conditions, it is not possible to
transport the cow dung from the barn daily, • In the stanchion barn the cows are housed and
milked in the same building.
• it is desirable to fence an area near the barn
of storage of manure. • It is also called the general-purpose barn of the
cow.

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Stanchion barn
The loose housing barn

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• Stanchion barn is one in which the cow is kept • It should also give facility for the animal to

tied in separate stalls and provided with feed. rest and move its neck sideways to reach
feed and water.
• Each stall consists of a bedding place and feed
place so that the cow can be kept in the stall at • Instead of using oval shaped, ring chains are also

all times. used to fasten the animals to the stanchion.

• Stanchion is a framework made up of pipe or • For this, a strap is around the neck of each

angle iron with an oval-shaped adjustable ring animal.

kept one end hanging from the frame and the • The animals are arranged in rows according to
other hinged to the floor. the members to be housed.

• It should be wide enough to pin it on easily • In enclosed shelters for more than 8 cows two
to the neck of the animal and to lock it. rows is preferable.

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• The rows can be arranged so that they may be bent pipe fixed equal to the length of the stall.

facing each other known as ‘face in’. For efficiency of management of the length of

• The arrangement of facing opposite directions is rows, it should be restricted to have a maximum of
known as a ‘face out’ arrangement. 10 cows in a row.

• Face-in-type arrangements will reduce the floor Stall size: The size of stall depends upon the size
area; and age of the animals.

• gives facility for cleaning manure to the • Narrow and cramped stalls should be avoided, as

open sides and is suited mostly for they restrict the movement of animals;

unenclosed barns or bull odes. • resulting in discomfort and even injury to

• The stalls are separated by a small partition wall the animal which will affect the milk yield.

usually of concrete to 12.5cm in height, with a

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• As the size of cow varies with different breeds, a • It should, be sufficient to hold the feed.

general space requirement of each type of • It should be shaped in a curved form so that no
based on weight is given in the following table wastage of feed is allowed.
Weight of cow Girth (per meter) Stall width Stall length
• The two usual types of mangers adopted are:
Kg lb cm inch cm feet cm feet
• The low manger known as “sweep in” is
363 800 162.5 65.0 100.0 3’4” 135 4’6”
454 1000 176.25 70.5 110.0 3’8” 140 4’8” simple and easy to construct.
544 1200 187.50 75.0 120.0 4’0” 150 5’0”
634 1400 198.75 79.5 130.0 4’4” 160 5’4”
• The waste thrown by the animal away
723 1600 210.0 84.0 140.0 4’8” 170 5’8”
from the manger can easily be swept
Table . Dimensions of cow stall
back.
Mangers : are feeding structures for the animals.
The size of the mangers should be sufficient to hold
the feed
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The high front manger, though a bit difficult and • This curb separate the manger and the stall and
costlier in construction, is still adopted of less provides support for the bottom of a stanchion.
wastage by throwing the feet out of mangers. • Cement concrete tubes of 150-200 litre capacity
• The usual width of the manger varies from 60 cm are provided between two cows.
to 90 cm. Space for pathways: To increase the efficiency of
• The back of the low manger is flush with the diary management enough space for pathways
feeder alley and the back of the height front should be provided for conveying feed to the
manger is about 70 cm above the feeder alley. manger, milking the cows and removing the

• At the foot of the manger a stanchion curb of manure waste etc.

height 12.5 cm is provided to prevent the animal • The pathways provided in a stanchion barn are
from dragging the feed into the stall. feed alleys and litter alleys.
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• Feed alleys are pathways provided between two • This curb separates the manger and the stall But
rows of mangers in case of a face-in system or in the face and arrangement litter alleys are
pathways between the mangers and sidewall in provided for a width of 1.8m to 2.4 m for
the case of a face-out system. milking and taking out animals.

• The usual space left is 1.2 m to allow the • Cross alleys are also provided where the
conveyance of feed in a pushcart. number of animals is more able to have access

• In the case of big dairy barns they should be from one side to the other without

wide enough for a farm cart drawn by bullocks or backtracking.

farm tractors. • Cutters: these are provided to convey the

• In the case of face-in arrangement no separate animal waste and to drain urine and wash-water

litter alley is provided as the sides are not to manure pits provided out side the dairy barn.

enclosed.
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• These are provided by the side of litter alleys and smooth as it may cause the slipping of animals.
their width varies from 40cm to 45cm and the • Thread linings made on the floor render grip to
depth is 15 cm. the animals.

• A minimum bed slope of 2% should be given for • A toe hold known as a toe drain provided at the
the gutters to drain without any stagnation. front of the stall for 1/3 length helps the

Flooring: The flooring for dairy barns may be laid animals to sit or stand without slipping.

either with cement or lime concrete as sub-grade, Walls: Brick or rubble masonry in lime or cement
with a meet rough finish on top. marker can be adopted for enclosing the barn.

• The stall platforms should be sloped well to • The length should be a minimum of 2.4m.
maintain the clean liners.

• The top surface of the flooring should not be left

1
• ventilators or openings of 0.37 sqm (4 sq ft) per temperature is moderate.

cow should be provided to give natural lighting & • Concrete roofing is the best if the investment is
air. justifiable.

• If climate and environment do not call for • In the case of two rows of barns, roof trusses of
enclosures, pillars at 2.4m to 3m apart (8 to 10 iron or timber should be used since the width
ft) can support the roof. will be more than 9m.

Roofing: In hot regions, tiled roofing can be Loose housing system: In this system of housing
adopted rather than A.C. sheet or other corrugated the milking, feeding and bedding operations are
sheet roofing. arranged in separate places.

• This is because of its less heat radiation. • An open exercise yard is also provided in this

• A.C. sheet can be adopted where the system.

1
• The labour requirement is less and efficiency of the feeding area clean.

management is higher since the milking is done • The space of manger for each cow varies from
in a small enclosed area. 67.5 cm to 75 cm and the depth should be

• The manure is allowed to accumulate in the sufficient to prevent wastage by dragging out of

bedding area and cleared once or twice a year. the mangers.

• The success of this method is related to the • Water tubs of 300 litres capacity are provided for

allotment of enough space and shelter. every 15 cows in the feeding room.

Feeding shed: this is a covered shed to protect the • For a feeding shed, a lean-to-roof shed with no

feed from rain and an area of 3.7 sqm (40 sqft) is enclosure on one side is economical and suitable.

recorded for each cow. Bedding area: This is also a covered area with an

• Pavement with mangers is better for keeping ample space of 6.4 sqm per cow.

1
• The shed room should be a min. of 3m to allow 1.0m width and then 2% slope away from the

piling up of manure for 0.9m height. bedding area for draining water.

• The bedding area should have a separate place Milking rooms: The milking room is provided

for caves at the rate of 2.8 sqm (30 sqft) per cow. separately where facilities are made for milking a
few cows at a time.
Exercising yard: This is an open enclosed space to
afford the free movement of animals to get fresh air • This is constructed adjoining the feed room so

and exercise. that other animals can be kept there awaiting

their turn to be led to milking.
• The space required for each cow is 9.2 sqm (100
sqft). • For providing facility for milking, stalls should be
constructed to keep the animals at the floor level
• This is provided adjoining the bedding area. The
or raise above the floor where the operator
yard should have a slope of 1 in 6 for the first
works.
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• The level floor stall arrangements are similar to • The cows may walk through after milking or back

stall barns with space for litter and feeder alleys. for one operator.

• The room is covered on the sides and top to • The most convenient number of stalls in this

keep it clean. arrangement was to be ;

• Stall systems are either floor level, with the • 6 to 1, for two operators,

platforms at the same level as the floor on which • 8 to 12 or 16 stalls should be provided.
the operator works • The elevated stall system places cows at a more
• It can also be elevated with the cow platform convenient and comfortable work height for the
from 30” to 36” above the operators (fig) floor operator.
level stalls are usually arranged abreast like the • If milk is carried from the milking room to the
stalls in a stall barn. milk house, the operator’s floor should be the
1
• level as the milk house floor. The stalls are let in and released at one time. A slow milker may

elevated and suitable ramps are provided for the hold up the line and cause lost time.
cows. • The chute arrangement can be built for a single

Chute: There are several arrangements of stalls row or two rows of cows.

chute to the elevated stall system. • Feed in-tube is filled with the help of a chute

• The chute-type stalls are probably the least pipe from an elevated feed storage hub.

expensive to construct; Tandem type: The tandem type of arrangement

• because no wall foteh cows is necessary and permits cows to enter and be released individually.
fewer gates need to be provided for handling • However, a wale for the cows must be provided
the cows. along the side.

• However all the cows, in one line must be let in

1
• A gate must be provided on each stall, one for Montana: It is an abreast arrangement with an

entrance and one for exit. elevated stall.

• The tandem arrangement may be built for one or • For one operator, one working area and two

two cows of cows. stalls are provided for two operators, two
working areas and four stalls are provided.
U Type or square: type of arrangements are
modifications of the tandem arrangement.

• In both the cows can be brought in and released

individually.

• These arrangements may centralize the milking

operation more than other types.

1
• Space Requirements of Dairy Animals and
Layouts of Dairy Farms
4 Adult cows 3.5 7.0 60-75 45-60 Gro
Floor, feeding manger and watering space
up
requirements of da
25
FLOOR SPACE)
PER ANIMAL (M2) FEEDING WATER
(MANGER) TROUGH
SR. TYPE OF SPACE PER SPACE/ MOD 5 Adult 4.0 8.0 60-75 60-75 Gro
NO ANIMAL ANIMAL ANIMAL (CM) HOUS Buffal up
COVER OPEN
(CM) oes 25-
ED AREA
30
AREA

Young calves (< Indivi

6 Down 12.0 20-25 60-75 60-75 Indiv
1 8 weeks) groups 5
1.0 2.0 40- 50 10-15 calvers i

2 Older calves (> 2.0 4.0 40-50 10-15 Group 15 7 Bulls 12.0 120.0 60-75 60-75 Indiv
8 wks) i

3 Heifers 2.0 4.0-5.0 45-60 30-45 Group 25 8 Bullocks 3.5 7.0 60-75 60-75 Pairs

1
Model Layouts of Dairy Farms
• Model layouts for the construction of various
farm buildings have been prepared under a loose
system of housing.

• Also required to be constructed such as a chaff

cutter shed, feed store, implements store, straw

store, milking parlour, milk room, silo pits and

manure pits apart from the office, and lawns.

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1
 Poultry housing Criteria for selection of site
Need for poultry farming • Poultry house should be located away from
residential and industrial wea.
• To protect birds from adverse climatic conditions
• It should have proper road facilities.
• To ensure easy and economic operation
• It should have the basic amenities like 'Water and
• To ensure scientific feeding in a controlled
electricity.
manner
• Availability of farm laborers at relatively cheaper
• To facilitate proper micro-climatic conditions in a
wages..
near vicinity of bird
• Poultry house should be located in an elevated
• For effective disease control measures
wea and there should not be any water-loggging.
• To ensure proper supervision
• It should have proper ventilation
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Layout of poultry farm
• The basic principles to be observed for layout are • distance between grower and layer sheds

• Layout should not allow visitors or outside should be of minimum100 meter.

vehicles near the birds. • The egg store room, office room and the feed

• The sheds should be so located that the fresh air store room should be located near entrance to

first passes through the brooder shed, followed minimize the movement of people around the

by grower and layer sheds. poultry sheds.

• This prevents the spread of diseases from • The disposal pit and sick room should be

layer houses to brooder house. constructed only at the extreme end of the site.

• There should be a minimum distance of 50-100

feet between chick and grower shed and the
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 Design considerations for poultry house • The foundation of the house should be of
concrete with 1 to 1.5 feet below the surface and
Height
1 to 1.5 feet above the ground level
• The height of the sides from the foundation to
Floor
the roofline should be 6 to 7 feet ( eaves height)
• The floor should be made of concrete with rat
and at the centre 10 to 12 feet.
proof device and free from dampness.
• In case of cage houses, the height is decided by
• The floor of the house should be extended 1.5
the type of cage arrangements (3-tier or 4 tier).
feet outside the wall on all sides to prevent rat
Foundation
and snake problems.
• A good foundation is essential to prevent
Doors
seepage of water into the poultry sheds.
• The door must be open outside in case of
1
 • In case of cage houses, no side wall is needed.
Deep-litter-poultry houses.
Roof
• The size of door is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet.
• The men of the poultry house may be thatch-
• At the entry, a foot bath should be constructed
ed, tiled, asbestos or concrete one depending
to fill with a disinfectant.
upon the cost involvement.
Sidewalls
• Different types of roofs are shed, gable, half-
• The side wall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and
monitor, full-monitor (monitor), flat concrete
generally at the level of bird's back height.
etc. Gable type is the most preferred in tropical
• This side wall protects the bird during rainy days countries.
or climate and also provides sufficient
Overhang
ventilation.
• The overhang of the roof should not be less
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 • In case of cage houses, no side wall is needed.
than 3.5 feet in order to prevent the entry of rain
water into the shed.

Lighting

• Light should be provided at 7.8 feet above the

ground level and must be hanged from ceiling.

• If incandescent bulbs are used the interval

between two bulbs is 10 feet.

• In care fluorescent light (tube lights) the interval

is 15 feet.

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 Classification of poultry houses • Free range or extensive system

• Semi-intensive system
• Poultry can be housed under different systems
based on following factors, • Intensive system

• Availability of land • Deep-litter system

• Cost ,of land • Slatted floor system

• Type of farming activity • Slat cum litter system

• Climatic condition • Cage system

• Labour availability

• Broadly, poultry housing systems are classified

into three systems:

• 1
 Semi-intensive system

Free range or extensive system Deep-litter system

Cage system

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 Housing needs of pigs • Provide shade, wallowing tank, cooling devices
such as sprinkling of water, washing etc. to
• The house should give adequate protection
maintain thermal comfort.
against direct sunlight and rain. Hogs are
• Design should be such that all animals are
sensitive to heat and cold.
observable easily from outside and the labour
• The floor and wall should be strong to withstand
requirement is less.
the roofing habits of pigs.
• Boars, pregnant and dry sows, gilts and growing
• Concrete flooring is durable and easy lo clean.
pigs are usually kept in open yard, with partially
The walls may be of bricks, finished smoothly
sheltered area. farrowing sows are housed in
and doors of strong ,wooden planks or iron.
completely enclosed houses or pens.
• Feed troughs and ,water troughs may be placed
• Simple low cost houses constructed with locally
along the front to facilitate feeding from outside.
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• available materials as per above guidelines are
preferred in rural areas.

• Multipurpose pens, which can be used, for

all categories of pigs can also be designed
meeting the floor space requirement.

• Individual or group housing in cages, made up of

vertical G.l pipes/MS rods and also farrowing
crates can be adopted in large high-tech farms.

• Uncastrated males and females should not be

housed together beyond the age of four months.

1
Housing needs of sheep

1
 Design of grain and silage storage structures.
Study objectives
• Be aware of the need for safe storage • Be aware of grain pressure theories

• Know the factors that govern the choice of a grain • Know the design of grain bins

drying system and the categories of the drying • Understand the dynamic pressure due to loading
systems and unloading

• Understand grain storage and the varying storage • Understand storage structures for semi perishable.
facilities available and their design.
• Know farm machinery storage structures
• Know how to calculate size and capacity of silo.

• Understand feed storage and the varying storage

facilities available and their design.

1
 Introduction: • Fertilizers

• Weather uncertainties affect the total • Seeds

production. • Vegetables
• A buffer stock of food grains, fruits and • Food grain
vegetables, feed and fodder have to maintained.
• Milk and milk products
• It is reported that about 10% of food grains and
• Farm machinery
35% fruits and vegetables are lost in post harvest
• All this products need different kinds of storage
handling.
conditions.
• A variety of storage structure are required to
• As a result, they need to be stored in special
store;
type of structures.
• Animal fodder and feeds
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 1.The silo: • Diagram here

• It is a farm structure used to store and protect

animal fodder.

• It is to preserve it in an ideal condition for the

farm animals.
• All kinds of grasses, sugarcane, legumes and any
• Animal fodder is cut and packed in the air tight other fodder crop can be ensilaged.
silo to allow partial fermentation.
• Though the silage is not the best form of
• The stored fodder is known as silage. feeding fodder.
• The best silage is made of maize and sorghum. • It is more nutritive than dry stalk(hay) of the
• Almost any green crop with moderately tough same crop
stalk can be used as a silage.
1
• As compared to green fodder: • Depth

• There is some loss of nutritive value in the • Fineness of crop

silage (conversion of sugar into lactic acid) • Degree of consolidation.
• If air tight packing is not done in the silos, • A typical figure for a 2m deep settled silage with
the silage gets spoiled around the air packets 25% dry matter would be about 700 kg/m3.
• Loss also due to surface spoilage, • Shorter chopping is desirable for rapid
fermentation and seepage. fermentation and good consolidation.
• It is important to maintain a tight seal between • The target for the chop should be 6-12 mm
the top of the silage and the covering sheet. max.
• The density of the silage is variable according to:

• Dry matter content

1
 Classification of Silos • However, loading of this type of silo is difficult.

• Commonly classified as: • A mechanical loader or a large blower is

• Tower silos (cylindrical, made of masonry, essential for elevating the cut fodder to the silo.

wood or metal). • The wall should be smooth, circular and perfect

• Horizontal silos (pit, bunker, trench or stack in plumb to provide structural strength.

type) • This is to avoid cracking due to lateral

• Silo bags pressure.

I. Permanent Tower Silos • for a diagram

• Built of brick, concrete, metal or tiles are durable
and wind resistant.

1
• To avoid failure, heavy reinforcement has to be • They are used as temporary and permanent
done. storage structures for silages.

• Unless the water table is very close to the • They are classified as;
ground level; • Pit
• The upright silo offers no special advantages • Trench
than other types.
• Surface silos
• The cost of constructing these silos is much
expensive than horizontal types

II. Horizontal Silos

• Both surface and below ground type are used in

most dairy farms.
1
• These silos can even be loaded and unloaded • In order to reduce spoilage;
without any special tool. • The silage is compacted by moving a tractor in
• They have been successful in areas with deep the pit several times.
water table. • The top must e covered with straw or earth or
• In case water table is expected to rise in rain some impervious sheet(plastic sheet).
season, the silo should be made impervious. Location of silos
• The silage spoilage and losses for this silo ranges • On dairy farms where cows are housed in
from 20 – 30%. stanchion;
• It can be reduced to 20% or less by covering the • The silo should be built very close to the barn
silage so to seal out air and water.
• Then it should be connected to it by a paved
• Horizontal surface silos are rarely used. road.
1
• While arranging the actual location ; Filling and packing of silos
• An ample area should be left for the trucks • Trench and pit silos can easily be filled by using a
and tractors with trailers so that to turn silage cutter with a blower.
easily. • Chopped silage should be;
• If cows are confined in the loose housing • Levelled
arrangement;
• Spread
• The silo should be located close to the
• Packed
feeding area.
• The silo is filled daily till the silage reaches above
• To reduce time and travel required for
the ground level.
feeding.
• Thorough packing is necessary to make a good
silage and to reduce surface silage.
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• Silage should be covered with dry paddy straw or • Domestic sewage BOD ranges 250 -400 mg/litre.
saw dust or wet weeds up to 10cm depth. • Silage liquor 12000-67000 mg/litre.
• A well packed silage with moisture content about • Production of effluent is affected by the dry
70% weighs from 480 – 800 per cum at depth; matter content of the silage.
• 1.5 to 13.5m. • A folder having dry matter to the extent of 20%
Silage Effluent would yield effluent in the range 50-120 litre/ton.

• The effluent of silage is among the most serious • Advisable to use a crop dry matter content of 25%
pollutant of ground and surface water. so that to reduce the yield of the effluent.

• Its biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of silage • The effluent can be stored in a concrete tank and
effluent may be 150 times greater than domestic disposed off by land spreading.
sewage.
1
2.The pit silos: • Where quality bricks are commonly available, they

• A permanent pit silo is a circular deep well are the best for building.

which is lined all along the sides. • A 20 cm thick wall will be satisfactory up to 15 m

• From the bottom it is sealed so that water depth.

may not rise it. • The entire surface coming in contact with the

• They are made in areas where the soil is silage should be plastered to make it smooth, air

deep and the water table is very low. tight and water tight.

• They can be made of bricks, stones or • Also important to have a simple roof at the top of

concrete. the silo to protect from sun and rain.

• Either cement or lime can be used as a • A corrugated metal sheet dome or half-pitch roof

binding material with ample overhang on all sides is so economical.

1
• For taking the silage out of the silo, stairs grasses are removed.
may be built along the wall.

• However, this type of construction causes

air pockets which will spoil the silage.

• A better method of taking out the silage is

by means of rope and pulley.

• Special care must be taken to guard

against suffocating bases in the bottom of
the pit.

• When the silo is opened for removing the

silage, nobody should enter till the
1
 Feeding • Sometimes a tractor may be used to distribute

• Generally the silage is fed by hand and silage to the cattle.

moved in silage. • Feeding of the silage by means of a basket may be

• The size of the cart should be such that in possible for small size herd.

one trip; • Generally a cow is feed about 3kg of silage per 100

• half the number of animals in a kg of her body weight per day.

double barn may be supplied with • A normal silage ration is 14 to 18 kg per cow per
silage. day.

• If this is not feasible, the most convenient • It may be less for small size cows and slightly more
size should be selected to that the for large breeds.
minimum number of trips are required
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 Size and capacity of silo in different silos.

• The correct diameter of the silo depends • The diameter of the silo is usually limited to 6m
on the quantity of the silage to be fed and depth of 2-3 times of the diameter.
daily. Example 1
• To prevent spoilage, silage should be Work out the economical diameter and depth of a
removed at the rate of 10 cm/day. silo to store sufficient quantity of silage for a herd of
• It is economical to build only one silo for a 400 cows having an average body weight of 450 kg
herd. each. The cows are fed on silage 200 days a year.

• For a large herd, more than one silo Make rational assumptions

should be built.

• Some times different crops can be stored

1
Solutions The volume of silage fed per day= 4800 = 7.38cum
650
• One cubic meter (cum) silage weighs = • The consumption be 10 cm. If ‘d’ is the diameter of
650 kg the silo in meter , the volume of silage removed

• Thickness (t) of the silage fed each day = per day from silo

10 cm =  d 2  0.1
4
= 0.7854  d 2  0.1cu.m
• Each cow is fed 3 kg of silage per 100 kg of
the body weight. • Allowing 15% for losses, the actual volume
400  3
• Silage feed per cow = = 12kg obtained;
100
• Total quantity of silage fed per day = 7.38 + 1.107 = 8.487cum

12kg  400cows = 4800kg • Equating the above to the volume of silage

removed per day i.e
1
 
 d 2  0.1 = 8.487cum
4
d = 9.28 m
• Since the diameter is more than 6 m.
considering three pits of;

• Depth of the silo =daily depth x no. of

days

= 0.1  200=20 m

• Three silo pits of 9.28 m dia. and 20 m

depth are required

1
Example 2. • Silage is to be fed only 150 days /year

Work out the major dimensions of a pit silo • Total quantity of silage required per day
for a small herd of 50 cows weighing 400 kg 50  400  3
= = 600 kg
100
each. Make rational assumptions.
• Volume of the above silage
Solution 600
= = 1 cu m (aprox)........1
650
Let,
• If ‘d’ is the diameter of the silo in meters, the
• Each cow be fed 3kg of silage per 100 kg actual volume taken out of the silo per day may be
of the body weight. 
• = d 2  l = 0.7854  d 2  0.1…..2
4
• One cu. m silage weighs 650 kg
• Equating(1) and (2) we get 07854d 2  0.1 = 1
• ‘t’ the thickness of silage fed each day d 2 = 12.7
•
d = 12.7 = 3.56 m
=10cm
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• Depth of the silo = 150  0.10 = 15 m 3.Trench Silos

• Weight of settled silage per cubic meter • An unlined trench silo can be made easily without
involving any investment on building materials
Depth of Average Depth of Average
settled weight settled weight per such as;
silage per cu .m silage Cu. M
(m) (kg) (m) (kg) • Brick
0.30 280 7.50 740
• Cement
1.50 500 9.00 760
3.00 600 10.50 775 • Sand
4.50 675 12.00 795
6.00 710 13.50 810 • Once made, repairs and maintenance charges are
limited to smoothing the side walls and cleaning
*(corn silage at 72% moisture content) or 28%
the drains
dry matter

1
• It can be built as a temporary silo and • The filling, packing and sealing of the silage must
permanent use later. be carefully done like any other horizontal silo.

• Unlined silos give more spoilage of silage. • If possible the silo should be roofed.

• Have caved side walls due to excessive • The drainage water should not be allowed to enter
rain. or collect around the facility.

• They also tend to become muddy at the • Drains should be made around the trench to
bottom. intercept surface water.

• The lined trench silos are preferred.

• The walls of the trench silos can be lined

with brick, concrete or cement plaster with
reinforcing wire mesh
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• It is desirable to locate the silo on sloping Side walls which are given about 33% slope.
ground Example 3
Size and capacity
Design a trench silo for a small farm having the
• The cross section of the trench silo following herd. The silage is fed 160 days a year at
depends on; the rate of 3.4 kg of animal body weight,

• The size of the heard Animal Body Total Rate of feeding per
bread weight number of 100kg of body
• The length is determined by the number of Per animal animals weight(kg)
(kg)
days the silage is fed in a year. Buffaloes 680 40 4.0
Cows 450 60 3.0
• It is always economical to construct only
Bullocks 500 20 3.5
one silo, even if it is quite large. Heifers 180 20 3.0

• The excavated earth is used to build up the

1
Solution: i. Length of silage fed per day= 15 cm.

Total quantity of silage required per day ii. Side slopes 50%

For buffaloes = 680  4  40

I. = 1088 kg
100
For cows = 680  3  60
II. = 810 kg
100
For bullocks = 500  3.5  20
III. = 350 kg
100
For heifers = 180  3  20
IV. = 108 kg
100
Total weight = 2356 kg Cross-section of a trench silo
2356
• Volume of the silage= = 3.62 m3 / day
…. (1) Volume of silage fed per day based on the above
650
Assuming the following values assumption (Fig: above)
1
= (W + d ' + W )  d ' 
i. Depth (d) of the silo = 2.5m 2

1
 1 15 Overall dimensions may be given as:
= (2W + 2.5)   2.5  •
2 100
= (0.375 w + 0.470) …..(2) Length =30m

Equating(1) and (2) we get Bottom width =8.4m

0.375w + 0.470 = 3.62 Top width = 10.9m

3.62 − 0.470
w= = 8.4m Depth = 2.5 m
0.375
= 8.4m( width at the bottom)
Width at the top =8.4+2.5=10.9m
Length of the silo = days x 0.15 = 160  0.15=24 m

Considering 20% losses, the length of the silo

will be
24 100
= = 30 m
80

1
B. Food grain storage structures • Leakage of water through the roof and dampness

• The main factors responsible for the losses in the structure through floors and side walls.

in quality and quantity of grains are; • One of the several effects is excessive oxidation

• Insects which causes;

• Rodents • Rise in the temperature of the grain

• Dampness • Heating of the grains

• Damage by insects pests results in the; • Cake Formation

• Food grain becoming weevilled • Moisture also encourages fungus, mold and
termite growth
• Causing loss of weight and food
value • Also rats cause serious loss by eating or breaking
the grains into pieces.
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• Hermetic storage: Is the process of storing • Sealed metals

grain or seeds inside a sealed compartment • Ideally a successfully hermetic storage would mean
in order to ; grains are able to retain their nutrient quality.

• avoid gas changes with the • In this method grains are to be dried to a dry
environment moisture content of 12-14% approx. to avoid;

• deplete the oxygen. • gemination

• increase Carbon dioxide accumulation. • Viability losses

• The method can be exercised using Advantages of using Hermetic storage

different materials: i. Enhances grain life in a much safer and rodent
• clay pots free, weevil free, pesticides free and prevents

• Sealed plastic bags infestation of insects

1
i. Storage process is defiant and resistant to • Storing in bags on a platform and covering
harsh conditions them with polyethene (CAP Storage)
ii. Mortality of living organisms kept at 100% • Storing in indigenous storage structures and
rate traditional devices such as Buckets.
iii. excludes mold from developing • Maximum moisture content of food grain for a
iv. Mycotoxins which have a high likelihood period of one year
s/no Type of Mc,%(w,b)
to cause cancer are annihilated.
grain
Existing storage method 1 Wheat 13
2 Paddy 14
• The existing storage methods are; 3 Maize 13
4 Sorghum 12
• Storing in bags in a house(farmers
5 Soybean 11
level) 6 Barley 13
1
 • The basic requirement to safeguard food iii. It should prevent losses due to moisture and
grains from the enemies are: temperature.
• Cleaning iv. It should permit easy inspection.
• Drying v. It should facilitate proper cleaning and should be
• Keeping it in airtight containers self-cleaning if it’s a silo.

Requirement of a good storage structures vi. It should be economical on unit storage cost bass
B1. Bag storage structures
• A good storage structure should satisfy the
following requirements; • These structures are generally used to store 25 to
i. It should provide adequate protection 500 tones of grain.
from rodents, birds, insects, mites etc. • The length of the structure is about twice the
ii. It should permit aeration and fumigation width or greater than
1
• A typical floor plan of such a structure is Moisture-proof.
large enough to store about 600 bags (500
• Each of the structures is provided with large-size
tones) of grains
doors of 2.4 by 2.4 m and top ventilation

• Each door is provided with a light over-hanging

hood 3.6 m long and 2.4 m wide

• A ground ventilation having an opening of 30 by 30

cm is provided below each corresponding top.

• The top of the ventilator is kept at a height of 60

• Care must be taken when constructing the cm above the floor level.

structure; • It is also provided with iron rods, wire netting and

• To make the side floor and roof a shutter.

1
• Besides this a sunshade is provided on both iv. 1.25 cm thick layer of bitumen mixed with sand.
the top and the ground ventilations.
v. 4 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:2:4 )
• To ensure that the floor is damp-proof, it is
vi. 2.5 cm thick layer of cement concrete (1:1.5:3)
made of different materials in six layers as
• The walls are made of bricks or stones laid either in
stated below;
lime mortar (1:2) or cement mortar (1:6).
i. 15 cm thick layer of gravel and sand, well
• The thickness is restricted to a minimum of 37.5
rammed at the bottom.
cm or maximum 45cm.
ii. 12.5 cm thick layer of stone or brick
• The height of the wall on which the trusses are
ballast or double layer brick.
placed is kept about 5.5 m.
iii. 10 cm thick layer of cement concrete
(1:4:8)

1
• The roof is either gabled or flat. Bituman is applied over the concrete roof.
• The gabled roof is covered with a • The term terracing refers to a thick (10 to 12 cm)
corrugated sheet with maximum impervious layer of brick ballast and lime by
precautions taken to make it leakproof. ramming in presence of water.
• However, a flat roof is more durable as it is C. Cylindrical grain bin
made of either reinforced brick.
• Cylindrical bulk storage similar to the one shown
• Reinforced concrete of about 10 to 12.5 below are being commonly used for storing
cm thickness. different varieties of grains.
• The terracing on the roof is made of bricks • Depending upon the size , the capacity may vary
ballast and lime in the ratio of 3.5 :1 :1. from 10 to 40 tones.
• Before putting up the terracing, a thin layer
1
• The structure shown below may be used for • The complete structure including its foundation is
storing 10 tones of grain at a time. made of reinforced concrete.

• The minimum height of the bottom edge of the

spout should be about 1.2 m above the ground
level.

• The entire structure rests on supporting columns.

• There are two openings provided in the structure

for filling in the grain and taking out that is smaller.

• It is placed at a point where the slope from all

sides of the floor converges.

• It should have a hinged cap shutter with a locking

1 device.
• The manhole at the top is also provided with • There are two slabs of polyethene film used as a
a watertight steel lid. vapour barrier.
• The roof on the top is provided with enough • The manhole and the outlets both have airtight
slope on all sides devices
• It overhangs to the extent of about 30 cm.

• These bins are used both as indoor and

outdoor storage structures.

C.1 Concrete cylindrical silo

• It is above ground concrete silo having a
holding capacity of one-tone wheat and
Concrete silo with gravity
other food grains
1
 C.2 metal cylindrical bins • These bins are made of iron/steel, tin or aluminum
• Metal bins are the most accepted bins for; sheets.

• small quantity household food grain • These are mostly cylindrical in shape having their
storage top and bottom covered with circular metal sheets.

• also, large quantity bulky storage where • Arrangement for filling grain from the top
mechanical handling is considered • Emptying from the lower side through an outlet
essential. commonly accepted and convenient system.
• Metallic silos are preferred for; • It is desirable to keep this bins airtight by using
• transit storage at dockyards rubber gaskets or water proofing paper at the lid.

• rice mills

• solvent extraction plants

1
 D, Rectangular grain bins • The bin walls are kept 2.4 m high near the outer
• On a farm where several grain crops are wall dropping down to 1.6m in front
raised:

• Different grain bins are made under the

same shed or roof to store all varieties of
grains separately.

• The size of the bin is determined based on

the expected average yield of the crop from
the area under a particular crop

• The bin walls are made 10 cm thick and laid

in cement mortar of a 1:3 ratio.

1
• As each bin is made for one particular kind • The bin walls are kept 2.4 m high hear the outer
of grain. wall drooping down to 1.6m in front.
• A series of such bins having common walls D.1. Pusa Rectangular grain bins
may be made under one roof.
• The Pusa bin is a simple moisture-free bin made of
• The capacity required will vary with the crop. unburnt bricks.
• For example, • It has a holding capacity from 0.5 to 4.0 tones.
• wheat requires 1.6 cu. m volume per • It is recommended as an indoor structure for small
tone of grain farmers or families for storing food grain from one
• Barely 1.75 cu. m volume per tone of season to the next.
grain. • While constructing the bin, polyethene film is
placed between the two layers of mud bricks
1
• The film being embedded inside the wall
remains protected from;

• abrasion

• mechanical damages.

• The length, width and depth ratio of the bins

range from 1:1:2 to 1:1:1 depending upon;

• Availability of space

• Quantity of grain area to be stored.

1
 Measures for good storage • Using gunny bags of good quality, properly
• Both commercial and household grain disinfected and also so stacked that
storage facilities need to be attended to for movements are not restricted for inspection
the following; and fumigation.

• Proper disposal of rainwater. • Preventing rats from entering the store by

• Repair of cracks, crevices and corners raising plinth or providing overhang.

where insects hide. • Grains moisture should be less than that

• Fumigation of storage space and recommended for safe storage.

surroundings. • Inspecting stock at least once a month is

• Protection from fire, pilferage and desirable

rodent attacks is essential.

1
 Control measures in storage • Vacant grain structures should also be disinfected
• Insect pest: can easily be controlled if in the above manner.
precautions are taken prior to storage as • If smoking is to be done, suitable formulation of
well as during storage. Benzene hexachloride
• Bags damaged by moisture or fungus should • Which on ignition gives out smoke.
be discarded.
• During the process of dusting or fumigation;
• Before storing grains in bags, disinfecting the
• All openings except one for the operator to get
• Empty bags should be done; in and out are closed.
• By either dusting • about 10kg of fumigant for 30 cu.m n space.
• Smoking • After finishing fumigation, the remaining opening
• fumigation should be closed and locked for 48 hours.
1
• Nobody should be allowed to come within a drum then the fumigant is applied.
distance of 15m after opening.
• Sometimes a stack of filled bags is fumigated
• After 4 hours all the openings should be following the previous steps.
opened and should remain open for another
• A mixture of Ethylene Dichloride and carbon Tetra
6 hours.
chloride (EDC) in the ratio of 3:1 gives a good
• No one should be allowed to enter result.
inside the structure.
• Carbon desulphated (CS2) is another poisonous,
• Fumigation of empty gunny bags is done in volatile and inflammable liquid;
closed empty drums.
• Used for killing all kinds of insects in the grain
• Rolls of 15 to 20 bags are placed inside the storage.

• It vaporizes quickly giving off fumes heavier

1
than air • DDT
• As a result the fumes penetrate through • Benzene Hexachloride etc.,.
the store mass of grains killing all
• The required quantity of this material at rate of
insects.
100 gm per 4sq m of surface area applied.
• The substance should be used under strict
• For effective dusting, either a hand rotary duster or
air tight conditions.
a portable power duster should be used.
• About 9 kg of carbon di-sulphide is sufficient
• During the process of dusting, all openings of the
to fumigate 30 cu, m
structure should be tightly closed.
• There are varieties of dusting powder to be
• Opened after 48 hours
applied in grain storage structures such as;

• Gammaxene
1
• For rats, the following are very effective for
poisoning them;

• Barium carbonate.

• Arsenious oxide.

• Zinc phosphate

• All can be used along food stuffs.

• When mixed with food stuff should be

placed in an open space in small containers
at a few places in the grain storage structure.

• All are dangerous chemicals to human

beings.
1
 E. Modern storage systems • Buttresses are provided at frequent intervals.
E. 1. New design for flat structure
• The number of doors has been reduced and
• The suggested design as show below: ventilators eliminated.

• Trusses have been redesigned

• The top of the truss has been altered providing

for a conveyor gallery to be located above the tie
beam level.

• Discharge of grain will be through the distribution

belt conveyor passing through the underground.

• The floor has been suitably sloped to facilitate

entry of grain to the bottom conveyor.
1
• Use of suggested design by storing grains in • Grain cleaner
bulk will mean;
• Grain dryer
• increase of storage capacity by 66%
• Silos
relative to the storage bags.
• Temperature detecting system
E . Silo system
• Aeration blowers
• The entire silo system consists of the
• Grain conveyor
following:
• Motor controls.
• Receiving platform
E .1. Types of silo
• Moisture meter

• Magnetic separate • There are two types of silo;

• Grain cleaner • Flat bottom type and hopper bottom type

1
 E .2. Classification of silo
• The silos are also classified as :

• Metal silos and concrete silos.

• Concrete silos are 150% expensive than metal silos of

the same capacity.

• The major advantage of silo system Is;

• negligible loss of grain stored as compared to grain

stored n CAP storage.

• The operation cost is also very low.

• The absence of gunny bags entails major economy

in operating expenses of the silo
1
• Similarly, comparison can be made between metallic

• Silos and concrete silos.

• Base on the following factors, metal silos are superior

to concrete silos.

• Ease of installation

• Vermin resistance

• Flexibility

• Heat resistance

• Construction installation cost.

• Maintenance costs

1
 F.1.silo Bags storage system • A silo bag is made of a three layer film(white
• Introduced in mid 1990s in Argentina for storing and black) with UV protection.
for storing grains. • 3 layers of co-extruded polyethylene, 250
• It then gained rapid adoption in the agricultural micro thick.
sector world wide. • 2 white layers to make the bag weather
• Silo bags are hermetic type storage systems proof and act as UV filters.
made with polyethylene bags of about 60 meters • 3rd layer is black and protects the grain
long and 2.75 m in dia. from the sunlight.
• Useful for storing grain in open up to 400 metric • Bags available in diameters 4,5,6 8,9 and
tones. 12 feet size.
• It can be comfortably used for storing cereals. • Length of bags are; 60m 75m and 100m
1
• Silos bags offer a selection of baggers to suit all F.1a.Grain extractor
applications such as; • Specially designed extractor is used to take
• Dry baggers out the grain from the bags easily and

• Wet baggers efficiently.

• Forage baggers • It cut-opens or rolls the bag and lifts the grain
to a grain cart or truck at rate of 200MT/hr.
• Tractor driven baggers
• The main features of these extractors are very
• Self propelled baggers (tractor less)
easy to transport between locations.
• Auger less baggers for delicate
F.1b.Bag sealing (silo sealer)
commodities.
• Works off vehicle battery in the field
• In sizes from 6 foot to 12 foot diameter
• Creates the perfect hermetic seal.
1
• Saves having to fit difficult plastic sealing kits. S Chemical Dosage Expo- Tolerance Remarks
period sure limit(ppm)
• Is much stronger than standard seals. 1 Aluminum 2 tablets 7 Food grain - Suitable for
phosphide 3g each days 0.05 food grains
milled grain
• Useful when out loading the bags -0.01
2 Ethylene 3ml/qtl- 7 25 ppm Suitable for
dibromide wheat and days all food
(EDB) pulse grains except
5 ml/qtl- oil seed and
rice and moist grain
paddy
3 Ethylene 1.30-40 kg 36-45 No limit In large scale
dichloride Per 100 m3 hr storage.
carbon For small
tetrachlori storage
de
Dosage, exposure period and tolerance (EDCT)
limits of fumigants 4 Methyl 22g/m3 48 hr For all food
bromide grains

1
 Design of storage structure Size of stock:
• Example: Design a bag storage structure for
Let there be 10 bags in length and 10 bags in
storing 250 tones of paddy. Assume reasonable
width in a stack
data where necessary.
Number of bags/layer = 10 x 10 =100
Solution
If there are 12 layers in a stack, total number of
Design capacity of the storage structure
bags/stack
= 250 T =250000 kg
100 x 12 = 1200
Capacity of a bag of 100 x 60 x30 cm
Hence, the number of stacks required
= 75 kg of paddy 3340
= = 2.78 = 3
1200
Hence number of bags = 250000 = 3340
75 Space required by each stack

1
 Width of the floor = (10 1.0 ) + ( 2  0.8)
• Space required by each stack: = 11.6 m

Length = (10 x 1.0)=10.0m

Therefore, the overall dimensions of the
Width = 10 x 0.6 = 6.0m godowns may be taken as 24.0 m X12.0 m.
Height = 12 x 0.3 = 3.6m The height of the wall may be kept at 3.0 m

The clear distance between the walls and the above the floor level.

end of stack =0.8m The floor plan of the godown is as shown

The clear distance between the stacks = 2.0m below.

Hence,

the length of floor = ( 3  6 ) + ( 2  2.0 ) + ( 2  0.8)

= 23.6 m

1
1
 Design of grain bins • However, R.C.C and mild steel bins are very
• Bulk storage bins for storing grain can be made of; common.
• Reinforced concrete • The bulk storage bin has many advantages
• Galvanized sheet (plain and corrugated) over the bag storage godowns.

• Asbestos sheet • Some of the advantages are;

• Mild steel black sheet • Handling and quality control are easier

• Aluminum sheet and less expensive.

• Fiber glass • Space required for construction is less.

• Brick • Expenses on watch ward are minimum

• Ferro cement. • The cost of bags is eliminated

1
• Automation and mechanization can be Design consideration
introduced to hasten transaction.
I. Functional aspects: The storage structure
• Losses due to insects, rodents and birds can should ensure safety of the stored products
be avoided completely. against:
Design of concrete grain bin
• Heat.
• Reinforced concrete structure are being • Moisture
commonly used for grain storage.
• Rodents etc.
• Silos are generally used for storage of large
• It shall protect the grain from undue
quantities of grain for longer period.
deterioration in quality.
• One provided with arrangements for
• Further it should facilitate aeration, fumigation
loading, unloading, aeration and fumigation.
and self cleaning.
1
II. Structural aspects: this would include: • Wind load.
• Capacity in volume or weight basis. Grain loads
• Shape and size circular, rectangle, • The grain contained in the bin exerts pressure
hexagonal etc., with pyramidal or conical on the sides of the bin.
hopper bottom.
• Rankine's and Janssen’s theories are
• It should be capable of resisting the commonly used to determine the pressure
anticipated loads viz; exerted by the grains.
• Dead load of the structure itself. • The dynamic load varies between 2-4 times
• Load of grain stored. that of the static load calculated on basis of

• Dynamic load due to filling and those theories.

emptying.
1
• However, a 4 time increase in pressure has • Top cover: the top cover of the bin has been
been used in the present designs. designed as a circular slab simply supported
Steps and stages design over the bin wall at its circumference.

• The design of Reinforced concrete bin can be • A central openings has to provided for
divided into four parts; facilitating loading of the grain into the bin.

• The design of cover over the bin.

• The design of the bin wall

• The design of hopper

• The design of supporting structure i.e.,

• Ring beam and columns

1
• Bin wall: the bin wall of the shallow bin has • Conical hopper: the horizontal and vertical
been designed for the lateral pressure pressure in the hopper are calculated with the
exerted by the grain. same formula that are used for wall design.
• Rankine’s formula has been used for • Ring beam: the conical hopper is supported on a
calculating the pressure. ring beam provided at the junction of the wall
• To take into account the dynamic pressure of and the hopper.
4 times over the static pressure has been • Supporting structure: the structure is supported
suggested. over 4 nos. symmetrically placed RCC columns.
• The thickness of the wall has been • Each load s designed to carry ¼ of the total load
determined on no neck crack basis using; as axial load transmitted through the right
• the Portland cement association column

1
• Footing can be designed for specific site • For gravity discharge, the inclination of the
requirement knowing the bearing capacity of hopper is kept at 8.10 degrees higher than the
the soil. angle of repose.
Data availability; solutions
• Capacity of the bin =10 m3 • Let;
• Type of grain to be stored = Rice • D=Diameter of the bin, (m)
• Angles of repose = 36 degree • H= Depth above ring beam (m)
• Coefficient of friction against concrete = 0.5 • h=Depth of the hopper below ring beam (m)
• Bulk density = 900 kg/m3 • Now the plane of rupture is given by the relation
Minimum size of opening for easy discharge  
• H / D = tan  45 +  ;  = angle repose
 2
of grain = 30 cm.diam
1
H/D= tan ( 45 + 18 ) = tan 63 = 1.96 • Let us assume a H/D ratio of 1.5 so that the bin
H / D = 1.96 will be a shallow one.
H = 1.96 D
Capacity of the cylindrical portion

1
H/D= tan ( 45 + 18 ) = tan 63 = 1.96 • Let us assume a H/D ratio of 1.5 so that the bin
H / D = 1.96 will be a shallow one.
H = 1.96 D
• Capacity of the cylindrical portion V1 =  /4 (D2 ) H

• Capacity of the right circular cone V 2 =  /4 (D2 ) D

6

Total vol= ( D 2 )(H + D/ 6)
4

• For the given H/D

• ratio of 1:5

•

V= ( D 2 )(3 / 2 D + D/ 6)
4
= 10 / 24 (D3 )
10 = (10 / 24) (D3 )

1
 1 1 − sin  
 24 
3 P=w.h  
D =   = 1.97m or say 2m, 1 + sin  
 
• Where , w=bulk unit weight (kg/m3), h=depth below
Hence, H=2 m
   
Actual volume provided =   4  3  +   8 
4   24 
free surface (m),  =angle of repose.
   10 1 − 0.59 
=  3 +  = Pr =900  3  
 3 3 1 + 0.59 
= 31.4/3=10.5 m 2 = 900  3  0.26=700kg/m 2
Neglecting the small conical portion Dynamic pressure due to loading and unloading
• During loading and unloading of grains dynamic
Design of bin wall
pressure is exerted on the wall.
• Maximum lateral pressure occurs at the
• Experimentally it has been found that the magnitude
bottom of the cylindrical portion.
of this additional pressure varies between 2-4 times
• For a shallow bin, the lateral pressure is
static load
given by Rankine’s formula
1
 • The hoop tension has to be resisted by the hoop
• To be on safer side an increase of 4 times
reinforcement as concrete should not be allowed to
over the static pressure is being
take tensile load.
considered in present design 3500
Ast = = 3.5 cm 2
1000
• Hence maximum dynamic
• Providing 8mm diam steel reinforcement rods
Pr = 700 x 4 = 2800 kg/m3
spacing
• Maximum lateral pressure expected 100  0.5
= = 14 cm c/c or say 10 cm c/c (concrete to concrete)
3.5
700 +2800 = 3500 kg/m2
• The wall thickness on no crack basis is given by
• Considering 1 m height of the wall from
(C.ES . AS ) + T
the bottom, we have fct =
AC + (m.A s )
p  D 1 3500  2 1
Hoop tension = = = 3500kg
2 2
1
Where, f ct = permissible stress in contrete tension
Top cover design
C= Coefficient of shrinkage
E s =Modulus of elasticity • The top cover slab should be monolithic in
AC = Area of come
construction with the bin wall.
Now,
300(10)−6 (21)(10)6 (3.5) + 3500 • Shall have a central opening of about 30 cm dia.
AC +(m.A s ) =
12
2200 + 3500 5700 • For simplicity of design, the slab shall be considered
= =
12 12
Ac = 475 − (3.5 12) = 433 cm 2 to be freely supported without hole.
433
t (thicknes) = = 4.33 cm or say 5cm • To take care of the stress concentration, additional
100
reinforcement shall be provided along the periphery
• From practical construction point of view a
of the hole
minimum7.5 cm thick wall may be
provided

1
Loads: • An over all depth of 4 cm may be provided.
• Assume a 5 cm thick slab, self weight of • Radial and circumference reinforcement
5 1 2400
per m2 = = 120 kg/m 2
100 = (3 /16) 150 (1.05 ) = 3000 kg / m 2
2

Lived load = 30 kg/m 2

3000
Total = 150 kg/m 2
• hence, deflection = = 4 =2
880
• For a simply supported case, maximum
• An overall depth of 4cm may be provided.
radial and circumferential moments at the
2
• Radial and circumference reinforcement.
center = (3 /16) pa 3000
1.73 cm 2
= 0.87  2 1000
• B. max. moment
• Providing 6 mm diam rod spacing,
= (3 /16) 150 (1.05 ) = 3000 kg / m
2 2

3000 • = 0.27  (100/1.73)=15cm c/c

hence, deflection = = 4 =2
880

1
• This reinforcement shall be provided into At 15 cm c/c in form of a ring.
two layers perpendicular to each other at
• To take care of the radial moment at the edges 6 mm
the bottom of slab.
dia rods at 15 c/c.
• The mesh will not be able to take any
• may be provided up to a radial distance or 0.2 m
tension near the edge of the slab.
from the periphery.
• The circumferential bending moment at Top cover design
• Vertical pressure exerted by grain =
the edges is 1/6 pa 2 which is very small. 700
= 2700 kg cm 2
0.26
• Hence the same amount of reinforcement
T sin 45    2.05 = ( / 4 )( 2.05 )  2700
2

may also be provided as has been T = 1960 kg

provided at the center. Ass = 1960 /1000 = 1.96
0.27 100
• The same 6 mm dia rods may be provided Spacing of 6mm dia = 1.96
= 13.7 or say 10 cm c/c

1
 Design of Ring Beam • Load of well =   0.05  360 = 2260 kg

• Max. hoop tension = 3500 kg • Load of ring beam =   2.25  0.20 = 3320 kg
hoop steel=3500/1000 = 3.5 cm2 • Load of grain = 9000 kg
• Providing a section 20 X 20 cm we have • Load of hooper, say = 925kg
3500
tensile stress = = 8.0 kg / cm 2
400 • Total = 16000 kg
• Provide 3 numbers of 14 mm bars 11.51
• Total length of the column = 3m
cm2 stirrups of 6 mm diam rods at 15 cm
• Let us assume section of 20cm X 20 cm
c/c may be also provide
• The column is a short column(since L/d = 15)
Design of columns
• Providing 0.8% steel, we have;
• Loads
(  / 4 ) (2.05) 2  495 kg • A=4000/47 = 85 cm2
• Load of to slab =
1
• Hence 4 bars of 12 mm dia. Rods may be required to improve the self life.
provided at 1.12 x 4 = 4.48 cm2 • Desirable environmental conditions for perishable
• Nominal stirrups of 6 mm dia. Rods at 15 products
cm c/c may be provided.

Storage structure for semi perishables

• Semi- perishable are generally harvested
Potato storage
at relatively higher moisture contents.
• Storage requirement of potatoes is to preserve their
• Between 60 and 90% (WB). culinary properties and to prevent tube sprouting.
• As a result of the high m.c of the product, • If storage temperatures of about 4 degrees Celsius
the life is short. and RH of 85-90% are maintained;
• Therefore a special environment is • The potatoes remain in most desirable conditions.
1
• However, in other countries an
intermediate;

• appropriate storage technology shown

below has been developed

1
 Onions storage
• Inadequate onion storage facilities cause
wastage of bulbs resulting in;

• Poor supply and low quality onions.

• An onion crop requires storage for a period

of 4-5 month during June-October period of
• Onion storage structure
the year.
• This is a narrow and long structure having about
• Among the conventional yet improve
16.5m length and 3.1 m width
methods of storage are the Nasik types.
• With a central walking alley of 1 meter width in the
• Structures as shown below
Centre.

1
• As shown in the diagram, the construction is • The base for the heap of 2 m high onion stack is
made that proper ventilation is created. prepared;
• The ventilation is to remove the respiration • from 25 cm thick sand layer about 10 cm reed
heat from the bulk of the onions. matting.
• A slopy roof prevents rain water from • The sand offers the cooling effect and mat permit
entering the store. the flow of air.
• However, the structure is constructed • Before placing the bulbs in the store;
outside the rural settlements in an open
• Damaged and rotten bulbs must be removed.
space.
• Only sound and uncut bulbs store well and do not
• The open space that natural wind blows
affect other bulbs during storage
through the bulk of the material stored

1
• Where onions and potatoes are grown in the
Farm machinery storage structures
same region;
• It is still a controversial issue whether it is
• The potatoes storage can be used for economical to provide storage house for farm
storing onion from July to November machines and implements.
after removing the potatoes in June.
• Studies show that it is more economical to protect
• As onions do not store well in high humidity implements and machinery by means of;
may be disconnected or system may be
• Simple types of storage structures than to let those
made in-operative
exposed to weather.

1
 • The simplest type of structure for machinery
storage may be only having ;

• a corrugated metal

• Asbestos sheet roof supported on masonry or

pillars.

• A variety of pre-fabricated steel structures

available in the market can also be used.

• The machinery storage structure may be

• of its front open type or

• Open on both sides to make convenient for a

• Note length x width in meters
tractor to operator to drive through.
1
• With front open type structure: • These structures need not be provided with doors.
• 10 cm thick wall laid in cement-sand • If it is considered desirable to have a door;
mortar to offer safe encloser from the
• It must be wider than the widest machine on
back.
the farm.
• The two side wall should be 20 cm thick as
• In most cases a 3 x 3.6 m wide door/gate is
have to support the roof from the top.
sufficient.
• For this type of structure a broken gable roof
• For larger equipment like binders a 3 x 5.5 m
(un equal side roof) is preferred.
door may be necessary.
• As the front portion, having a smaller span,
• These doors are usually mounted to slide on
provides greater clearance between the
rails or roll on wheels.
floor and the roof

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• An ordinary earth floor or a floor made of • than the largest size machine on the farm.
well rammed brick ballast with a thin layer
• The length should be able to accommodate all the
of marram will make a good floor.
machines.
• The floor should always be placed at higher
• It should have some extra space for future addition
level than its surroundings;
• The length of the shed should ordinarily be longer
• Concrete brick floors of 10 cm may
than 12 m but not exceeding 36 m.
provide but it is not necessary.
Farm workshop
• Overall dimensions of the shed are
• A farm workshop is desirable o a large farm for
determined by the number of machines to
maintenance and repair of farm equipment and
be housed.
buildings.
• The width of the shed should be 2 m wider

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• A substantial amount of time and money • If for example, the workshop is to be located near
can be saved and extra work and a place where facilities exist for;
inconvenience can be avoided by;
• Crankshaft grinding
• Having a fully planned and well
• Fuel pump calibration etc.,
equipped workshop.
• Then one should not install those machines which
• In laying out the farm workshop some
require heavy capital investment.
points to be considered are;
• The size of the farm has a direct effect on laying
• Location and size of the farm.
out workshop
• Type of power and machinery used.
• As for instance on a 80 hectare farm;
• The location of the farm is by far the most
• One will not require as a big and well equipped
important consideration.
workshop as on 800 hectare farm
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• The type of power and machinery used, are • Space for tools and spare parts etc.
also important, as for example;
• This type of combination is economical in floor
• there is no need for diesel calibration space.
pump if diesel tractors or engines are
• Will result in a saving of time involved in moving
not use on a farm.
machines and supplies from one to other.
• The farm workshop should be located on or
• A typical floor plan of workshop on 80 hectare
near the farmstead.
mechanized farm is shown below.
• As far as possible the following should be
• It consists of four main sections;
combined together;
• The tractor repair and fuel section
• Farm machinery storage structures.
• Fuel storage section
• Fuel and lubricant store.
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• Farm workshop equipped with; • Let us consider the farm of 8000 hectares to be

• forging equipped with a farm workshop.

• Welding • This farm should be divided into four blocks.

• Fitting • Each shall have a ;

• Carpentry • farm machinery storage structure.

• Machine shop facility; • Farm yard where servicing and maintenance

work on machines of the block will be carried.
• The spare parts
• The main workshop will be located at a central
• Tool storage section
position.
• Farm machinery storage section
• Should have the following sections.

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• Forging section. • Sorting section

• Vulcanizing plant • Inspection section

• Welding section • Engine section

• Machine shop • Storage of repaired equipment section

• Carpentry section • Yard for vehicles coming to the workshop.

• Electrical section • Fuel section

• Stores • Farm machinery storage section

• Painting section

• Administration office

• Cleaning and service section

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• A farm workshop for such a large farm is expected to
be fully equipped to undertake repairs.

• Also over haul of all the parts of various farm

machines.

• A foundry section has not been included in the farm

workshop as casting of parts is not usually done on
farm.

Floors

• A 10 cm thick cement concrete or brick floor is

considered to be satisfactory for a farm workshop.

• The floor should have minimum 2% slope across

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the shop for quick disposal of water.

• In order to facilitate the entry of farm machines and

tractors;

• It is desirable to provide a ramp on the entrance

of the shop as well as on the entrance of a tractor
repair room.

• The slope of the ramp can be 4% or more.

• It should rise from the ground level to the floor

level of the shop.

• ordinarily, the width of the ramp should be equal

to the width of the gate (3.6m)
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Walls:

• Walls may be made of either bricks laid in cement

mortar or metal sheets.

• Brick wall thickness is usually 22.5 cm.

• Large hemispherical sheds are sometimes constructed

and these have no side walls.

• Only in the front and at the back.

• Walls are provided with gates for entrance and exit.

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 Roofs:
O
r
• For large size workshops, corrugated galvanized roofs
are used.

• It is reasonably economical and lighter.

• Uncomfortable heat during summer days can be

avoided either by placing the roof at great height (6 m
or above)

• Fixing layer of insulation board below the roof or by

the administration office and stores may be made of
reinforced concrete though not essential

•
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LECTURER: D.C Nathaniel