Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.

\ University of Thi-Qar

1.7 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid at rest is the same
in all directions. Consider a small prism of fluid of unit thickness in the z-direction
contained in the bulk of the fluid as shown below. Since the cross-section of the
prism is equilateral triangle, P3 is at an angle of 45˚with the x-axis. If the pressure
intensities normal to the three surfaces are Pl, P2, P3 as shown then since:-

P1

Force = Pressure x Area A B

Force on face
AB = P1 x (AB x 1) P2
BC = P2 x (BC x l)
AC = P3 x (AC x 1) 45˚
P3
Resolving forces vertically
C
P1 x AB = P3 x AC cos θ
But AC cos θ = AB Therefore P1 = P3

Resolving forces horizontally

P2 x BC = P3 x AC sin θ
AC sin θ =BC Therefore P2 = P3

Hence P1- P2- P3

In words: the pressure at any point is equal in all directions.

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Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

Buoyancy

The buoyancy of a body immersed in a fluid is that property which will

determine whether the body will sink, rise or float. Archimedes
established the analysis over 2000 years ago. Archimedes reasoned that
the volume of an irregular solid could be found by determining the
apparent loss of weight when the body is totally immersed in a liquid of
known density.

Archimedes principle states:-

1. The upthrust (vertical force) experienced by a body immersed in a fluid
equals the weight of the displaced fluid

2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats

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Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

1.1 upthrust

F = Pressure × Area = P × A
But P = ρ.g.h
Therefore, F = ρ.g.h.A
But the volume VL= h.A
Therefore, F = ρ.g. VL
Buoyant force can be expressed as: t
F(b) = W(air) - W(liquid) = ρ × g × VL Upthrust force(F)

Example

A model boat consists of open topped rectangular metal can containing

sand as a ballast. If the can has a width of 100 mm, a length of 500 mm,
and a mass of 1 kg, determine the mass of sand (kg) required for the can to
be immersed to a depth of 250 mm in sea water (RD = 1.03).

F
3
V = W × D × L = 0.1 × 0.25 × 0 5 = 0.0125 𝑚
For stable condition Upthrust = weight force F = W

The Upthrust due to Buoyancy = ρseawater g VL

The total weight = (mcan + msand) × 9.81

Therefore: ρseawater g VL = (mcan + msand) × 9.81

1030 × 9.81 × 0.0125 = (1.0 + msand) × 9.81

Solving : msand = 11.87 kg

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Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

Example
A hydrogen filled balloon has a total weight force of 9.5 kN. If the tension
in the mooring cable anchoring the balloon to the ground is 15.75 kN,
determine the upthrust experienced by the balloon and its volume.

Take the density of air as 1.23 kg/m3

Since the system is stable:

Upthrust = Weight force + Tension in cable

F = W + T = 9.5+ 15.75= 25.25 kN

The Upthrust is F = ρ × V, × g
Since the upthrust = the weight of displaced fluid,

𝑭 𝟐𝟓.𝟐𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎𝟑
Therefore Balloon Volume 𝑽𝑳 = = = 𝟐𝟎𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝟑
ρ .𝐠 𝟏.𝟐𝟑×𝟗.𝟖𝟏

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Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

2.1 Stability of floating bodies

A body is in a stable equilibrium if it returns to its original position after

being slightly displaced. Neutral position if the object remains in the new
position after being slightly displaced. A body is in an unstable equilibrium
if it continues to move in the direction of the displacement.

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 Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

Fluiddynamics
Equation of continuity & Bernoulli’s principle

Types of Fluid Flow

Steady and Uniform and non- Laminar and

unsteady flow uniform flow turbulent Flow

Compressible and One, two and

incompressible Rotational and
flow irrotational flow three
dimensional flow

1. Steady and Unsteady flows

The steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, density, pressure, etc at a point do not
change with the time.

Whereas the Unsteady flow is defined as, The unsteady flow is defined
as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
density, pressure, etc at a point change respected to time.

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 Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

2. Uniform and Non-uniform fluid flow

This uniform fluid flow is defined as the type of flow in which

thevelocity at any given time does not change with respect to space
(i.e length of direction of the flow).

Whereas the Non-uniform flow is defined as,

This non-uniform fluid flow is defined as the type of flow in which the
velocity at any given time changes with respect to space
(i.e length of a direction of the flow).

3. Laminar, and Turbulent fluid flow

This laminar fluid flow is defined as that type of flow in which the
fluid particles move along well- defined paths or streamline and all the
streamlines are straight and parallel.

Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer. This type of fluid is also called as streamline flow or
viscous flow.

This Turbulent fluid flow is defined as that type of flow in which the
fluid particles move in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation takes place
which is responsible for high energy loss.

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Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

REYNOLDS NUMBER

A British scientist Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912) established that the

nature of the flow depends upon a dimensionless quantity, which is
now called the Reynolds number Re

ρ density of fluid

Re = ρ V L / ƞ V avarege flow velocity over the cross section of the pipe

L characteristic dimension
Ƞ viscosity

Re = p vLh] pascal 1 Pa = 1 N.nr2

1 N = 1 kg.m.s'2
[Re] s [kg.m-3] [m.s-1][m] newton
1 Pa.s = kg.m.s-2 . nr2 .s
[Pa.s]
s kg xjt^x m x s2.m2

m3 s kg.m.s
Re is a dimensionless number
0 < Re <2000 Laminar flow
2000 < Re < 4000 Transition region
Re > 4000 Turbulent flow

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 Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

4. Compressible and Incompressible fluid flow

Compressible fluid flow is defined as the flow in which the density is

not
constant which means the density of the fluid changes from point to
point.
ρ ≠ constant

Whereas,

Incompressible fluid flow is defined as the flow in which the density is

constant which means the density of the fluid does not change from
point to point.
ρ = constant

Gases are compressible fluid flow but whereas the liquid is

incompressible fluid flow.

5. Rotational and ir-rotational Fluid flow

The rotational fluid flow is defined as the type of fluid flow in which
the fluid particles while flowing along streamline and also rotate about
there own axis.

Whereas,

The Ir-rotational fluid flow is defined as the type of fluid flow in which
the fluid particles while flowing along streamline and do not rotate about there
own axis.

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 Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

6. One, Two and Three-dimensional fluid Flow

One dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter
such as velocity is a function of time and one space coordinate only,
say x.
u=f(x), v=0 and w=0

Where u,v and w are velocity component in x,y and z directions

respectively.

Two-dimensional fluid flow is that type of flow in which velocity is a

function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinate say x,y.
u= f1(x,y,), v= f2(x,y,) and w = 0.

Three-dimensional fluid flow is that type of flow in which velocity

is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
The function of 3 space coordinates (x,y,z).
u= f1(x,y,z), v= f2(x,y,z) and w = f3(x,y,z).

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 Dr. Hussein Togun Biomedical Engineering Dep.\ University of Thi-Qar

Streamlines
Consider the average motion of
- in steady flow,
the fluid at a particular point in a bundle of
space and time. streamlines
makes a flow
tube.
An individual fluid element will
follow a path called a flow line.

Steady flow is when the pattern of

flow lines does not change with
time.

Velocity of particle is
tangent to streamline

Streamlines cannot cross

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