7.

2: Waves
1. The Progressive Wave

Definition A progressive wave or travelling wave is a disturbance moving from a

source to surrounding places. As a result energy is transferred from one point
to another.
Examples: Waves travelling along a slinky spring, water waves, electromagnet
waves and sound waves.
Wavelength, frequency and speed

1. The above is a snapshot of the wave profile or waveform of the wave. If the
oscillator oscillates with a frequency f, each point in the medium oscillates
with the same frequency. The frequency of the wave = The frequency of
the source.
2. The distance between any particle and the nearest one which is at the same
stage of its motion, for example the distance between corresponding crests
or troughs is called the wavelength, λ(m).
3. The amplitude, a (m), of the, wave is the greatest displacement of any
particle from its equilibrium position.
4. The period, T(s), is the ti.me taken for the wave to travel one wavelength.
5. The frequency, f (Hz), is the number of complete wavelengths that pass a
fixed point in one second.
1
6. The relationship between f and T is: 𝑓 =𝑇

7. If the source continues to vibrate with a constant frequency, f, then f waves

will be produced per second and the wave advances f𝜆 in 1 second. If v is the
speed then: 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
This relationship holds for all wave motions.

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2. Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Transverse waves

1. A transverse wave is one in which the propagation is carried out by vibrations

perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave. Examples of transverse
waves are water waves, waves plucked on strings, transverse pulses generated
in slinky springs, EM waves
2. Each particle vibrates perpendicular to the direction of propagation with the
same amplitude and frequency
3. The following is a displacement – distance graph for a transverse mechanical
wave.
 Figure (a) - The dots show the displacements 𝒚 of the particles of the
transmitting medium at different distances 𝒙 from the source at an instant
in time.
 Figure(b) – The corresponding displacement distance graph

4. The wavelength, 𝜆, is generally taken to be the distance between two

successive crests or two successive troughs.

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Longitudinal Waves

1. A longitudinal wave is one in which the vibrations occur in the same direction
as the direction of travel of the wave. Examples are sound waves, longitudinal
pulses in slinky springs.
2. Each particle vibrates about its mean position with the same amplitude and
frequency
3. The following figure shows the displacement – distance graph for a
longitudinal wave.
 Figure (c) - The dots show that the displacement, 𝒚, of the particles at
distances, 𝒙, is in the line of travel of the wave at a particular time.
 Figure (b) - In the corresponding displacement - distance graph 𝒚 and 𝒙 are
at right angles to each other.
 Thus one can say that displacements to the right are plotted above the x -
axis and displacements to the left are plotted below the x – axis.

4. Regions of high particle density are called compressions and regions of low
particle density are called rarefactions.
5. These regions move in the direction of travel of the wave.

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6. The wavelength, 𝜆, is the distance between two successive rarefactions or

successive compressions.
7. The following graph shows the variation of the pressure along a longitudinal
wave.

It is clear from the diagram that regions of compression correspond to

maximum pressure, regions of rarefactions correspond to negative pressure
and normal regions correspond undisturbed medium (air).

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Displacement – time graphs for Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

1. The displacement – time graph above applies for both transverse and
longitudinal waves. For Longitudinal waves a convention may be adopted, for
example, displacements to the right might be plotted above the axis.
2. The amplitude of vibration of a single particle is also the amplitude of the
wave.

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3. The Progressive Wave Equation

1. Suppose a disturbance hits a particle at O and suppose that the oscillation of

the particle at O is simple harmonic of frequency f. The displacement with
time t is given by:

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕

Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒.

2. If the wave travels from left to right, a particle at P, a distance x from O,

will lag behind O buy a phase angle ϕ.
3. Therefore, the displacement y of a particle at P is:
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
4. Now to find the phase of the particle (x m from the origin)
λ m =2𝜋 rad
x m = ? (ϕ)
𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝝋=
𝝀
5. Therefore, the progressive wave equation may be written as:
𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − )
𝝀
6. Another way of writing the equation is:

𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙)

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𝟐𝝅
Where 𝒌 = and is called the wavenumber.
𝝀

7.The negative sign in the brackets indicates that since the wave moves from
left to right (in the positive x – direction) the vibrations such as P, to right of
O, will lag on that at O.
8. If the wave travels in the opposite direction, from right to left ( in the
negative x – direction), it will arrive at P before O. Thus vibrations at P lead
those at O. Therefore the progressive equation for a wave travelling in the
opposite direction is:

𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝒌𝒙)

The sign is positive to indicate the opposite direction.

Examples on Progressive Waves

1. A progressive wave is represented by the following equation:
20𝜋
𝑦 = 0.1 sin (200𝜋𝑡 − 𝑥).
17
Find
a) The frequency
b) The wavelength
c) the speed of the wave motion
d) The phase difference in radians between a point which is 0.25 m from the
origin and another point which is 1.10 m from the origin.
e) Write down the equation of a wave which has double the amplitude of this
wave, double the frequency but is travelling in the opposite direction.

2. A wave is described by the following equation:

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
a) Is the wave travelling in the positive or negative x – direction?
b) Given that the maximum amplitude is 1×10−7 m, the wave number k = 20, ω =
6.6×103 sec-1. Find
i) The speed of the wave itself.
ii) The maximum speed of a particle disturbed by the wave.

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3. Given that the progressive wave equation is:

2𝜋
𝑦 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3.5(150𝑡 − 𝑥)

Write down
a) the periodic time
b) the velocity
c) the amplitude

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4. Phase Interpretation Graphically

The following graph shows the traces obtained on a double beam oscilloscope.
Trace 2 corresponds to the progressive wave obtained from an audio frequency
oscillator loudspeaker. Trace 1 corresponds to the signal received by a
microphone placed in front of the loudspeaker.

Set up for experiment to calculate speed of sound using progressive waves

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5. Wavefronts and Rays

1. A wavefront is a line or surface on which the disturbance has the

same phase at all points.
2. A point source S generates circular wavefronts in two dimensions and
spherical wavefronts in three dimensions. (fig (a))
3. A line source S1S2 creates wavefronts that are straight in two dmensions
and cylindrical in three dimensions. (fig (b))
4. Plane wavefronts are produced by a plane source or by any source at a
distant point.
5. A line at right angles to a wavefront which shows its direction of travel is
called a ray.

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6. Experimental Determination of the speed of sound in free air using

progressive waves

1. An audio – frequency (af) oscillator is connected to the loudspeaker L and to

the Y2 plates of a double – beam oscilloscope. A microphone M, mounted on
an optical bench, is connected to the Y2 plates.

2. M is moved away from or towards L, until the two traces on the screen are in
phase. Mark and record the position of M on the optical bench.

3. M is moved slowly until the phase of two signals on the screen is seen to
change from 𝜋⁄2 to 𝜋 and then to be in phase again. The shift of M is
measured and is equal to λ, the wavelength.

4. The procedure is repeated and an average value of λ is found.

5. The speed of sound is calculated from the equation

𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀

Where f is the frequency obtained on the oscillator dial.

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7. Wave properties
Waves can be classified as being either mechanical or electromagnetic.
 Mechanical waves require a material medium for their propagation. For
example water waves, sound waves, waves in stretched strings.
 Electromagnetic waves consist of a disturbance in the form of varying
electric and magnetic fields. No medium is necessary and they can travel
through a vacuum. For example Light waves, X – rays etc.

1. Reflection
All wave types can be reflected. Light waves and sound waves are reflected
from a plane surface such that the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
2. Refraction
Waves can also be refracted i.e. their direction changes when they enter a
new medium. This change in direction occurs because there is a change in the
speed of the waves when they enter a different medium.
3. Diffraction
Waves can also be diffracted. Diffraction is the spreading of waves when
they pass through apertures or around obstacles. The smaller the width of
the aperture, as compared to the wavelength, the greater is the spreading or
diffraction of the waves.
The wavelength of light waves is ≈ 6 × 10−7 m, which is very small, hence no
diffraction occurs around obstacles of normal size. If the apertures are
very narrow or the obstacles are very small electromagnetic waves can be
diffracted. Sound waves are diffracted round wide openings such as
doorways because their wavelength is comparable with the width of the
opening.
4. Interference
Interference occurs when two or more waves of the same frequency overlap.
For an interference pattern to occur, constructive interference
(reinforcement) and destructive interference (cancellation) occurs. Light
waves, sound waves and electromagnetic waves all experience interference.

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8. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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9. The demonstration of Reflection and Refraction using visible light and

Microwaves

1. Reflection and refraction using light waves are those done in optics. Plane
mirror and rectangular glass block are used.
2. To demonstrate reflection and refraction microwaves of about 3 cm may be
used. They are radiated from a horn waveguide T and are received by a
similar waveguide R or by a smaller probe X. The detected wave produces a
deflection in a connected meter.
The following diagram shows experiments which may be performed in a lab

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10. Electromagnetic Waves

1. All Electromagnetic (EM) waves exhibit reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarisation.
2. When they fall on a body, partial reflection, transmission or absorption
occurs: the part absorbed becomes internal energy.

Electromagnetic waves such as light waves are transverse waves. However, it

is not particles which oscillate, but an electric field E coupled with a magnetic
field B, as shown above.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. Electromagnetic waves consist of varying electric and magnetic fields. The
two fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of travel of
the wave. Each field vibrates at the same frequency, the frequency of the
wave.
2. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in vacuum ≈ 3×108 ms-1
3. Electromagnetic waves are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
4. Electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines (within the limit set by
diffraction).
5. Since electromagnetic waves are transverse, they are capable of being
polarised.
6. Electromagnetic waves can be caused to produce interference effects.

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11. Plane Polarisation

1. Polarisation of light provides the evidence that light are waves are transverse
waves.
2. If all the vibrations of a transverse wave are in a single plane which contains
the direction of propagation of the wave, the wave is said to plane-polarised.

Use of Polaroids to demonstrate the transverse nature of visible light

Polaroid is a material which transmits only those components of any light
incident on it which are in a particular direction.

1. Consider a beam of unpolarised light incident on two sheets of Polaroid, P and

Q, whose reference directions are parallel to each other.
2. The unpolarised light has vibrations which are at right angles to the direction
of propagation.
3. ↑ and ∙ indicate directions parallel to the polaroid and perpendicular to the
plane of paper respectively.
4. The vibrations which are parallel to the polaroid pass through while those
which are perpendicular to the plane of paper are completely absorbed by P.
Therefore, the beam emerging from P has half the intensity of the original
unpolarised beam. Thus the beam incident on Q is plane polarized in the plane
of paper and all the light passes through Q.
5. If Q is rotated about the direction of propagation, the intensity of the light
decreases until it becomes zero. This occurs when the reference direction of
Q becomes perpendicular to that of P.

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Use of grid of vertical wires on vertically polarized microwaves

1. A grille of parallel metal rods is rotated between:

a) A source T of 3 cm electromagnetic microwaves
b) A detector, a probe P, with a meter connected to it.
2. When the rods are horizontal meter reading is high, figure (i). So a wave
travels past the grille.
3. When the grille is turned round, so rods are vertical, there is no deflection on
meter reading, figure (ii). So waves do not pass the grille.
4. This shows that microwaves produced by T are plane-polarised and are
transverse waves.
5. Also if T is placed in front of the probe P without the grille, the meter gives
a high reading. If T is now rotated about its axis by 90°, the meter reading
falls to zero. The probe P detects vibrations in one plane. So when T is
rotated by 90° the plane – polarized waves are not detected.

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