Thermal Lab Manual REG 2021
Thermal Lab Manual REG 2021
COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
St. Mary’s Nagar, Thiruninravur, (Near Avadi), Chennai – 602 024.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
ME3461 – THERMAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY
NAME : ____________________________________
REGISTER NO. : ____________________________________
YEAR / SEMESTER : II / IV
DEPARTMENT : MECHANICAL
ACADEMIC YEAR : ____________________________________
REGULATION : 2021
Thermal Lab
List of Experiments
Department of Mechanical 2
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-1
It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due
to the heat produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The four
strokes of a diesel engine sucking pure air are described below:
1. Suction or charging stroke: In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and pure air is sucked
into the cylinder as the piston moves down wards from the top dead center (TDC). It
continues till the piston reaches its bottom dead center (BDC) as shown in the Figure
1 (a).
2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are closed on the air is compressed as
the piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result compression, pressure and
temperature of the air increases considerably (the actual value depends upon the
compression ratio). This completes one revolution of the crank shaft. The
compression stroke is shown in Figure 1 (b).
3. Expansion or working stroke: Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during the
compression stroke), fuel oil is injected in the form of very fine spray into the engine
cylinder, through the nozzle, known as fuel injection valve. At this moment,
temperature of the compressed air is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel. It suddenly
increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. The fuel oil is
continuously injected for a fraction of the revolution. The fuel oil is assumed to be
burnt at constant pressure. Due to increased pressure, the piston is pushed down with
a great force. The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of the piston. During this
expansion, some of the heat energy is transformed into mechanical work. It may be
noted that during the working stroke, both the valves are closed and the (Piston moves
from T.D.C to B.D.C (as shown in figure 1 (c) )
4. Exhaust stroke: In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as the pistion moves from
BDC to TDC. This movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion
from the engine cylinder through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This
completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the fresh air again. (as
shown in Figure 1 (d) ).
Department of Mechanical 3
Thermal Lab
In the valve timing diagram as shown in Figure-2, we see that the inlet valve opens before the
piston reaches TDC; or in other words while the piston is still moving up before the
beginning of the suction stroke. Now the piston reaches the TDC and the suction stroke starts.
The piston reaches the BDC and then starts moving up. The inlet valve closes, when the
crank has moved a little beyond the BDC. This is done as the incoming air continues to flow
into the cylinder although the piston is moving upwards from BDC. Now the air is
compressed with both valves closed. Fuel valve opens a little before the piston reaches the
TDC. Now the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray, into the engine cylinder, which
gets ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air. The fuel valve closes after the
piston has come down a little from the TDC. This is done as the required quantity of fuel is
injected into the engine cylinder. The burnt gases (under high pressure and temperature) push
the piston downwards, and the expansion or working stroke takes place. Now the exhaust
valve opens before the piston again reaches BDC and the burnt gases start leaving the engine
cylinder. Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts moving up thus performing the exhaust
stroke. The inlet valve opens before the piston reaches TDC to start suction stroke. This is
done as the fresh air helps in pushing out the burnt gases. Now the piston again reaches TDC,
and the suction starts. The exhaust valve closes when the crank has moved a little beyond the
TDC. This is done as the burnt gases continue to leave the engine cylinder although the
piston is moving downwards.
Department of Mechanical 4
Thermal Lab
A Two-Stroke cycle petrol engine was devised by Duglad Clerk in 1880. In this cycle, the
suction, compression, expansion and exhaust takes place during two strokes of the piston. It
means that there is one working stroke after every revolution of the crank shaft. A two stroke
engine has ports instead of valve. All the four stages of a two petrol engine are described
below:
1) Suction stage: In this stage, the piston, while going down towards BDC, uncovers both
the transfer port and the exhaust port. The fresh fuel-air mixture flows into the engine
cylinder from the crank case, as shown in the Figure-3(a).
2) Compression stage: In this stage, the piston, while moving up, first covers the transfer
port and then exhaust port. After that the fuel is compressed as the piston moves upwards
as shown in the Figure-3(b). In this stage, the inlet port opens and fresh fuel air mixture
enters into the crank case.
3) Expansion stage: Shortly before this piston reaches the TDC (during compression
stroke), the charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the
pressure temperature of the products of combustion. But the volume, practically remains
constant. Due to rise in the pressure, the piston is pushed downwards with a great force a
shown in Figure-3( C). The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of the piston.
During the expansion, some of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical
work.
Department of Mechanical 5
Thermal Lab
4) Exhaust stage: In this stage, the exhaust port is opened as the piston moves downwards.
The products of combustion, from the engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust
port into the atmosphere, as shown in the Figure-3(d). This completes the cycle and the
engine cylinder is ready to suck the charge again.
In the Port timing diagram, as shown in the Figure-4, we see that the expansion of the charge
(after ignition) starts as the piston moves from TDC towards BDC. First of all, the exhaust
port opens before the piston reaches BDC and the burnt gases start leaving the cylinder. After
a small fraction of the crank revolution, the transfer port also opens and the fresh fuel-air
mixture enters into the engine cylinder. This is done as the fresh incoming charge helps in
pushing out the burnt gases. Now the piston reaches BDC, and than starts moving upwards.
As the crank moves a little beyond BDC, first the transfer port closes and then the exhaust
port also closes. This is done to suck fresh charge through the transfer port and to exhaust the
burnt gases through the exhaust port simultaneously. Now the charge is compressed with both
ports closed, and then ignited with the help of a spark plug before the end of compression
stroke. This is done as the charge requires some time to ignite. By the time the piston reaches
TDC, the burnt gases (under high pressure and temperature) push the piston downwards with
full force and expansion of the burnt gases takes place. It may be noted that the exhaust and
transfer ports open and close at equal angles on either side of the BDC position.
Department of Mechanical 6
Thermal Lab
Applications;-
1) Knowledge of IC engines
2) Proper control over the valve/port timing diagram for achieving better
performance of engine.
3) Comparison of actual valve/port timing diagram with theoretical valve/port
timing diagram
4) The settings are determine don the prototype of the actual engine and actual
engine valve / port timings are modified accordingly.
Department of Mechanical 7
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-2
Aim:-
To conduct load test on single cylinder, vertical, water –cooled diesel engine and hence to
determine frictional power and draw the performance characteristic curves.
Apparatus:-
Single cylinder diesel engine test rig coupled with rope brake dynamometer, stop watch.
Engine Specification:-
MAKE : KIRLOSKAR
BORE : 85 mm
STROKE : 110 mm
OUTPUT : 5HP
ORFICE DIAMETER : 15 mm
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
H.S.D.OIL : 0.85 gm/ml
Description:-
The water-cooled single cylinder diesel engine is coupled with a rope brake dynamometer.
Separate cooling lines are provided for the drum and the engine. Thermocouples are arranged
for sensing the temperature of cooling water consisting of fuel tank mounted on stand,
burette with 3-way cock arrangement is provided.
Department of Mechanical 8
Thermal Lab
Theory:-
Load test is conducted to study the performance characteristics of the engine. The single
cylinder diesel engine is run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The engine is loaded in steps
of constant interval loads i.e . 0kg, 2kgs, 4kgs ----etc. At each load fuel consumed is
determined. The output of the engine is calculated as follow.
BP = П WDN x 9.81 ………KW W=( W1 –W2 ) Kgf
60000
A graph with BP on X- axis and Fuel consumed per hour (FCH) on Y-axis is plotted. The
line joining the all data points when extended back, it intercepts the – ve X-axis. The
negative intercept magnitude gives the Frictional Power of the engine. The line connecting
the data points is known as the WILAN’S LINE.
The other performance parameters like Brake Mean Effective Pressure (Bmep),
indicated thermal efficiency (ith), Brake thermal efficiency (bth), Mechanical efficiency
(mech), Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) are determined and graphs are plotted.
Procedure :-
i) BP Vs FCH
ii) BP VS SFC
BP VS Bmep
iii) BP VS mech
iv) BP VS bth
v) BP VS ith
Department of Mechanical 9
Thermal Lab
Observations:-
Model Calculations:-
mech = BP/IP
Where
i) IP and BP are in kilo watts
ii) CV- calorific value of the fuel in kj/kg
Department of Mechanical 10
Thermal Lab
Result Table:-
Precautions:-
i) The engine should be started and stopped at No Load condition.
ii) Cooling water supply must be ensured throughout the experiment.
iii) The readings should be noted without Parallax error.
iv) Lubricant oil level to be checked.
Review Questions:_-
Trouble Shooting:-
1. Engine will not start due to air lock in the fuel system-
i) Open the bleed- off valve and release the air lock.
2. Engine will not start due to diesel filter choked –
i) Remove the filter and clean it.
3. Engine will not start if the holding bolts are loose –
i) Tighten the bolts so that required injecting pressure occurs.
4. Abnormal noise -
i) Check the engine Jacket cooling system.
ii) Check the bearings condition.
iii) Check the level and condition of lubricating oil / lubricating filter.
Inference:-
Applications: -
Department of Mechanical 11
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-3
Aim:
To determine the frictional losses in a single cylinder 4-stroke petrol engine connected to an
electrical dynamometer and hence mechanical efficiency.
Apparatus:
Engine Specifications:
i) ENGINE:
* POWER : 3.7 KW
Engine Description:
The Engine is a Single Cylinder, 4-Stroke, Spark Ignition Petrol driven type (can also be used
as petrol-start and kerosene-run mode). The engine is connected to electrical DC Machine /
Dynamometer. The DC Machine acts as Motor for starting the engine, and it can be switched
over to act as Generator for loading the engine. The Brake Horse power from the engine can
be calculated either by measuring electrical quantities (V, A) of the generator (by suitably
assuming the efficiency of generator as 70%). The Air Intake Tank, Fuel Measuring System,
Department of Mechanical 12
Thermal Lab
Flow Rate and Temperature Measurement Instrumentations, Speed Indicator, Electrical Load
Controller have been provided on an independent panel separated from the engine-generator
unit. Also see the details under the “Measurements” above, where the function of individual
instrumentation is indicated. The auxiliary heads have been provided for changing the
compression ratio.
Theory:
In Motoring test the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its own power and
allowed to remain under the given speed and load conditions for sufficient time so that the
temperature of the engine components, lubricating oil and cooling water reaches a steady
state. A swinging field type electric dynamometer is used to absorb the power during this
period which is most suitable for this test. The ignition is then cut-off and by suitable electric
switching devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor so as to crank the engine at
the same speed at which it was previously operating. The power supply from the above
dynamometer is measured which is a measure of the frictional power of the engine at that
speed. The water supply is also cut-off during the motoring test so that the actual operating
temperatures are maintained to the extent possible.
Experimental Procedure:
Department of Mechanical 13
Thermal Lab
6. Put “ON” the Mains, and check “Mains On” Indicators in the bottom of the control
panel glow.
7. Put “ON” the Console, and check that the blower of the DC Machine is running and
all the indicating instruments glow.
8. Put the selector switch of “Motor / Generator” to “Motor” .
9. Ignition switch to “OFF” position.
10. Now, select required speed using “ Speed Control” of “Motor” .
11. Take down the readings of speed and Motor Current & Voltmeter (Digital) for
calculation of Friction Power.
Observations:
i) FRICTION POWER:
V1 xI1
Friction Power = KWXmotor
1000
Sl. No VI II FP
1
2
Precautions:
1. The engine should be run for some time before the motoring is done.
2. The engine should be started and stopped at no load condition.
3. Lubricant oil level to be checked.
Review questions:
Department of Mechanical 14
Thermal Lab
Trouble Shooting :-
1. Engine will not start due to air lock in the fuel system-open the bleed-off volve.
2. Engine refuses to start ------ Petrol tap shut off.
No petrol in the tank
Throttle disconnected too much air through carburetor.
Pilot jet blocked.
Checked petrol filter.
Fuel pump not operating.
Applications:-
This is very suitable for finding the losses imparted by various engines components.
Inference:-
Friction looses as in the case of pistons, bearings, gears, valve mechanisms, these
losses are usually limited from 7 to 9 percent of the indicated out put.
Power observed by engine axillaries such a fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water
collecting pump, radiator, magneto & distributor, electric generator for battery charging etc.
These losses may account for 3 to 8 percent of the indicated out put.
Ventilating losses are usually below 4 percent of indicated out put.
Pumping losses and power observed by the scavenging pump are account 2 to 6
percent of the indicated out put.
Excusing all, the mechanical efficiency of engine varies from 65 to 85 %.
Department of Mechanical 15
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-4
Aim:
To conduct Morse Test on 4-stroke petrol engine and hence to determine the FRICTIONAL
POWER (FP) and MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY ( mech) of the engine.
Apparatus:
Petrol engine test rig coupled with hydraulic dynamometer, stop watch and tachometer.
Engine Specifications:-
Make : HM—1 sz
Description:
A medium capacity 4-stroke vertical water-cooled petrol engine is selected. The engine is
coupled with a hydraulic dynamometer. This consists of two half castings and a rotor
assembly or rotor shaft and coupling running on ball bearings. The principle of operation of
the unit is similar to the fluid coupling. The reaction at the casting is measured by a load cell.
The load is read from the digital indicator.
Department of Mechanical 16
Thermal Lab
Theory:
Morse test conducted on multi cylinder engines to determine the frictional power, indicated
power and mechanical efficiency of the engine. The power available at the shaft (Brake
Power) is always less than the indicated power of the engine. These two parameters are
related as follows.
IP=BP+FP ..............................................(1)
In this experiment the engine is run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm, to keep the FP of the
engine constant. To calculate the IP of a particular cylinder, say nth cylinder, the spark plug
is short circuited to that cylinder and speed is kept constant at 1500 rpm. Then IP of that nth
cylinder is given by
Where BP= Brake Power of the engine with all cylinders working
(BP)n off = Brake power of the engine with fuel supply cut-off to nth cylinder.
Wmax = 30 kgs
Procedure:
Department of Mechanical 17
Thermal Lab
OBSERVATION TABLE :
Model Calculations :
FP = IP - BP .........................................KW
( mech ) = BP x 100
IP
Department of Mechanical 18
Thermal Lab
Result Table :
2 2
3 3
4 4
Review Questions:-
Trouble Shooting :-
4. Engine will not start due to air lock in the fuel system-open the bleed - off volve.
5. Engine refuses to start ------ Petrol tap shut off.
No petrol in the tank
Throttle disconnected, too much air through carburetor.
Pilot jet blocked.
Checked petrol filter.
Fuel pump not operating.
Performance data of engine obtained from theoretical analysis is compared with experimental
results and approved for validation.
Inference:-
Friction looses as in the case of pistons , bearings , gears, valve mechanisms, these
losses are usually limited from 7 to 9 percent of the indicated out put.
Power observed by engine axillaries such a fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water
collecting pump, radiator, magneto & distributor, electric generator for battery charging etc.
These losses may account for 3 to 8 percent of the indicated out put.
Ventilating losses are usually below 4 percent of indicated out put.
Department of Mechanical 19
Thermal Lab
Pumping losses and power observed by the scavenging pump are account 2 to 6
percent of the indicated out put.
Excusing all, the mechanical efficiency of engine varies from 65 to 85 %.
Precautions:-
Department of Mechanical 20
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-5
EVALUATE OF ENGINE FRICTION BY CONDUCTING
MOTORING/RETARDATION TEST ON 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
Aim:
To determine the frictional power of a single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine and hence its
mechanical efficiency.
Apparatus:
Single cylinder high speed diesel engine coupled with rope brake dynamometer stop watch.
Engine Specifications:-
Theory:
This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply. The engine is
made to run at no load and rated speed taking into all usual precautions. When the engine is
running under steady operating conditions the supply of fuel is cut-off and simultaneously the
time of fall in speeds by say 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% of the rated speed is recorded. The
tests are repeated once again with 50% load on the engine. The values are usually tabulated in
an appropriate table. A graph connecting time for all in speed (x-axis) and speed (y-axis) at
no load as well as 50% load conditions is drawn as shown in the figure given below.
Department of Mechanical 21
Thermal Lab
Experimental Procedure:
1. The fuel level and lubrication oil level and all electrical connections are checked.
2. The engine is started at no load condition and is run for some time.
3. The fuel supply is cut-off and the time taken for the speed to fall to 20% 40%, 60%
and 80% of the rated speed are noted.
4. The engine is started again and a load of 50% of the max load is applied.
5. At time load the engine is run for some time and then the bud supply is
cut-off.
6. The time taken (t 3) for all of speed to 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% of the rated speed are
noted.
7. A graph is drawn with speed Vs time of fall.
8. From the graph the time required to fall through the same range (100 rpm)
in both no load and 50% load conditions are noted.
9. The frictional torque of the engine is calculated.
Observations:
S.No Drop in speed (rpm) Time for all of speed Time for fall of speed
at no load (t2) sec at 50% load (t3)sec
7) Model Calculations:
i) From the graph for a fall of 100 rpm at no load (t2) = ----------
ii) From the graph for a fall of 100 rpm at 50% load (t3) = --------
t
iii) T 3 xT
f 1(50%)
t2 t3
Tf = Frictional torque at no load.
T1 = Load torque at 50% load.
2NTf
iv) Frictional power =
60000
Department of Mechanical 22
Thermal Lab
BP
v) m X100
BP FP
Precautions:
Department of Mechanical 23
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-6
HEAT BALANCE ON IC ENGINES.
Aim:
To conduct a test on single cylinder high-speed diesel engine and to draw the heat balance
sheet.
Apparatus:
Single cylinder high speed diesel engine coupled with rope brake dynamometer stop watch.
Engine Specifications:-
Theory:-
Internal combustion engines utilize the principle of burning the fuel inside the cylinder
(internal combustion). The energy released inside the cylinder goes to various forms. Only a
part of it is available at the shaft. The various forms are energy carried away by the cooling
water jacket round the cylinder, energy carried away by the exhaust gases and unaccounted
losses like due to friction, radiation etc.
A single cylinder high speed diesel engine is chosen for the experiment which runs at a
constant speed. The experiment may be carried out at 3/4 th of maximum load or ½ the
maximum load.
WDN
B.P. X 9.81
60000
The measurement of cooing water flow rate may be observed from the water flow water. The
cooling water flow rate should be adjusted in such a way that the outlet cooling water
temperature is maintained in between 45 to 50 degrees. After achieving this state only the
readings should be noted. The mass flow rate of air intake may be measured from the orifice
water manometer arrangement.
The sum of the mass flow rate of fuel and mass flow rate of intake air gives the mass flow
rate of exhaust gases.
Department of Mechanical 24
Thermal Lab
Let
E = Total energy input rate to the engine in kj/min.
Ee = Energy carried away by the exhaust gases in kj/min.
Ee = Energy carried away by the cooling water in kj/min.
Eo = Engine ouput rate Kj/min.
Eua = Unaccounted energy losses due to friction j/min.
Then
E = Ee + Ec + Eo + Eua
3. The engine is loaded with 13 kg weights at the dynamometer i.e, half load.
4. At this load the engine is run for atleast 5 minutes. Cooling water flow rate is
adjusted, in such a way that the cooling water temperature Tco lies in the range 45 to
50 degrees.
5. The time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption, spring balance reading, water
manometer reading, cooling water flow rate are noted.
6. The above procedure is repeated at 18 kg dead weight load and the readings are noted
down.
Model Calculations:-
Department of Mechanical 25
Thermal Lab
60000xBP 60000x3.68
W max =
DNx9.81 DNx9.81
10 60x0.85
mf = x kg / min
T1 1000
Ma = pa x Cd x /4 d2 x 2gH a
Pa 100
Where Cd = 0.62 a
RTa 0.287xTa
d = orifice diameter = 15 mm
Ha = Hw x (w / a)
WDN
Eo= X 9.81kj / min .
1000
E = mf x Calorific Value
8. Unaccounted losses.
Department of Mechanical 26
Thermal Lab
Results Tables:-
1
Output energy (Eo)
Inferences:-
The heat derived from the combussion of fuel inside the engine cylinder, taken as 100%, the
heat loss through
Department of Mechanical 27
Thermal Lab
Review Questions :
1) Explain the energy flow through an engine by means of diagrams/graphs?
2) What are the methods available for improving the performance of an engine?
3) List the types of exhaust temperatures measured?
4) Define specific fuel consumption (SFC)?
5) What are the various energy losses in engines?
6) What are the various methods of engine cooling.?
7) What are the various lubricating methods of an engine.
Trouble Shooting:-
1. Engine will not start due to air lock in the fuel system-
i) Open the bleed- off valve and release the air lock.
2. Engine will not start due to diesel filter choked –
i) Remove the filter and clean it.
3. Engine will not start if the holding bolts are loose –
i) Tighten the bolts so that required injecting pressure occurs.
4. Abnormal noise -
i) Check the engine Jacket cooling system.
ii) Check the bearings condition.
iii) Check the level and condition of lubricating oil / lubricating filter.
Applications:-
a) To give sufficient data for the preparation of a heat balance sheet, which include
method of determining frictional power and the measurement of speed, load fuel
consumption, and consumption, exhaust temperature and temperature rise of cooling
water.
b) This heat balance, sheet makes it possible to account for the heat supplied by the fuel
and indicate its proper distribution.
Precautions:-
Department of Mechanical 28
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-7
TWO STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR TEST RIG
AIM:- To conduct performance test on two stage air compressor and to determine the
volumetric and Isothermal efficiency at various discharge pressure.
SPECIFICATIONS:-
MAKE : KIRLOSKER
TYPE : RECIPROCATING TYPE
STAGE : TWO STAGES
CYLINDER : TWO CYLINDERS
LP CYLINDER BORE : 60.33mm
HP CYLINDER BORE : 57mm
STROKE LENGTH : 62mm
MOTOR TYPE : IND.MOTOR
MOTOR RATING : 2HP
MOTOR SPEED : 1440rpm
COMPRESSOR SPEED : 740rpm
ELECTRICAL SUPPLY : 415V/380V,3PH,50HZ
TYPE OF STARTER : DOL
BELT : A TYPE
TYPE OF LUBRICATION : SPLASH
TYPE OF COOLING : AIR COOLED
TYPE OF FAN : FORCED DRAUGHT
THEORY:-
An air compressor is a machine which takes the air (ambient pressure and
temperature condition) from the atmosphere during its suction stroke and compresses
that air to high pressure with the help of a piston and cylinder arrangement.
Isothermal Power =
Where Pa = 1.003 kg/cm2
Va=Actual volume of air
Sa= Density of air=1.193
R= = Pressure ratio
Isothermal Efficiency=
nm= motor eff=0.8
nt= transmission n=0.8
MODEL CALCULATIONS:-
For tank load P=2kg/cm2
Ha=
Ha=
Ha=23.2 m
Va =
Department of Mechanical 29
Thermal Lab
V a=
Va=5.4 m3/hr
Vth=
=
Vth= 7.49 m3/hr
nvol(%)=
nvol=
when this process carried out with more than one cylinder then such type of compressor
is called multi stage air compressor.
DESCRIPTION:-
Two stage air compressors is a reciprocating type, driven by a prime mover i.e., at 3 phase
AC motor through belt. The test rig consists of a base on which the tank is mounted.
The pressure and temperature of air at different points are measured by pressure gauges
and thermo couple with digital temperature indicator respectively. An electrical pressure
safety valve is provided as additional safety. The suction is connected to an air tank with
a calibrated orifice through the water manometer to measure pressure head of air. The
output power of motor is recorded by swinging field arrangement with spring balance.
The input of motor can be measured by an energy meter.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the power supply to compressor
2. Close the outlet valve.
3. Switch on the compressor and note down the readings.
a. Discharge pressure of first stage P2
b. Discharge pressure of second stage P3
Isothermal Power =
P=0.192kw.
Power input=
=
Isothermal efficiency=
=
Department of Mechanical 30
Thermal Lab
RESULT:-
At the load of 2kgkm2 of tank of air compressor the volumetric efficiency of two stage air
compressor is 72% and the Isothermal efficiency of two stage air compressor is 22%.
S P1=1.003kg/cm2 Calculated Values
L P2 P Load N H1 H2 Time Energy T1 T2 T3 T4 Ha Va Vth Nv P nis
. 3 tank (sec) meter o
N P rev
o
Department of Mechanical 31
Thermal Lab
EXPERIMENT-8
A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to
transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to water, and
ultimately to generate steam. The steam produced may be supplied.
Important terms:
1. Boiler shell: It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and riveted or
welded together. The ends of the shell are closed by means of end plates. A boiler
shell should have sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.
2. Combustion chamber: It is the space, generally below the boiler shell, meant for
burning fuel in order to produce steam from the water contained in the shell.
3. Grate: It is a platform, in the combustion chamber, upon which fuel (coal or wood) is
burnt. The great, generally, consists of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air
(required for combustion) can pas through them. The surface area of the grate, over
which the fire takes place, is called great surface.
4. Furnace: It is the space, above the grate and below the boiler shell, in which the fuel
is actually burnt. The furnace is also called fire box.
5. Heating surface: It is that part of boiler surface, which is exposed to the fire (or hot
gases from the fire).
6. Mountings: These are the fittings which are mounted on the boiler for its proper
functioning. They include water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valve etc. It
may be noted that a boiler cannot function safely without the mountings.
7. Accessoreies: These are the devices, which form an integral part of a boiler, but are
not mounted on it. They include super heater, economizer, feed pump etc. It may be
noted that the accessories help in controlling and running the boiler efficiently.
Though there are many classification of steam boilers, yet the following are important from
the subject point of view.
1. According to the contents in the tube: The steam boilers, according to the contents
in the tube may be classified as:
Department of Mechanical 32
Thermal Lab
(a) Fire tube or smoke tube boiler, and (b) Water tube boiler.
In fire tube steam boilers, the flames and hot gasses, produced by the combustion of
fuels, pass through the tubes (called multi-tubes) which are surrounded by water. The
heat is conducted through the walls of the tubes from the hot gases to the surrounding
water. Examples of fire tube boilers are: Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler,
Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Scotch marine boiler, Locomotive boiler, and
Velcon boiler.
In Water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water
tubes) which are surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside. Examples of water
tube boilers are: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont boiler, Benson
boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.
2. According to the position of the furnace: The steam boilers, according to the
position of the furnace are classified as:
In externally fired steam boilers, the furnace is arranged underneath in a brick work
setting. Water tube steam boilers are always externally fired.
3. According to the axis of the shell: The steam boilers, according to the axis of the
shell, may be classified as:
In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler and
Cochran boiler are vertical boilers.
In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal. Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler and Babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal boilers.
4. According to the number of tubes: The steam boilers, according to the number of
tubes, may be classified as:
In single tube steam boilers, there is only one fire tube or water tube. Simple vertical
boiler and Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
In multitubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire tubes or water tubes.
Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler are
multitubular boilers.
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Thermal Lab
The steam boilers, according to the method of circulation of water and steam, may be
classified as:
7. According to the use: The steam boilers, according to their use, may be classified as:
(a) Stationary boilers, and (b) Mobile boilers.
The Stationary steam bioers are used in power plants, and in industrial process work.
These are called stationary because they do not move from one place to another.
The mobile steam boilers are those which move from one place to another. These
boilers are locomotive and marine boilers.
8. According to the source of heat: The steam boilers may also be classified according
to the source of heat supplied for producing steam. These sources may be the
combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel, hot waste gases as by products of other
chemical processes, electrical energy or nuclear energy etc.
This boiler consists of an external cylindrical shell and a fire box as shown in the
Figure 1. The shell and fire box are both hemispherical, The hemispherical crown of the
boiler shell give maximum space and strength to withstand the pressure of steam inside the
boiler. The hemispherical crown of the fire box is also advantageous for resisting intense
heat. The fire box and the combustion chamber is connected through a short pipe. The flue
gases from the combustion chamber flow to the smoke box through a number of smoke tube.
These tubes generally have 62.5 mm external diameter and are 165 in number. The gases
from the smoke box pass to the atmosphere through a chimney. The combustion chamber is
lined with firebricks on the shell side. A manhole near the top of the crown on the shell is
provided for cleaning.
At the bottom of the fire box, there is a grate (in case of coal firing) and the coal is fed
through the fire hole. If the boiler is used for oil firing, no grate is provided, but the bottom of
the fire box is lined with firebricks. The oil burner is fitted at the fire hole.
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Thermal Lab
It is a stationary, fire tube, internally fired, horizontal and natural circulation boiler. It is used
where working pressure and power required are moderate. These boilers have a cylindrical
shell of 1.75 m to 2.75 m diameter. Its length varies from 7.25 m to 9m, it has two internal
flue tubes having diameter about 0.4 times that of shell. This type of boiler is set in brick
work forming external flue so that part of the heating surface is on the external shell.
A Lancashire boiler with brick work setting is shown in the Figure - 2. This boiler
consists of a long cylindrical external shell (1) built of steel plates, in sections riveted
together. It has two large internal flue tubes (2). These are reduced in diameter at the back
end to provide access to the lower part of the boiler. A fire grate (3) also called furnace, is
provided at one end of the flue tubes on which solid fuel is burnt. At the end of the fire grate,
there is a brick arch (5) to deflect the flue gases upwards. The hot flue gases, after leaving the
internal flue tubes pass down to the bottom tube (6). These flue gases move to the front of the
boiler where they divided and flow into the side flue (7). The flue gases then enter the main
flue (9), which leads them to chimney.
The damper (8) is fitted at the end of side flues to control the draught (i.e. rate of flow
of air) and thus regulate the rate of generation of steam. These dampers are operated by chain
passing over a pulley on the front of the boiler.
A spring loaded safety valve (10) and a stop value (11) is mounted as shown in the
Figure-2. The stop valve supplied steam to the engine as required. A high steam and low
water safely valve (12) is also provided.
A performed feed pipe (14) controlled by a feed valve is used for feeding water
uniformly. When the boiler is strongly heated, the steam generated carries a large quantity of
water in the steam space, known as printing. An antipriming pipe (15) is provided to separate
out water as far as possible. The stop valve thus receives dry steam.
A blow-off cock (16) removes mud, etc., that settled down at the bottom of the boiler,
by forcing out some of the water. It is also used to empty water in the boiler, whenever
required for inspection. Manholes are provided at the top and bottom of the boiler for
cleaning and repair purposes.
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Thermal Lab
It is a straight tube, stationary type water tube boiler, as shown in the Figure-3. It
Consists of a steam and water drum (1) It is connected by a short tube with up take header or
riser (2) At the back end.
The water tubes (5) 10 mm dia meter) are inclined to the horizontal and connects the
uptake header to the down take header. Each row of the tubes is connected with two headers,
and there are plenty of such rows. The headers are curved when viewed in the direction of
tubes so that one tube is not in the space of other, and hot gases can pas properly after heating
all the tubes. The headers are provided with hand holes in the front of the tubes and are
covered with caps (18).
A mud box (6) is provided with each down take header and the mud, that settles down
is removed. There is a slow moving automatic chain grate on which the coal is fed from the
hopper (21). A fire bricks baffle causes hot gases to move upwards and downwards and again
upwards before leaving the chimney. The dampers (17) are operated by a chain (22) which
passes over a pulley to the front of a boiler to regulate the draught.
The boiler is suspended on steel girders, and surrounded on all the four sides by fire
brick walls. The doors (4) are provided for a man to enter the boiler for repairing and
cleaning. Water circulates from the drum (1) into the header (2) and through the tubes (5) to
header (3) and again to the drum. Water continues to circulate like this till it is evaporated. A
steam super heater consists of a large number of steel tubes (10) and contains two boxes: one
is superheated steam box (11) and other is saturated steam box (22).
The steam generated above the water level in the drum flows in the dry pipe (13) and
through the inlet tubes into the superheated steam box (11). It then passes through the tubes
(10) into the saturated steam box (12). The steam, during its passage through tubes (10), gets
further heated and becomes superheated. The steam is now taken through the outlet pipe (14)
to the stop valve (15).
The boiler is fitted with usual mountings, such as safety valve (19), feed valve (20),
water level indicator (8) and pressure gauge (9).
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Thermal Lab
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