Module – 2

Batteries for EV
Dr. Jayasankar V N
Associate Professor
Department of EEE
NIE Mysuru

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 1

 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cells are the smallest individual electrochemical unit and deliver a voltage
that depends on the combination of chemicals and compounds chosen to make
the cell.
⬢ Batteries or battery packs are made up from groups of cells.

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Battery Terminologies: Cell voltage
⬢ The manufacturer-specified nominal voltage is
“The value assigned to a cell or battery of a given voltage class for the purpose of
convenient designation. The operating voltage of the cell or battery may vary
above or below this value.”

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 Battery Parameters
Cell nominal charge capacity

⬢ Cells store and can deliver electrical

charge to power a load circuit.
⬢ Specifies the quantity of charge, in
ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-
hours (mAh), that a cell is rated to hold.
⬢ Related to the cell’s charge capacity,
the C rate is a relative measure of cell
current.
⬢ C rate is the constant-current charge or
discharge rate that the cell can sustain
Representative discharges curves for a 33.3 Ah
for 1 hour.
Li-ion cell.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 4

 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cell nominal charge capacity
⬢ For example, a fully charged 20-Ah cell should be able to deliver 20A (a
“1C” rate) for 1 h or 2A (a “C/10” rate) for about 10h before the cell is
completely discharged.
⬢ If the cell is discharged at a 10C rate, it will be completely discharged in
about 6 minutes.
⬢ The relationship between C rate and discharge time is not strictly linear,
primarily because of the internal resistance of the battery cell and
incomplete utilization of the active materials when the cell is exercised at
high rates.

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Battery Terminologies: Cell voltage
⬢ Based on the markings on this cell, state the cell's nominal voltage (in volts)

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cell nominal charge capacity
⬢ What is the 1C rate for this cell (in mA)?

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cell Energy and power
⬢ A cell stores energy in electrochemical form, which it can later release to
do work
⬢ The total energy storage capacity of a cell is roughly its nominal voltage
multiplied by its nominal capacity (mWh, Wh, or kWh)
⬢ The energy release rate is the cell’s instantaneous power (mW, W, or kW)

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cell nominal energy storage capacity
⬢ What is the nominal energy storage capacity of this cell (in Wh)? Tell
your answer with two digits to the right of the decimal point.

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cells connected in series
⬢ When cells are connected in series, the battery voltage is the
sum of the individual cell voltages, by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
⬢ However, by Kirchhoff’s current law, the charge capacity of the
series connected battery is the same as the charge capacity of an
individual cell since the same current passes through all of the
cells.
⬢ As an example, consider the battery in Fig., which is
constructed from three 2 V, 20-Ah cells connected in series.
⬢ The battery voltage will be 6V, the battery charge capacity will
be 20Ah, and the battery energy capacity will be 120Wh.

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ Cells connected in parallel
⬢ When cells are connected in parallel, the battery voltage is
equal to the cells’ voltage.
⬢ However, battery capacity is the sum of the cells’ capacities,
since the battery current is the sum of all the cell currents

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ If ten of these cells are connected in series to create a battery,
what is the nominal voltage of the battery (in V)?

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 Introduction to Battery Technology
⬢ If two of these cells are connected in parallel to create a battery,
what is the nominal energy capacity of the battery (in Wh)?
Please enter your answer with two digits following the decimal
point.

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 Battery Parameters
Cycle Life

⬢ Cycle Life is a measure of the number of times a battery can be charged and
discharged before it reaches its end of life.
⬢ Electrochemical batteries degrade with time and usage.
⬢ Factors such as temperature and cell voltage also play a critical role.
⬢ Li-ion has the high cycle life and NiMH is similar.
⬢ Lead-acid batteries have a significantly lower

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 14

 Battery Parameters
Self-Discharge

⬢ Electrochemical cells consume energy even when not being charged or

discharged.
⬢ This energy usage is a parasitic use of stored energy and is termed self-discharge.
⬢ Self-discharge rates are relatively high for nickel-based batteries compared to
their competitors.
⬢ There can be a very high initial self-discharge of a battery in the first 24 hours
after being fully charged, but this rate tapers off.
⬢ The self-discharge rates can increase significantly with temperature.
⬢ Note that while the self-discharge of Li-ion is less than 2%, the overall self-
discharge of a battery pack may be closer to 5% as up to an additional 3% may be
required by the electronic system and circuits managing the battery pack.

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 Specific energy and energy density
⬢ Specific energy and energy density measure
the maximum stored energy per unit weight
or volume (respectively)
⬡ For a given weight, higher specific
energy stores more energy
⬡ For a given storage capacity, higher
specific energy cells are lighter
⬡ For a given volume, higher energy
density stores more energy
⬡ For a given storage capacity, higher
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energy density cells are smaller
Lithium ion has higher energy density and
specific energy than historic chemistries

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 Energy storage systems, and its Types
⬢ There are four viable EV energy storage systems:
⬡ Electrochemical batteries (normally termed batteries): electrochemical
devices that store electrical energy during charging and produce electricity
during discharging.
⬡ Ultracapacitors (also called supercapacitors): capacitors with ultrahigh
capacitances that store and produce electrical energy by electrostatic means.
⬡ Ultrahigh-speed flywheels: electric machines spinning at ultrahigh speeds
that store and produce electrical energy by electromechanical means, that
is, they work as motors during charging and serve as generators during
discharging.
⬡ Fuel cells: electrochemical devices that directly convert chemical fuels into
electricity.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 17

Energy storage systems, and its Types (cont.)
⬢ None of the energy storage systems can simultaneously offer high specific
energy and high specific power, analogous to none of athletes can
simultaneously be suitable for marathon running and 100-m sprint.
⬢ Thus, a compromise between these two parameters or a hybridization of two
energy sources (one with high specific energy and another with high specific
power) is necessary for the PEV or FEV.
⬢ The basic requirement for purely electric vehicles is a portable supply of
electrical energy, which is converted to mechanical energy in the electric motor
for vehicle propulsion.
⬢ Among the available choices of portable energy sources, batteries have been the
most popular choice of energy source for electric vehicles since the beginning of
research and development programs in these vehicles.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 18

Energy storage systems, and its Types (cont.)
⬢ The desirable features of batteries for electric vehicle applications are:
⬡ high specific power
⬡ high specific energy
⬡ high charge acceptance rate for both recharging and regenerative braking
⬡ long calendar and cycle life
⬢ Additional technical issues include methods and designs to balance the battery
segments or packs electrically and thermally, accurate techniques to determine a
battery’s state of charge, and recycling facilities for battery components.
⬢ Above all, the cost of batteries must be reasonable for electric and hybrid
vehicles to be commercially viable.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 19

 Comparisons of Battery Technologies
⬢ Major types of batteries that have been developed for EVs over the past two decades are:
• valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA)
• nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)
• nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH)
• zinc/air (Zn/air)
• sodium/sulfur (Na/S) ➢VRLA is accepted for low-cost low-end Evs
• lithium-ion (Li-ion). ➢Ni-MH is preferred for well-performed Evs
➢Li-ion is attractive for high-performance EVs

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 20

 Basic Battery Operation
⬢ The discharge process: Potentials
⬢ Electrochemical potential energy at negative electrode favours a chemical process
that releases electrons into external circuit and cations into electrolyte.
⬢ Electrochemical potential at positive electrode favors a chemical process that
accepts both electrons from external circuit and cations from electrolyte

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 Basic Battery Operation
⬢ The discharge process
⬢ In primary cells, the electrochemical reaction is not reversible.
⬢ During discharge, the chemical compounds are changed permanently, and
electrical energy is released until the original compounds are completely
exhausted.
⬢ Primary cells can be used only once.
⬢ In secondary (rechargeable) cells, this electrochemical reaction is reversible
⬢ The original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the application of an
electrical potential between the electrodes, injecting energy into the cell.
⬢ Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times.
⬢ Life is limited by degradation processes, not by primary chemical reaction.

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 Basic Battery Operation
⬢ The charge process
⬢ During charge, cations move from positive to negative electrode through
electrolyte; electrons move from positive to negative electrode through external
circuit.
⬢ The energy “pumped” into the cell transforms the active chemicals back to their
original state.

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 Basic Battery Operation
⬢ CC/CV and CP/CV charging modes

• Cells are often first charged

with either constant-current
or constant-power.
• When maximum permitted
cell voltage is reached, the
cell is held at that voltage
until it is fully charged.

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 Specific energy and energy density
⬢ For high specific energy and power, we desire light elements (near the top of the
periodic table).
⬢ For high voltage, we want strong oxidizing and reducing agents paired together,
having an excess and a deficiency of valence electrons (near left and right sides of
the periodic table).
⬢ Other considerations include:
⬡ availability of an electrolyte to support the half-cell reactions
⬡ low cost
⬡ long life
⬡ low toxicity 25

⬡ high recyclability, etc.

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Lithium-ion Cells

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Lithium-ion Cells

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Lithium-ion Cells

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Lithium-ion Cells

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Lithium-ion Cells

Lithium-ion cell

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Lithium-ion Cells

Lithium-ion cell

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 Is lithium going to run out?
⬢ Is there enough lithium for EVs and
other applications?
⬢ Chart shows relative abundance of
elements in earth’s crust:
⬢ We see that Li is between 20 and
100 times more abundant than Pb
and Ni

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 Is lithium going to run out?
⬢ 1 Million EVs would consume 12,000
tons of Li (without recycling);
⬢ 1 million P/HEVs would consume
1,200 tons.
⬢ Known available supply of Li is over
200 billion tons, including from
seawater.
⬢ Each human being presently alive
could own more than 2000 EVs,
without recycling!

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
1. Open-circuit voltage
⬢ Ideal voltage source
⬢ In this model, v(t) = OCV
⬡ Voltage is not a function of current
⬡ Voltage is not a function of past usage
⬡ Voltage is constant
⬢ This model is inadequate, but provides a starting point
⬡ Batteries do supply a voltage to a load
⬡ And, when the cell is unloaded and in complete equilibrium
34 (i.e., “open

circuit”), the voltage is fairly predictable.

⬡ An ideal voltage source will be part of our equivalent circuit model.

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
2. State of charge and total capacity
⬢ When a cell is fully charged, its open-circuit voltage is higher than when it is
discharged
⬢ So, can improve model by including dependence on cell’s charge status
⬢ We define the state of charge (SOC) z(t) of a cell to be:
⬡ 100% when the cell is fully charged
⬡ 0% when the cell is fully discharged
⬢ Also define total capacity Q to be total amount
of charge removed when discharging from 100% to 0%.
⬢ Q is usually measured in Ah or mAh.
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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
2. Modelling state of charge
⬢ Can model SOC as

where the sign of i(t) is positive on discharge

⬢ Cells are not perfectly efficient: can be accommodate by

⬢ “Coulombic efficiency” η(k) ≤ 1 on charge, as some charge is typically lost due to

unwanted side reactions
⬢ We usually model η(k) = 1 on discharge
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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
3. Equivalent series resistance
⬢ When the cell is subjected to a time-varying input
current, the cell’s terminal voltage drops below the
open-circuit voltage.
⬢ When the cell is subjected to a load, and the terminal
voltage rises above the open-circuit voltage when the
cell is being charged.
⬢ This phenomenon can be explained in part by placing a
resistance in series with the controlled voltage source.

Improved cell model, with

SOC-dependent voltage and
equivalent series resistance R0.

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
3. Equivalent series resistance
⬢ We add a second equation to the model to describe how
to compute the terminal voltage.
⬢ In continuous time, we have

⬢ v(t) > OCV z(t), when i(t) < 0 (i.e., when charging)
⬢ v(t) < OCV z(t), when i(t) > 0 (i.e., when discharging)
Improved cell model, with
SOC-dependent voltage and
equivalent series resistance R0.

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
4. Modelling Voltage polarization: Diffusion
voltages
⬢ Polarization refers to any departure of the
cell’s terminal voltage away from open-circuit
voltage due to a passage of current through
the cell.
⬢ For advanced consumer electronics and xEV
applications, diffusion voltages to be
considered.
⬢ i(t) × R0 models instantaneous response to a
change in input current.

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
4. Modelling Voltage polarization: Diffusion
voltages
⬢ Diffusion voltages can be closely approximated
in a circuit using one or more parallel resistor-
capacitor sub-circuits.
⬢ In the model, the state-of-charge equation
remains the same as before, but the voltage
equation changes to

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 Equivalent-Circuit Models
4. Modelling Voltage polarization: Diffusion voltages
⬢ When using data to identify model parameters, it turns out to be simpler if we
write these expressions in terms of element currents instead:
𝑑𝑉𝐶1 (𝑡) 𝑉𝐶1 (𝑡)
𝐶1 =i t −
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1
𝑑𝑉𝐶1 (𝑡) 1 𝑉𝐶1 (𝑡)
= i t −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝑅1

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1 VC1 (t)
ሶ =
VC1 (t) i t −
C1 C1 R1

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 Battery Modelling
Basic Battery Model
• The models use a combination of circuit elements (resistors, capacitors, and
inductors) and dependent sources to give a circuit representation of the behavior and
the functionality of the electrochemical cell.
• The voltage source is taken to be the open circuit voltage of the cell E0, and RΩ is the
ohmic resistance.
• E0 is the initial voltage of the cell
• RΩ is the series resistance
• k1 is a constant parameter

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 5 34

 Battery Modelling
Basic Battery Model (cont.)
• The effect on the terminal voltage due to diffusion
charge will be represented by the following first order
differential equation

• where vd(t) is the voltage dropped across the RdCd parallel circuit that is proportional to
the diffusion charge qd(t).
• The resistor Rsd represents the self-discharge of the cell.
• The CsRsd circuit elements representing the storage capacitor and self-discharge resistor in
series with the diffusion parameters.

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 Battery Modelling
Run-Time Battery Model
• The Thevenin-type circuit model with a constant
open circuit voltage does not allow prediction of the
battery terminal voltage Vt variations (i.e., DC
response) and run-time information.
• The prediction of SoC, transient response, terminal
voltage, run-time, and temperature effects is possible
with run-time models.
• The run-time model, has dependent current and voltage sources in addition to several
passive components.
• The terminal voltage–current characteristics segment of the model is similar to that of basic
model, except that the open circuit voltage depends on the capacity or SoC of the battery.

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 Battery Modelling
Impedance-Based Model
• Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is applied to develop equivalent AC impedance-
based circuit representation of the battery characteristics.
• Impedance-based models are less intuitive and are applicable only for a fixed SoC and
temperature; prediction of DC response and run-time of a battery are difficult with these
models.

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 Battery Modelling
First Principle Model
• The first principle model, incorporates the following phenomena within an
electrochemical cell:
• Electrochemical energy conversion, Diffusion process, Charge transfer
polarization, Concentration polarization, Electric double layer, Ohmic resistance,
Self-discharge

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 Battery Modelling
Empirical Models
• These models describe the performance of the device using arbitrary mathematical
relationships matched with experimental or theoretical model data.
• The mathematical or empirical relationships are established by curve fitting with
experimental data.
• One of the widely used empirical battery model is based on the Peukert’s equation relating
discharge current with the battery capacity.
• The model is based on constant current discharge characteristics of the battery.
• Peukert’s model does not give any terminal i–v information

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 Battery Modelling
Empirical Models (cont.)
• A series of constant current discharge experiments give the I vs. tcut data for different
constant current levels;
• tcut is the time when the terminal voltage reaches the cut-off voltage limit Vcut during
constant current discharge.
• The data obtained is used to fit Peukert’s equation to develop the model as
Intcut = λ
• Where, I is the constant discharge current
• n and λ are curve fitting constants of a particular battery, n is a number between 1 and 2 with
the value approaching 1 for smaller currents, but tends toward 2 for larger currents.
• The model does not specify the initial capacity, nor does it model the voltage variation or
temperature, and aging factors.
• Peukert’s model does not give any terminal i–v information

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 Battery failures: causes and its impacts
• Good battery cells are not immune to failure, which can be provoked by the way
they are used or abused:
• using an unsuitable charging profile
• overcharging
• exposing it to high ambient or storage temperatures
• Cells will also fail when subjected to physical abuse such as:
• dropping
• Crushing
• Puncture
• Impact
• immersion in fluids
• freezing
• contact with fire
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 Battery failures: causes and its impacts
• There are several possible failure modes associated with the complete breakdown
of the cell:
a) Open-circuit failure:
• Once the current path is cut and the cell is isolated, further damage to the cell is
limited.
• If one cell of a multicell series-connected battery fails open-circuit, then the
whole battery will be out of commission.
b) Short-circuit failure:
• If one cell of a series-connected battery fails because of a short circuit, the rest
of the cells may be slightly overloaded, but the battery will continue to provide
power to its load.
• Short circuits may be external to the cell or internal within the cell.

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 Battery failures: causes and its impacts
• Within the cell there are different degrees of failure.
a)Hard short circuit:
• Solid connection between electrodes causes extremely high current flow and
complete discharge, resulting in permanent damage to the cell.
• The cell voltage collapses to 0V, and the cell effectively acts as a resistor in the
overall circuit.
b) Soft short circuit:
• This is caused by small localized contact between electrodes.
• It may be self-correcting due to melting of the small regions in contact caused
by the high current flow, acting as a local fuse, and interrupting the short-circuit
current.
• A cell with a soft short is still operational, but has a high self-discharge rate.

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 Battery failures: causes and its impacts
• Within the cell there are different degrees of failure (cont.)…
c) Explosion and/or fire:
• The rate of chemical reactions tends to double for every 10◦C increase in
temperature.
• If the heat generated by these reactions cannot be removed as quickly as it is
generated, this can lead to a further increase in temperature and set up a self-
sustaining uncontrolled positive feedback known as thermal runaway, leading
to a destructive result (fire/explosion).
• This is to be avoided at all costs, and the battery pack must incorporate
protection circuits or devices to prevent it.

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 Battery Modelling in MATLAB/Simulink
• Within the cell there are different degrees of failure (cont.)…
c) Explosion and/or fire:
• The rate of chemical reactions tends to double for every 10◦C increase in
temperature.
• If the heat generated by these reactions cannot be removed as quickly as it is
generated, this can lead to a further increase in temperature and set up a self-
sustaining uncontrolled positive feedback known as thermal runaway, leading
to a destructive result (fire/explosion).
• This is to be avoided at all costs, and the battery pack must incorporate
protection circuits or devices to prevent it.

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