Chapter 2

Diode
Applications
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 Objectives
Explain and analyze the operation of both half and
full wave rectifiers
Explain and analyze filters and regulators and
their characteristics
Explain and analyze the operation of diode limiting
and clamping circuits
Explain and analyze the operation of diode voltage
multipliers
Interpret and use a diode data sheet
Troubleshoot simple diode circuits

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2.1

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 2.2 Load Line Analysis
Fig. 2.2 the diode characteristics are placed on the same set
of axes as a straight line defined by the parameters of the
network. The straight line is called a load line because the
intersection on the vertical axis is defined by the applied
load R . The analysis to follow is therefore called load-line
analysis

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 2.4 Half Wave Rectifier
The Basic DC Power Supply
All active electronic devices require a source of constant dc that can
be supplied by a battery or a dc power supply. The dc power
supply converts the standard 220 V, 50 Hz ac voltage available at
wall outlets into a constant dc voltage. The DC Power Supply consists
of a transformer, Rectifier, Regulator and Filter as shown below.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier(ideal) allows conduction for only 180° or half of
a complete cycle. The output frequency is the same as the input.

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Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage The average value
of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you would
measure on a dc voltmeter. Mathematically, it is determined by
finding the area under the curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in
Figure, and then dividing by 2π the number of radians in a full cycle.
The result of this is expressed in Equation 2–3, where Vp is the peak
value of the voltage. This equation shows that Vavg is approximately
31.8% of Vp for a half-wave rectified voltage.

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Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output
When the practical diode model is used with the barrier potential of
0.7 V taken into account. During the positive half-cycle, the input
voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
becomes forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output with a
peak value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input, as
shown in Figure 2–23. The expression for the peak output voltage is

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Peak Inverse Voltage Peak inverse voltage is the
maximum voltage across the diode when it is in reverse bias.
The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of
voltage. A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than
the PIV.

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 Transformer Coupling
• Transformers are often used to couple the AC input voltage from the
source to the rectifier. It step down the voltage and Electrically Isolate
the source from Rectifier. Thus preventing a shock hazards in
secondary.
• The turns ratio of the primary to secondary determines the output
versus the input voltage.

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 2.5 Full-Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive
and negative half cycles or the full 360º. Note that the output
frequency is twice the input frequency.
The average VDC or VAVG = 2Vp/π.

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 Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
This method of rectification employs two diodes connected
to a center-tapped transformer.
The peak output is only half of the transformer’s
peak secondary voltage.

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Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage
If the transformer’s turns ratio is 1, the peak value of the rectified
output voltage equals half the peak value of the primary input voltage
less the barrier potential, as illustrated in Figure 2–33. Half of the
primary voltage appears across each half of the secondary winding
(Vp(sec) = Vp(pri)). We will begin referring to the forward voltage
due to the barrier potential as the diode drop.

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In order to obtain an output voltage with a peak equal to the
input peak (less the diode drop), a step-up transformer with a
turns ratio of n = 2 must be used, as shown in Figure 2–34. In
this case, the total secondary voltage (Vsec) is twice the
primary voltage (2Vpri), so the voltage across each half of the
secondary is equal to Vpri.

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 2.6 Power Supply Filters And Regulators
As we have seen, the output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC. With
filtration and regulation this pulsating voltage can be smoothed out
and kept to a steady value. The Small fluctuations in the filter output
is called ripples.

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 Capacitor Input Filter
The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to
ground. RL represents the equivalent resistance of a load.
During the positive first quarter-cycle of
the input, the diode is forward-biased,
allowing the capacitor to charge to within
0.7 V of the input peak, as illustrated in
Figure 2–43(a).When the input begins to
decrease below its peak, as shown in part
(b), the capacitor retains its charge and
the diode becomes reverse-biased
because the cathode is more positive
than the anode. During the remaining
part of the cycle, the capacitor can
discharge only through the load
resistance at a rate determined by the
RLC time constant, which is normally long
compared to the period of the input. The
larger the time constant, the less the
capacitor will discharge. During the first
quarter of the next cycle, as illustrated in
part (c), the diode will again become
forward-biased when the input voltage
exceeds the capacitor voltage by
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 Ripple Voltage
As you have seen, the capacitor quickly charges at the beginning of a cycle
and slowly discharges through RL after the positive peak of the input
voltage (when the diode is reverse-biased). The variation in the capacitor
voltage due to the charging and discharging is called the ripple voltage.
Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, the smaller the ripple, the better the
filtering action, as illustrated in Figure 2–44.

Ripple factor r=Vr(pp) / VDC

Vr(pp)=(1/fRLC)Vp(rect)
VDC=(1- 1/2fRLC)Vp(rect)

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For a given input frequency, the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice
that of a half-wave rectifier, as illustrated in Figure 2–45. This makes a full-wave
rectifier easier to filter because of the shorter time between peaks. When
filtered, the full-wave rectified voltage has a smaller ripple than does a
half-wave voltage for the same load resistance and capacitor values. The
capacitor discharges less during the shorter interval between full-wave pulses,
as shown in Figure 2–46.

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The fuse rating should be at least 20% larger than the calculated value of Ipri.
 Surge Resistor
Being that the capacitor appears as a short during the initial charging,
the current through the diodes can momentarily be quite high. To
reduce risk of damaging the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor is
placed in series with the filter and load. R = [V -1.4V] / I
surge P(sec) FSM

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 Voltage Regulators
Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple and maintaining the
output voltage to a specific value. Typically this regulation is performed by an
integrated circuit regulator. There are many different types used based on the voltage
and current requirements. Three-terminal regulators designed for fixed output
voltages require only external capacitors to complete the regulation portion of the
power supply, as shown in Figure 2–50. Filtering is accomplished by a large-value
capacitor between the input voltage and ground. An output capacitor (typically ) is
connected from the output to ground to improve the transient response. 0.1 mF to
1.0 mF

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 Power Supply Filters And Regulators

How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is

measured by it’s regulation percentage. There are two
types of regulation, line and load. Line and load
regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in
voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage.
Line Regulation = (ΔVOUT/ΔVIN)100%
Load Regulation = (VNL – VFL)/VFL)100%
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 Voltage Divider Biased
The desired amount of limitation can be attained by a power
supply or voltage divider. The amount clipped can be adjusted
with different levels of VBIAS. As fig 2.60
A Limiter Application Many circuits have certain
This positive limiter will limit restrictions on the input level to avoid damaging
the output to VBIAS + .7V the circuit. For example, almost all digital circuits
should not have an input level that exceeds the
power supply voltage. An input of a few volts
more than this could damage the circuit. To
prevent the input from exceeding a specific
level, you may see a diode limiter across the
input signal path in many digital circuits.
The voltage divider provides the VBIAS . VBIAS =(R3/R2+R3)VSUPPLY
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 Diode Clampers
A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage. Clampers are sometimes known as dc
restorers. Figure 2–63 shows a diode clamper that inserts a positive dc level in the
output waveform. The operation of this circuit can be seen by considering the first
negative half-cycle of the input voltage. When the input voltage initially goes negative,
the diode is forwardbiased, allowing the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the
input as shown in Figure 2–63(a). Just after the negative peak, the diode is
reverse-biased. This is because the cathode is held near by the charge on the
capacitor. The capacitor can only discharge through the high resistance of RL. So, from
the peak of one negative half-cycle to the next, the capacitor discharges very little.
The amount that is discharged, of course, depends on the value of RL. Vp(in) - 0.7 V
(Vp(in) - 0.7 V),

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2.8 Voltage Multipliers

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Under a no-load condition, C2 remains
charged to approximately 2Vp. If a load
resistance is connected across the output,
C2 discharges slightly through the load on
the next positive half-cycle and is again
recharged to 2Vp on the following
negative half-cycle. The resulting output
is a half-wave, capacitor-filtered voltage.
The peak inverse voltage across each
diode is 2Vp. If the diode were reversed,
the output voltage across C2 would have
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 2.9 The Diode Data Sheet
The data sheet for diodes and other devices gives detailed
information about specific characteristics such as the various
maximum current and voltage ratings, temperature range, and
voltage versus current curves. It is sometimes a very valuable
piece of information, even for a technician. There are cases
when you might have to select a replacement diode when the
type of diode needed may no longer be available.
Absolute Maximum Ratings The absolute maximum ratings
indicate the maximum values of the several parameters under
which the diode can be operated without damage or
degradation. For greatest reliability and longer life, the diode
should be operated well under these maximums. Generally,
the maximum ratings are specified for an operating ambient
temperature (TA) of 25 celcious unless otherwise stated.
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding
the device.The parameters given in Figure 2–71 are as follows:
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 2.10 Troubleshooting

Our study of these devices and how they work leads

more effective troubleshooting. Efficient
troubleshooting requires us to take logical steps in
sequence. Knowing how a device, circuit, or system
works when operating properly must be known
before any attempts are made to troubleshoot. The
symptoms shown by a defective device often point
directly to the point of failure. There are many
different methods for troubleshooting. We will
discuss a few.
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 Troubleshooting
Signal Tracing: One of the most popular and most accurate,
we look at signals or voltages through a complete circuit or
system to identify the point of failure. This method requires
more thorough knowledge of the circuit and what things should
look like at the different points throughout.

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 Troubleshooting
This is just one example of troubleshooting that illustrates the
effect of an open diode in this half-wave rectifier circuit.
Imagine what the effect would be if the diode were shorted.

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 Troubleshooting
This gives us an idea what would be seen in the case of an open
diode in a full-wave rectifier. Note the ripple frequency is now half of
what it was normally. Imagine the effects of a shorted diode.

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