TRANSMISSION

 LINE  OPERATION  
(Steady-­‐State)  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   1  

Transmission  Line  Opera<on  

Distributed  parameters:  
 
C:  F/m  
L:  H/m  
R:  Ω/m   RDC (T ) = ρ (T )

Ω
  A
all  per  unit  length  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   2  

Transmission  Line  Model  

i ( x + Δx,t ) i ( x,t )
LΔx RΔx

+ +
RECEIVING  
SENDING   v ( x + Δx,t ) CΔx GΔx v ( x,t ) END  
END  
− −

x + Δx x

∂i ( x,t )
v ( x,t ) = v ( x + Δx,t ) − i ( x,t ) RΔx − LΔx
∂t

∂v ( x + Δx,t )
i ( x,t ) = i ( x + Δx,t ) − v ( x + Δx,t ) GΔx − CΔx
∂t

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   3  

Transmission  Line  Model  

∂i ( x,t )
v ( x,t ) = v ( x + Δx,t ) − i ( x,t ) RΔx − LΔx
∂t
v ( x + Δx,t ) − v ( x,t ) ∂v ( x,t ) ∂i ( x,t )
lim = = i ( x,t ) R + L
Δx→0 Δx ∂x ∂t

∂v ( x + Δx,t )
i ( x,t ) = i ( x + Δx,t ) − v ( x + Δx,t ) GΔx − CΔx
∂t
i ( x + Δx,t ) − i ( x,t ) ∂i ( x,t ) ∂v ( x,t )
lim = = Gv ( x,t ) + C
Δx→0 Δx ∂x ∂t

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   4  

Transmission  Line  Equa<ons  
 
Time  Domain:  
  ∂v ( x,t ) ∂i ( x,t )
  ∂x
= Ri ( )
x,t + L
∂t
  ∂i ( x,t ) ∂v ( x,t )
  ∂x
= Gv ( )
x,t + C
∂t
 
 
Frequency  Domain:   ∂ → jω
∂t

dV ( x )
= ( R + jω L ) I ( x ) = zI ( x ) , z = R + jω L
dx
dI ( x )
= ( G + jω C )V ( x ) = yV ( x ) , y = G + jω C
dx

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   5  

Transmission  Line  Equa<ons  –  Solu<on    
 
dV d 2V dI
= zI ⇒ 2 = z
dx dx dx
dI
= yV
dx

d 2V
dx 2
− zyV = 0 ⇒ V ( x ) = A1
e +γ x
+ A2
e −γ x
, γ = zy

1 dV γ γ
I= =
z dx z
(
A1e+γ x − A2 e−γ x , =
z
zy
z
)
=
y 1
=
z Zc

⇒ I ( x) =
1
Zc
(
A1e+γ x − A2 e−γ x )
Zc  is  called  the  Characteris4c  Impedance  or  the  Surge  Impedance  (this  terminology  
usually  reserved  for  R  =  0  and    G  =  0)  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   6  

Transmission  Line  Equa<ons  –  Solu<on    
 
 
V ( x ) = A1e+γ x + A2 e−γ x , γ = zy
 
  I ( x ) = ( A1e − A2 e ) , Z c =
1 +γ x −γ x z
  Zc y
 
Receiving  End  Voltage:     VR = V (0)
⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ A1 ⎤
⎢ R ⎥ = ⎢ −1 −1 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ IR ⎥ ⎢⎣ Z c −Z c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

VR + Z c I R
⎡ A ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ VR
−1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 1 Z ⎤⎡ V ⎤ A1 =
1 ⎢ Z ⎥⎢ 2
⎢ 1
⎥= c
⎥= ⎢ c
⎥⎢ R ⎥
⎢ A2 ⎥ 2Z c ⎢ Z c−1 −1 ⎥ ⎢ I R
−1
⎥ 2 ⎢ 1 −Z c ⎥ ⎢ I R ⎥ VR − Z c I R
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ A2 =
2

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   7  

Transmission  Line  Equa<ons  –  Solu<on    
 
VR + Z c I R + γ x VR − Z c I R − γ x
V ( x) = e + e
2 2
V + Z c I R + γ x VR − Z c I R − γ x
I ( x) = R e − e
2Z c 2Z c

V ( x) =
( ) (
VR e + γ x + e − γ x + Z c I R e + γ x − e − γ x ) =V cosh γ x + Z c I R sinh γ x
R
2

I ( x) =
(
VR e + γ x − e − γ x ) (
+ Z c I R e+ γ x + e− γ x )=V R
sinh γ x + Z c I R cosh γ x
2Z c Zc

⎡ V ( x) ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ x Z c sinh γ x ⎤⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ A( x ) B ( x ) ⎤⎡ V ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ R ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ R ⎥
⎢ I ( x) ⎥ ⎢ Z −1 sinh γ x cosh γ x ⎥ ⎢ IR ⎥ ⎢ C ( x) D( x) ⎥ ⎢ IR ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ c ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   8  

ABCD  Parameters  
 
Sending  End  Voltage:   VS = V (  )
 
 
⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ  Z sinh γ  ⎤ ⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ A(  ) B (  ) ⎤ ⎡ V ⎤
  ⎢ S ⎥ = ⎢ c
⎥⎢ R ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ R ⎥
  ⎣ S ⎦ ⎣ c sinh γ  cosh γ  ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I R ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ C (  ) D (  ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I R
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−1
I Z
⎦
 
ABCD  Parameters:    
 
  IS IR
  +   + ⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ V ⎤
  VS
Two-­‐Port  
VR ⎢ S
⎥=⎢ A B
⎥⎢
R
⎥
  Network   ⎢ IS ⎥ ⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ I R ⎥
−   − ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 
           For  passive  networks   AD −   BC   = 1      
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   9  
Transmission  Lines  
 
Three  kinds  of  lines:  
 
1. Short  lines  (<  80  km)  
2. Medium  lines  (80  –  250  km)  
3. Long  lines  (>  250  km)      

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   10  

Short  Length  Lines  
 
Characterized  by  the  approxima<on   I S = I R

IS Z = z = ( R + jω L )  IR

+ +
VS VR Load  
− −

VR = VS − ZI S ⇒ VS = VR + ZI S = VR + ZI R
IS = I R
⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ A B 1 Z
⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
S

⎢ IS ⎥ ⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ I R ⎥ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎢ IR ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   11  

Medium  Length  Lines  
 
Characterized  by  the  approxima<on   G ≡ 0
IS Z = z = ( R + jω L )  IR

+ +
VS Y = y = jω C VR
− −

IS Z = z = ( R + jω L )  IR

+ +
Y Y
VS VR
2 2
− −

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   12  

Medium  Length  Lines   I = V Y + VS − VR IR =
VS − VR
− VR
Y
S S
  2 Z Z 2
KCLs:   IS Z = z = ( R + jω L )  IR
 
+ +
Y Y
VS VR
2 2
− −

⎛ ZY ⎞
VS = VR ⎜ 1+ ⎟ + ZI R
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ ZY ⎞ ⎛ ZY ⎞
I S = ⎜ 1+ YV + I 1+
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ R R ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎡ ZY ⎤
⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤ ⎢ 1+ Z ⎥⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ A B ⎥=⎢
2 ⎥ ⎢ VR
⎥⎢ ⎥
S

⎢ IS ⎥ ⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ I R ⎥ ⎢ ⎛ ZY ⎞ ZY ⎥⎢ I ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎜⎝ 1+ Y 1+ ⎥⎣ R ⎦
⎢⎣ 4 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎥⎦

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   13  

Long  Lines  
 
  ⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ  Z sinh γ  ⎤ ⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ A(  ) B (  ) ⎤ ⎡ V ⎤
⎢ S ⎥=⎢ c
⎥⎢ R ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ R ⎥
  ⎢ I S ⎥ ⎢ Z c−1 sinh γ  cosh γ  ⎥ ⎢ I R ⎥ ⎢ C (  ) D (  ) ⎥ ⎢ I R ⎥
  ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
For  computa<onal  purposes,  circuit  models  are  s<ll  o[en  used,  
such  as  the  pi-­‐model:     Equate  
  Z′
  ⎡ ⎤
Z ′Y ′
  ⎢ 1+ Z′ ⎥
Y′ Y′ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎢ 2 ⎥
  ⎢ =
⎥ ⎢
⎛ Z ′Y ′ ⎞ ⎥
2 2 ⎣ C D ⎦ Z ′Y ′
  ⎢ ⎜ 1+
4 ⎟⎠
Y ′ 1+ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎥⎦
 
 
(Note  the  symmetry)  What  must  Z’  and  Y’  equal  so  that  the  
ABCD  matrices  are  iden<cal?  
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   14  
Long  Lines  

⎡ Z ′Y ′ ⎤
⎢ 1+ Z′ ⎥
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ  Z c sinh γ  ⎤ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=
⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢⎣ Z c−1 sinh γ  cosh γ  ⎥ ⎢ ⎛ 1+ Z ′Y ′ ⎞ Y 1+ Z ′Y ′ ⎥
⎦ ⎢ ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ′ 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
z
B = Z ′ = Z c sinh γ  = sinh γ 
y
Z ′Y ′
A = D = 1+
2
⎛ Z ′Y ′ ⎞
C = ⎜ 1+ ⎟ Y′
⎝ 4 ⎠

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   15  

Long  Lines  
 
1 1 z sinh γ 
Write:   Z ′ = z = z Z c sinh γ  = z sinh γ  = z
z z y γ
 
Similarly:  

Z ′Y ′ Y ′ cosh γ  − 1 cosh γ  − 1 γ  cosh γ  − 1 y γ

1+ = cosh γ  ⇒ = = = = tanh
2 2 Z′ sinh γ  z sinh γ  z 2
z
γ

γ
Y ′ y y 2 y γ  y 2 1 γ  y tanh 2
⇒ = = tanh = tanh =
2 2 2 y z 2 2  zy 2 2 γ
2

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   16  

Long  Lines:  What  must  Z’  and  Y’  equal  so  that  the  ABCD  
matrices  are  iden<cal?  

sinh γ 
Z ′ = z
γ

Y′ Y ′ y tanh γ  2
=
2 2 2 γ 2

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   17  

Example:  A  single-­‐circuit  60-­‐Hz  transmission  line  is  370  km  
(230)  mi)  long.  The  conductors  are  Rook  with  flat  horizontal  
spacing  and  7.25  m  (23.8  [)  between  conductors.  The  load  on  
the  line  is  125  MW  at  215  kV  with  unity  power  factor.  Find  the  
voltage,  current,  and  power  at  the  sending  end  and  the  voltage  
regula<on  of  the  line.  Also,  determine  the  wavelength  and  the  
velocity  of  propaga<on  of  the  line.  (See  Tables  that  follow)  

23.8  \  

Deq = 3 23.8 × 23.8 × ( 2 × 23.8) = 30 ft

h]p://www.aluminum.org/AM/Template.cfm?Sec4on=20101&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=30772  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   18  

Example:  
⎛ 1⎞
z = r + j2π fL = r + j f µo ln ( Dm ) + j f µo ln ⎜ ⎟ Ω / m
 ⎝ Ds ⎠
xd    
xa
= 0.1603+ j ( 0.415 + 0.4127 ) = 0.1603+ j0.8277 = 0.8431∠79.04°

10−6
y= j = j5.105 × 10−6
0.0950 + 0.1009

γ  =  zy = 230 0.8431∠79.04° × 5.105 × 10−6 ∠90° = 0.4772∠84.52°

z
Zc = = 406.38∠ − 5.48°
y

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   19  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   20  
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   21  
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   22  
Example:   215,000
  V R
= = 124,130∠0° to neutral
3
  125,000
  I R
= = 335.7∠0° amps
3 × 215,000
 
 
  ⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ  Z c sinh γ  ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤
⎢ S
⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
  ⎢ I S ⎥ ⎢ Z c sinh γ  cosh γ  ⎥ ⎢ I R ⎥
−1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
 
 
I  used  Mathcad  for  the  details…  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   23  

Example:  I  used  Mathcad  for  the  details…  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   24  

Example:  Find  the  equivalent  pi-­‐circuit  parameters  and  
compare  them  with  results  from  the  exact  analysis:    
 
 
  <  4%  error  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Anything  within  10%  is  generally  acceptable.  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   25  

SURGE  IMPEDANCE  LOADING  (SIL)  is  the  power  delivered  by  a  
lossless  line  to  a  resis<ve  load  equal  to  the  surge  impedance  
L
Zc =
C
IS IR

+ +
L
VS VR Zc =
C
− −

x= x=0

⎡ V ( x) ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ x Z c sinh γ x ⎤ ⎡ cos β x jZ c sin β x ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤

⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ I ( x) ⎥ ⎢ Z −1 sinh γ x cosh γ x ⎥ R = 0 ⎢ jZ c−1 sin β x cos β x ⎥ ⎢ I R ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ c ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
G=0

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   26  

Voltage  Profiles  –  Lossless  Line  
 
  V ( x ) = VR cos β x + jZ c I R sin β x
  I ( x ) = jZ c−1VR sin β x + I R cos β x
  V − jZ c I R sin β  V − VR cos β 
V (  ) = VS ⇒ VR = S , IR = S
  cos β  jZ c sin β 
 
Surge  Impedance  Load   I R = VR Zc ⇒ V ( x ) = VR exp ⎡⎣ jβ x ⎤⎦ = VS
 
No  Load   I R = 0 ⇒ V ( x ) = VRNL cos β x
 
VS
Short  Circuit  Load   R SC ( )
V = 0 ⇒ V x = Z I sin β x, I =
c R R
Z c sin β 

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   27  

Voltage  Profiles  –  Lossless  Line  

No-­‐Load  

SIL  
VS

Full-­‐Load  
Short  

λ
x= x=0
4
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   28  
Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  
 
Expression  for  the  real  power  delivered  by  a  lossless  line  
(derived  from  the  pi-­‐model)  
  VS − VR Y′
IR = − VR
  IS Z′ Z′ 2 IR
 
+ +
  Y′ Y′
VS VR
  2 2
− −
 
 
Assume  that  Vr  and  Vs  are  held  constant  and  that  the  angle  
between  them  is  δ    

VS e jδ − VR jω C ′
IR = − VR
jX ′ 2

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   29  

Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  
 
Complex  power  delivered  to  receiving  end:  
 
  ⎛ VS e− jδ − VR jω C ′ ⎞
S R = VR I R = VR ⎜
*
+ VR
  ⎝ − jX ′ 2 ⎟⎠
  VSVR ( cos δ − j sin δ ) − VR 2 ω C ′
= j + jVR 2
  X′ 2
  VSVR ⎛ VSVR VR 2 2 ω C ′
⎞
= sin δ + j ⎜ cos δ − + VR
  X′ ⎝ X′ X′ 2 ⎟⎠
 
Real  Power:  
VSVR
P = PR = PS = Re ⎡⎣ S R ⎤⎦ = sin δ
X′

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   30  

Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  
 
Real  Power:   P = PR = PS = Re ⎡⎣ S R ⎤⎦ = VSVR sin δ
X′
 
 
     Real  Power  
  Pmax =
VSVR
  X′
 
 
 
δ
  90°
 
Pmax  is  known  as  the  Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  of  a  Lossless  
Line  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   31  

Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  
 
The  steady-­‐state  stability  limit  is  o[en  expressed  in  terms  of  
SIL.  Recall  
Z ′ = Z c sinh γ 
 
and  for  a  lossless  line  this  becomes   Z ′ = jZc sin β  = jX ′
 
Then  
  VV VSVR VV sin δ
P = S R sin δ = sin δ = S R
  X′ Z c sin β  Z c sin 2π  λ
 
Normalizing  (per-­‐unit)  

VS VR Vrated 2 sin δ sin δ VS . p.u.VR. p.u SIL

P= = VS . p.u.VR. p.u SIL ⇒ Pmax =
Vrated Vrated Z c sin 2π  λ sin 2π  λ sin 2π  λ

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   32  

Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  
 
 
 
  VS . p.u. = VR. p.u = 1
 
 
 
 
 
 
Observa<ons:  
• Pmax  is  propor<onal  to  the  square  of  the  line  voltage  
• Pmax  decreases  with  line  length  
 

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   33  

Maximum  Power  Flow  via  ABCD  Parameters  
  ⎡ Z ′Y ′ ⎤
⎢ 1+ Z′ ⎥
Recall:   ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ cosh γ  Zc sinh γ  ⎤ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −1 ⎥=
⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ Z c sinh γ  cosh γ  ⎥ ⎢ ⎛ Z ′Y ′ ⎞ Z ′Y ′ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎜⎝ 1+ 4 ⎟⎠ Y ′ 1+ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
z
B = Z ′ = Z c sinh γ  = sinh γ 
y
Z ′Y ′
A = D = 1+
2
⎛ Z ′Y ′ ⎞
C = ⎜ 1+ ⎟ Y′
⎝ 4 ⎠

⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤ V − AVR
⎢ ⎥=⎢ A B
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⇒ VS = AVR + BI R ⇒ I R = S
S

⎢ IS ⎥ ⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ I R ⎥ B
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   34  

Maximum  Power  Flow  via  ABCD  Parameters  
 
Subs<tu<ng:   A = cosh γ  = A ∠θ A
  B = Z ′ = Z ′ ∠θ Z
  VS = VS ∠δ
 
VR = VR ∠0°
  jδ jθ
  V − AV V e − A e VR A

IR = S R
= S jθ
  B Z ′ e Z

The  complex  power  delivered  to  the  receiving  end  is:  

j(θ Z −δ )
A VR e (
2 j θ Z −θ A )
VS VR e
S = PR + jQR = VR I R* = −
Z′ Z′
2
VS VR A VR
⇒ PR = cos (θ Z − δ ) − cos (θ Z − θ A ) ,
Z′ Z′
2
VS VR A VR
QR = sin (θ Z − δ ) − sin (θ Z − θ A )
Z′ Z′
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   35  
Maximum  Power  Flow  via  ABCD  Parameters  
 
For  a  lossless  line:   θ A = 0, Z ′ = jX ′ = X ′∠90°
  VS VR A VR
2
VS VR
Thus:   R P =
X′
cos ( 90° − δ ) −
X′
cos ( 90° ) =
X′
sin δ
                       (same  as  previous  Pmax)  
 
For  a  lossy  line,  
2
  PR =
VS
V R
cos (θ Z − δ ) −
A V R
cos (θ Z − θ A )
  max
θZ = δ Z′ Z′
  VS VR A VR
2

  = − cos (θ Z − θ A )
Z′ Z′
 
The  presence  of  the  second  term  and  the  fact  that  Z’  >  X’  means  
that  PRmax  is  less  than  that  of  a  lossless  line.  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   36  

Line  Loadability  
 
In  prac<ce  lines  are  not  operated  at  their  theore<cal  maximum  
power.  
 
It  is  operated  below  this  limit  to  maintain  stability  during  transient  
disturbances.  
 
Loadability  is  usually  limited  by  the  thermal  ra<ngs  of  the  
conductors  or  equipment  ra<ngs,  not  by  voltage  drop  as  done  here.  
 
The  Steady-­‐State  Stability  Limit  serves  more  as  maximum  indicator  
than  as  an  opera<onal  ideal.  

8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   37  

Reac<ve  Compensa<on  Techniques  
 
Reac<ve  components  are  some<mes  used  on  medium  and  long-­‐
length  lines  to  increase  loadability  and  to  maintain  voltages  near  
rated  values.  Two  approaches  are  used.  
 
1. Shunt  inductors  are  installed  at  selected  points  along  the  line  
from  each  phase  to  neutral.  Since  inductors  absorb  reac<ve  
power  they  serve  to  reduce  overvoltages  during  light  load  
condi<ons.  They  also  reduce  transient  overvoltages  dues  to  
switching  and  lightning  surges.  However,  they  also  reduce  line  
loadability  if  they  are  not  removed  under  full-­‐load  condi<ons.  
2. Series  capacitors  are  used  on  long  lines  to  increase  the  line  
loadability.  Capacitor  banks  are  installed  in  series  with  each  
phase  conductor  at  selected  points  along  the  line.  Their  effect  is  
to  reduce  the  net  series  impedance  of  the  line  hence  reducing  
line  voltage  drops.  
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   38  
Reac<ve  Compensa<on  Techniques  
  Series  Compensa4on  
 
 
  Shunt  Compensa4on  
 
 
 
Transmission  Line  
  X′ X′
IS − β − β IR
  2 X′ R′ 2
  + +
  VS −α
Y′ Y′ Y′ Y′
−α VR
  2 2 2 2
− −
 
  Circuit  Model  
 
Examples  will  help  to  clarify  this…  
8/20/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   39  
Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
A  three-­‐phase  765-­‐kV,  60-­‐Hz,  300-­‐km  line  has  
  z = 0.0165 + j0.3303 Ω / km
  y = j4.674 × 10−6 S / km
 
Calculate  the  exact  ABCD  parameters  and  compare  the  B  value  with  
that  of  the  pi-­‐model.  

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   40  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   41  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
Compare  Z  and  Y  with  Z’  and  Y’  

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   42  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
Neglec<ng  line  losses,  find  the  steady-­‐state  stability  limit  for  the  
line  assuming  a  266.a-­‐ohm  surge  impedance  and  a  5000-­‐km  
wavelength.  Use  VS  =  VR  =  765  kV.  

VSVR 1
Pmax =
Z c sin 2π  λ

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   43  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
Neglec<ng  line  losses,  find  the  steady-­‐state  stability  limit  for  the  
line  assuming  a  266.a-­‐ohm  surge  impedance  and  a  5000-­‐km  
wavelength.  Use  VS  =  VR  =  765  kV.  
VSVR 1
Pmax =
Z c sin 2π  λ

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   44  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
Determine  the  theore<cal  maximum  power  that  the  line  can  
deliver.  
2
VS VR A VR
PR = − cos (θ Z − θ A )
max
θZ = δ Z′ Z′

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   45  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
Suppose  the  line  consists  of  four  conductors  each  of  which  can  
carry  a  maximum  current  of  4800  amps.  The  sending  end  voltage  is  
held  constant  at  its  rated  value.  Determine:  
 
a. The  line  loadability.  Assume  that  the  receiving  end  voltage  is  
reduce  to  0.95  of  its  rate  value  and  that  δ  =  35o  (maximum  
angle  across  the  line).  
b. The  full-­‐load  current  at  0.986  p.f.  (leading)  based  on  the  above  
line  loadability.  
c. The  exact  receiving  end  voltage  for  the  ful-­‐  load  current  found  in  
part  (b).  
d. The  percent  voltage  regula<on  for  the  full-­‐load  current.  

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   46  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
a. The  line  loadability.  Assume  that  the  receiving  end  voltage  is  
reduce  to  0.95  of  its  rate  value  and  that  δ  =  35o  (maximum  
angle  across  the  line).   V V AV
2

PR = S R
cos (θ Z − δ ) − R
cos (θ Z − θ A )
Z′ Z′

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   47  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
b. The  full-­‐load  current  at  0.986  p.f.  (leading)  based  on  the  above  
line  loadability.  

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   48  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
c. The  exact  receiving  end  voltage  for  the  ful-­‐  load  current  found  in  
part  (b).  
⎡ V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ VR ⎤
⎢ S ⎥=⎢ A B
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⇒ VS = AVR + BI R
⎢ IS ⎥ ⎣ C D ⎦ ⎢ IR ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   49  

Text  Example  5.2  –  5.6,  5.9  –  5.10  
 
d. The  percent  voltage  regula<on  for  the  full-­‐load  current.  

VS = AVR + BI R

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   50  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10  
 
Iden<cal  shunt  reactances  (inductors)  are  connected  from  each  line  
to  neutral  at  both  ends  of  the  line  during  light  load  providing  75%  
compensa<on.  The  reactances  are  removed  during  heavy  load  
condi<ons.  
 
Full  load  is  1.90  kA  at  unity  p.f.  at  730  kV.  Assuming  that  the  
sending  end  voltage  is  constant  determine:  
 
a. The  percent  voltage  regula<on  of  the  uncompensated  line.  
b. The  equivalent  shunt  admiqance  and  series  impedance  
compensated  line.  
c. Percent  voltage  regula<on  of  the  compensated  line.  
   

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   51  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10  
 
a. The  percent  voltage  regula<on  of  the  uncompensated  line.  

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   52  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10  
 
b. The  equivalent  shunt  admiqance  compensated  line.  
c. Percent  voltage  regula<on  of  the  compensated  line.    
IS X′ R′ IR

+ +
Y′ Y′ Y′ Y′
VS −α α = 0.75 −α VR
2 2 2 2
− −

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   53  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10  
 
c. No  suppose  iden<cal  series  capacitors  are  installed  in  each  
phase  at  both  ends  of  the  line  providing  30%  compensa<on.  
Determine  the  maximum  power  this  line  can  deliver  and  
compare  it  with  the  uncompensated  line.  Assume  VS  =  VR.  
   
X′ X′
IS −β −β IR
2 X′ R′ 2

+ +
Y′ Y′
VS β = 0.25 VR
2 2
− −

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   54  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10    

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   55  

Text  Example  5.2,  5.3,  5.4,  5.5,  5.6,  5.9,  5.10    

8/21/13   Tramsmission  Line  Opera4on   56