DIGIT

AL WHAT IS A LOGIC GATE?

FUNDA  A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by

MENT
using electronic components like diodes,
transistors, resistors, and more.
 As the name implies, a logic gate is designed to

ALS perform logical operations in digital systems like

computers, communication systems, etc.
 Therefore, we can say that the building blocks of a
digital circuit are logic gates, which execute numerous logical operations that
are required by any digital circuit.
 A logic gate can take two or more inputs but only produce one output. The
output of a logic gate depends on the combination of inputs and the logical
operation that the logic gate performs.
 Logic gates use Boolean algebra to execute logical processes. Logic gates are
found in nearly every digital gadget we use on a regular basis. Logic gates are
used in the architecture of our telephones, laptops, tablets, and memory
devices.
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
 A logic gate is a digital gate that allows data to be manipulated. Logic gates,
use logic to determine whether or not to pass a signal.
 Logic gates, on the other hand, govern the flow of information based on a set
of rules.
The logic gates can be classified into the following major types:

1. Basic Logic Gates – There are three basic logic gates:

 AND Gate
 OR Gate
 NOT Gate
2. Universal Logic Gates – In digital electronics, the following two logic gates are
considered as universal logic gates:
 NOR Gate
 NAND Gate
3. Derived Logic Gates – The following two are the derived logic gates used in
digital systems:
  XOR Gate
 XNOR Gate

AND GATE

 In digital electronics, the AND gate is one of the basic logic gate that
performs the logical multiplication of inputs applied to it.
 It generates a high or logic 1 output, only when all the inputs applied to it are
high or logic 1. Otherwise, the output of the AND gate is low or logic 0.

PROPERTIES OF AND GATE:

 AND gate can accept two or more than two input values at a time.
 When all of the inputs are logic 1, the output of this gate is logic 1.
 The operation of an AND gate is described by a mathematical expression,
which is called the Boolean expression of the AND gate.

𝑍=𝐴.𝐵Z=A.B
For two-input AND gate, the Boolean expression is given by,

Where, A and B are inputs to the AND gate, while Z denotes the output of the AND
gate.

𝑍=𝐴.𝐵.𝐶.𝐷…Z=A.B.C.D…
We can extend this expression to any number of input variables, such as,

TRUTH TABLE OF AND GATE:

The truth table of a two input AND gate is given below:

Input Output

A B A AND B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

SYMBOL OF AND GATE:

The logic symbol of a two input AND gate is shown in the following figure.

Symbol of Two-Input AND Gate

OR GATE

 In digital electronics, there is a type of basic logic gate which produces a low
or logic 0 output only when its all inputs are low or logic 0.
 For all other input combinations, the output of the OR gate is high or logic 1.
 This logic gate is termed as OR gate.
 An OR gate can be designed to have two or more inputs but only one output.
The primary function of the OR gate is to perform the logical sum operation.

PROPERTIES OF OR GATE:

 It can have two or more input lines at a time.

 When all of the inputs to the OR gate are low or logic 0, the output of it is low or
logic 0.
The operation of an OR gate can be mathematically described through a
mathematical expression called Boolean expression of the OR gate.

The boolean expression for a two input OR gate is given by,

Z=A+B
The boolean expression for a three-input OR gate is,
Z=A+B+C
Here, A, B, and C are inputs and Z is the output variables. We can extend this
boolean expression to any number of input variables.

TRUTH TABLE OF OR GATE:

The truth table of an OR gate describes the relationship between inputs and output.
The following is the truth table for the two-input OR gate:
Input Output

A B A OR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

SYMBOL OF OR GATE:

The logic symbol of a two-input OR gate is shown in the following figure.

Symbol of Two-Input OR Gate

NOT GATE

 In digital electronics, the NOT gate is another basic logic gate used to perform
compliment of an input signal applied to it.
 It takes only one input and one output. The output of the NOT gate is
complement of the input applied to it.
 Therefore, if we apply a low or logic 0 output to the NOT gate is gives a high
or logic 1 output and vice-versa. The NOT gate is also known as inverter, as it
performs the inversion operation.

PROPERTIES OF NOT GATE:

 The output of a NOT gate is complement or inverse of the input applied to it.
 NOT gate takes only one output.
The logical operation of the NOT gate is described by its Boolean expression, which

𝑍=𝐴‾Z=A
is given below.

The bar over the input variable A represents the inversion operation.

Truth Table of OR Gate:

The truth table describes the relationship between input and output. The following is
the truth table for the NOT gate:

Input Output

A NOT A

0 1

1 0

SYMBOL OF NOT GATE

The logic circuit symbol of a NOT gate is shown in the following figure. Here, A is
the input line and Z is the output line.

Symbol of NOT the Gate

NOR GATE

 The NOR gate is a type of universal logic gate that can take two or more
inputs but one output.
  It is basically a combination of two basic logic gates i.e., OR gate and NOT
gate. Thus, it can be expressed as,
NOR Gate = OR Gate + NOT Gate
In other words, a NOR gate is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.

Properties of NOR Gate:

The following are two important properties of NOR gate:

 A NOR gate can have two or more inputs and gives an output.
 A NOR gate gives a high or logic 1 output only when its all inputs are low or
logic 0.
Similar to basic logic gates, we can describe the operation of a NOR gate using a
mathematical equation called Boolean expression of the NOR gate.

𝐶=𝐴+𝐵‾C=A+B
The boolean expression of a two input NOR gate is given below:

We can extend this expression to any number of input variables.

In the above Boolean expressions, the variables A and B are called input variables
while the variable C is called the output variable.

TRUTH TABLE OF NOR GATE:

The following is the truth table of a two-input NOR gate showing the relationship
between its inputs and output:
Input Output

A B A NOR B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0
 Symbol of the NOR Gate

NAND GATE

 In digital electronics, the NAND gate is another type of universal logic gate
used to perform logical operations.
 The NAND gate performs the inverted operation of the AND gate. Similar to
NOR gate, the NAND gate can also have two or more input lines but only one
output line.
The NAND gate is also represented as a combination of two basic logic gates
namely, AND gate and NOT gate. Hence, it can be expressed as
NAND Gate = AND Gate + NOT Gate

Properties of NAND Gate:

 NAND gate can take two or more inputs at a time and produces one output based
on the combination of inputs applied.
 NAND gate produces a low or logic 0 output only when its all inputs are high or
logic 1.
We can describe the expression of NAND gate through a mathematical equation
called its Boolean expression. Here is the Boolean expression of a two input NAND

𝐶=𝐴𝐵‾C=AB
gate.

In this expression, A and B are the input variables and C is the output variable. We
can extend this relation to any number of input variables like three, four, or more.

Truth Table of NAND Gate:

The truth table is a table of inputs and output that describes the operation of the
NAND gate and shows the logical relationship between them:
 Input Output

A B A NAND B

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Symbol of NAND Gate:

The logic symbol of a NAND gate is represented as a AND gate with a bubble on its
output end as depicted in the following figure. It is the symbol of a two-input NAND
gate.

Symbol of NAND Gate

XOR GATE

 In digital electronics, there is a specially designed logic gate named, XOR

gate, which is used in digital circuits to perform modulo sum.
 It is also referred to as Exclusive OR gate or Ex-OR gate.
 The XOR gate can take only two inputs at a time and give an output. The
output of the XOR gate is high or logic 1 only when its two inputs are
dissimilar.
PROPERTIES OF XOR GATE:
 It can accept only two inputs at a time. There is nothing like a three or more input
XOR gate.
 The output of the XOR gate is logic 1 or high, when its inputs are dissimilar.
The operation of the XOR gate can be described through a mathematical equation
called its Boolean expression. The following is the Boolean expression for the

𝑍=𝐴⊕𝐵Z=A⊕B
output of the XOR gate.

Here, Z is the output variable, and A and B are the input variables.

𝑍=𝐴𝐵‾+𝐴‾𝐵Z=AB+AB
This expression can also be written as follows:

TRUTH TABLE OF XOR GATE:

The truth table is a table of inputs and output that describe the relationship between
them and the operation of the XOR gate for different input combinations. The truth
table of the XOR gate is given below:

Input Output

A B A XOR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

SYMBOL OF XOR GATE:

The logic symbol of an XOR gate is shown in the following figure.

Symbol of XOR Gate

XNOR GATE
  The XNOR gate is another type of special purpose logic gate used to
implement exclusive operation in digital circuits.
 It is used to implement the Exclusive NOR operation in digital circuits. It is
also called the Ex-NOR or Exclusive NOR gate.
 It is a combination of two logic gates namely, XOR gate and NOT gate.
Thus, it can be expressed as,
XNOR Gate = XOR Gate + NOT Gate
The output of an XNOR gate is high or logic 1 when its both inputs are similar.
Otherwise the output is low or logic 0. Hence, the XNOR gate is used as a similarity
detector circuit.

PROPERTIES OF XNOR GATE:

The following are two key properties of XNOR gate:

 XNOR gate takes only two inputs and produces one output.
 The output of the XNOR gate is high or logic 1 only when it has similar inputs.
The operation of XNOR gate can be described through a mathematical equation
called the boolean expression of XNOR gate. Here is the boolean expression of the

𝑌=𝐴⊙𝐵Y=A⊙B
XNOR gate.

𝑌=𝐴𝐵+𝐴‾𝐵‾Y=AB+AB
We can also write this expression as follows:

Here, the A and B are inputs and Y is the output.

TRUTH TABLE OF XNOR GATE:

The truth table of the XNOR gate is given below. This truth table is describing the
relationship between inputs and output of the XNOR gate.
Input Output

A B A XNOR B

0 0 1

0 1 0
 Input Output

1 0 0

1 1 1

SYMBOL OF XNOR GATE:

The logic symbol of XNOR gate is shown in the following figure. Here, A and B are
inputs and Y is the output.

Symbol of XNOR gate

APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of all digital circuits and devices
like computers. Here are some key digital devices in which logic gates are utilized to
design their circuits:
 Computers
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital and smart watches
 Smartphones, etc.

LOGIC FAMILY
 Logic families are different types of technologies being used to build different
logic gates. Logic gates are digital circuits that perform basic logic operations
like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR.
 In other words, it is a group of compatible ICs with the same logic levels and
supply voltages fabricated for performing various logical functions.
Classification of Logic Families
Logic families can be broadly categorized as per the following diagram
 UNIPOLAR LOGIC FAMILIES

 Unipolar means having a single type of charge carrier.

 This logic family uses transistors that have either electrons or holes (not both)
as charge carriers. The most commonly used technology is Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor (MOS). A common example is Complementary MOS (CMOS)
logic.
CMOS (COMPLEMENTARY MOS)
 In CMOS technology, both n-type and p-type transistors are used to design
logical functions.
 The same signal which turns ON one transistor is used to turn OFF the other
transistor. These characteristics of CMOS make it compatible for designing
logic devices using only simple switching elements, without the need for a
pull-up resistor.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CMOS

 Low power consumption – CMOS circuit consumes very low power, making
them ideal for battery-powered devices.
 Low cost – The CMOS fabrication process is relatively simpler compared to
other semiconductor technologies.
 High reliability and noise immunity – They are considered to have a high noise
margin and thus are good for circuits that require high tolerance to noise.
 Limited Voltage Swing – They have a low voltage range of operation, making
them less suitable for high voltage operations.
 Process Variation – The CMOS fabrication process is highly dependent on
process conditions, leading to variations that can affect the performance and
reliability of the final product.
 Vulnerability to electrostatic discharge – CMOS is greatly affected by
electrostatic discharge leading to permanent device damage on exposure.
BIPOLAR LOGIC FAMILIES
 In bipolar devices, the conduction happens due to both charge carriers –
electrons and holes. Bipolar logic families use semiconductor diodes and
bipolar junction transistors as the basic building blocks of logic circuits.
 The simplest bipolar logic elements use diodes and resistors to perform logic
operations; this is called diode logic. Most TTL logic gates use diode logic
internally and boost their output drive capability using transistor circuits.
 Some TTL gates use parallel configurations of transistors to perform logic
functions. ECL gates use transistors as current switches to achieve very high
speed.
There are further classifications of the bipolar logic family in two types
SATURATED
 In this logic, the bipolar junction transistors(BJTs) used are operated in
saturated regions.
 This means that both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are
forward-biased, allowing maximum current flow through the transistor.
Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families
 Can allow relatively higher current through transistors
 Very fast state switching
 Higher power consumption than non-saturated logic families.
 Better noise immunity
 Examples include Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), Diode Transistor Logic
(DTL), and Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL). TTL is the most popular category in
this classification.
TRANSISTOR-TRANSISTOR LOGIC (TTL)
 Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a digital logic family employing bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs) to uphold logic states and facilitate switching
operations..
CHARACTERISTICS OF TTL
 Logic Voltage Levels: TTL logic inputs are classified as logical high when they
fall between 2V and 5V, and logical low when within the range of 0V to 0.8V.
 Propagation Delay: TTL stands out for having the minimal propagation delay
among digital integrated circuits (ICs).
 Power Dissipation: A standard TTL device consumes approximately 10mW of
power.
 Noise Margin: TTL boasts a noise margin of about 0.4V
 Fan Out: Typically, TTL exhibits a fan-out capability of 10.
 Supply Voltage: TTL necessitates a supply voltage ranging between 4.75 V and
5.25 V.
 Speed: TTL is renowned for its rapid switching speed.
 Compatibility: TTL devices are compatible with other TTL devices.
DIODE TRANSISTOR LOGIC (DTL)
 In Diode Transistor Logic, diodes are used for AND and OR operations while
transistors are used for logical inversion and amplification.
 DTL is used to design and fabricate digital circuits that use diodes in the input
stage and BJTs at the output stage.
 DTL is a type of circuit used in current digital electronics for processing
electrical signals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DTL

 Noise margin: DTL circuits have better noise performance than that of RTL due
to high noise margin
 Fan-out: DTL circuits typically have High fan-out.
 Logic low level: 0 or 0.2V
 Logic high level: 5V
 Average propagation delay: Average delay is of 9ns which lies between that of
RTL and TTL
 Power dissipation: A few milliwatts to about 50 mW

RESISTOR TRANSISTOR LOGIC (RTL)

 Being the pioneering logic family adopted in integrated circuits, RTL

(Resistor-Transistor Logic) circuits consist of resistors and transistors, with
resistors positioned at the inputs and transistors at the output.
.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RTL

 High packing density: It means more numbers of RTL circuits can be

implemented over chipset
 Logic low level: 0.7V
 Logic high level: 3.5V
 Power Dissipation: Power dissipation is high compared to DTL and TTL
 Noise margin: RTL has poor noise margin with noise immunity being around
30% of supply voltage.
 Propagation delay: Delay is high resulting in low speed.
NON-SATURATED
 In non-saturated bipolar logic, the bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are
operated in the active or linear region and not in the saturation region. In other
 words, the collector-base junction is reverse-biased, limiting the current flow
through the transistor.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-SATURATED LOGIC FAMILIES

 Comparatively lower current flow than the saturated logic family’s transistors
 Slower switching speed
 Lower power consumption
 Examples include Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) and Schottky TTL.
EMITTER COUPLED LOGIC (ECL) FAMILY
 Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a bipolar transistor logic family that is
considered to be the fastest logic available.
 ECL is used in high-performance applications, such as: Clock-distribution
circuits, High-frequency-based applications, Fiber-optic transceiver
interfaces, Ethernet, and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) networks.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ECL LOGIC FAMILY

 Power noise: ECL circuits generate relatively little power noise

 Propagation time: The propagation time for ECL can be less than a nanosecond
 Small voltage swing: ECL achieves its high-speed operation by employing a
relatively small voltage swing and preventing the transistors from entering the
saturation region
 No external inverters: ECL devices operate without the need for any external
inverters to simultaneously create the true and complementary output of the
desired function at the outputs
 Small voltage swing: ECL has a small swing which generally varies with
difference of 0.8V

SCHOTTKY TTL

 Schottky TTL employs an internal architecture akin to standard TTL, with the
notable inclusion of Schottky transistors. These transistors are essentially
conventional bipolar transistors augmented with a Schottky diode bridging the
base-collector junction.
 A Schottky diode, characterized by its semiconductor-metal composition,
boasts a notably low cut-in voltage of typically 300 millivolts, in contrast to
the 600 mV threshold of other prevalent semiconductor diodes. This low cut-
in voltage restricts the base-collector voltage to approximately 400 mV,
effectively preventing the transistor from entering saturation. Consequently,
this limitation mitigates the transition time required for the transistor to shift
from saturation to cutoff state.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOTTKY TTL LOGIC FAMILY
 Low power consumption: They basically operate in non-saturated region so
usually have less power consumed compared to normal TTL family.
 Reduced switching time: Schottky diodes have a low forward voltage drop,
often between 0.3 and 0.5 volts, which enables quicker switching time. In other
words, Schottky TTL is faster.
 Reduced propagation delay time: By preventing saturation of transistors, it
reduces the propagation delay.
 Simple Circuit design: It has low complexity compared to ECL family.
Characteristics of a Logic Family
 Operating Speed: This refers to the time taken for the output voltage to change
in response to a change in the input voltage. It is desirable for this time to be
minimized.
 Fan-in: This denotes the number of inputs connected to a logic gate. For
instance, in an AND gate, the fan-in is 2, whereas in a NOT gate, it’s 1.
 Fan-out: Fan-out indicates the total number of outputs that a gate can manage
without significant alteration in output voltage.
 Noise Immunity: Noise immunity gauges the capacity of a circuit to endure
noise or electrical interference without causing a notable deviation in the output.
 Power Dissipation: Power dissipation refers to the power required for operation.
When a circuit transitions from one state to another, power is dissipated.
Typically, there are two forms of dissipation: static power dissipation, which is
the power consumed when the circuit’s state remains unchanged, and dynamic
power dissipation, which is the power utilized during state transitions.
Comparison of a Logic Family
The following table presents a comprehensive comparison of popular logic families
on various parameters
Parameters TTL CMOS ECL RTL

Transistors,
Basic Resistor resistor and
diodes, and MOSFETs
element and transistors transistors
resistors

Fan out moderate highest(~50) high low

Propagation
10ns 70ns 2ns 12ns
Delay

Noise moderate high low poor

Parameters TTL CMOS ECL RTL

margin

Power
10mW 0.1mW 40-50mW 30mW
dissipation

Circuit moderately
complex complex simple
complexity complex

Basic gate NAND gate NAND/NOR OR/NOR NOR gate

battery-powered
practically
Oscilloscopes, circuits due to low high-speed
obsolete due
Application measurement power switching
to poor noise
devices consumption, application
margin
mobile equipment

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Logic Families

The following table classifies the major benefits and limitations of the three most
common logic families – Complementary – MOS (CMOS) family, Transistor-
Transistor Logic (TTL) family, and Emitter-Coupled-Logic(ECL) family.
Advantages of CMOS
 Extremely low power consumption
 High fan-out (~50)
 Can operate in wider temperature ranges(-55 to 125 degree C)
 No static power dissipation. Power is dissipated only for switching MOSFETs.
 Best Noise Immunity
Disadvantages of CMOS
 Slow speed of operation
 Propagation delay time is around 50ns while this is around 10-12ns in TTL
Advantages of TTL
 Least susceptible to electrical damage
 Noise immunity is better than ECL but less than CMOS
 Compatible with other logic families
 Lesser propagation delay than CMOS
 Better switching speed
Disadvantages of TTL
 Moderate power consumption.
 Prone to temperature variations
 Large power dissipation
 Poor noise immunity
Advantages of ECL
 Fastest speed
 Lesser temperature interference
Disadvantages of ECL
 Power consumption is higher than TTL and CMOS
 Lower operating voltage
 Very low noise immunity

APPLICATIONS OF THE LOGIC GATE

Applications of CMOS

 Digital ICs: Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Memory chips

 Embedded systems: Robotics, Automotive electronics
 Signal Processing: Analog-to-digital converters(ADCs), filters, amplifiers
 Medical devices: MRI scanners, Pacemakers

Applications of TTL

 Legacy systems: Industrial plants having legacy systems implanted

 Testing instruments: Oscilloscopes, Logic analyzers, signal generators

Applications of ECL

 High-speed computing: In legacy mainframe and super-computers

 Telecommunications: High-speed switches, routers and communication
interfaces
 Military and Aerospace: Radars, Missile guidance system

FAQs

Which is the fastest logic family?

Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is considered to have the fastest switching speed. It is a
bipolar junction transistor(BJT) and achieves a fast speed by having lower voltage
swings and making transistors not go into saturation thus having a low storage
delay
What is fan-out capability of a logic family?
Fan-out means a total number of logic gates that can be connected to the output of a
gate without degrading the output logic voltage. Let’s say, for gate A, the fan-out is
10. It means 10 gates of the same sub-family can be connected to the output of A and
we can be sure that the output voltage level would remain up to standard.
What is basic difference between unipolar and bipolar logic families?
In unipolar logic families, there is only one type of charge carrier- electrons or
holes, while in bipolar logic families, both charge carriers (electrons and holes) are
present. Examples of unipolar logic families include NMOS, PMMOS, and CMOS
while for bipolar, we have RTL, TTL, and DTL.
What is noise immunity in a logic family?
Noise immunity is considered as the ability of a logical circuit to tolerate noise
while keeping the output voltage unchanged. The noise here usually means the
unwanted electrical disturbance or fluctuations in the input signal. CMOS logic
families are considered to have the best noise immunity.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean algebra is a type of algebra that is created by operating the binary system.
 This is a variant of Aristotle’s propositional logic that uses the symbols 0 and
1, or True and False. Boolean algebra is concerned with binary variables and
logic operations.
 Boolean algebra is fundamental in the development of digital electronics
systems as they all use the concept of Boolean algebra to execute commands.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA OPERATIONS

There are various operations that are used in Boolean algebra but the basic
operations that form the base of Boolean algebra are.
 Negation or NOT Operation
 Conjunction or AND Operation
 Disjunction or OR Operation
These operations have their own symbols and precedence and the table added below
shows the symbol and the precedence of these operators.
Operator Symbol Precedence

NOT ‘ (or) ⇁ First

Operator Symbol Precedence

AND . (or) ∧ Second

OR + (or) ∨ Third

NEGATION OR NOT OPERATION

Using the NOT operation reverse the value of the Boolean variable from 0 to 1 or
vice-versa. This can be understood as:
 If A = 1, then using NOT operation we have (A)’ = 0
 If A = 0, then using the NOT operation we have (A)’ = 1
 We also represent the negation operation as ~A, i.e if A = 1, ~A = 0

CONJUNCTION OR AND OPERATION

Using the AND operation satisfies the condition if both the value of the individual
variables are true and if any of the value is false then this operation gives the
negative result. This can be understood as,
 If A = True, B = True, then A . B = True
 If A = True, B = False, Or A = false, B = True, then A . B = False
 If A = False, B = False, then A . B = False

DISJUNCTION (OR) OPERATION

Using the OR operation satisfies the condition if any value of the individual
variables is true, it only gives a negative result if both the values are false. This can
be understood as,
 If A = True, B = True, then A + B = True
 If A = True, B = False, Or A = false, B = True, then A + B = True
 If A = False, B = False, then A + B = False

TABLE OF BOOLEAN ALGBERA

 Operation Symbol Definition

AND Operation ⋅ or ∧ Returns true only if both inputs are true.

OR Operation + or ∨ Returns true if at least one input is true.

NOT Operation ¬ or ∼ Reverses the input.

XOR Operation ⊕ Returns true if exactly one input is true.

NAND Operation ↓ Returns false only if both inputs are true.

NOR Operation ↑ Returns false if at least one input is true.

XNOR Operation ↔ Returns true if both inputs are equal.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION AND VARIABLES

 Boolean expression is an expression that produces a Boolean value when

evaluated, i.e. it produces either a true value or a false value.
 Whereas boolean variables are variables that store Boolean numbers.

P + Q = R is a Boolean phrase in which P, Q, and R are Boolean variables that can only
store two values: 0 and 1.
The 0 and 1 are the synonyms for false and True and are used in Boolen Algebra,
sometimes we also use “Yes” in place of True and “No” in place of False.

Thus, we can say that statements using Boolean variables and operating on Boolean
operations are Boolean Expressions. Some examples of Boolean expressions are,
 A + B = True
 A.B = True
 (A)’ = False

 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA TERMINOLOGIES

There are various terminologies related to Boolean Algebra, which are used to
explain various parameters of Boolean Algebra. That includes,
 Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Variables
 Boolean Function
 Literal
 Complement
 Truth Table

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The branch of algebra that deals with binary operations or logical operations is called
Boolean Algebra.

BOOLEAN VARIABLES

Variables used in Boolean algebra that store the logical value of 0 and 1 are called
the boolean variables. They are used to store either true or false values.

BOOLEAN FUNCTION

A function of the Boolean Algebra that is formed by the use of Boolean variables
and Boolean operators is called the Boolean function.

LITERAL

A variable or the complement of the variable in Boolean Algebra is called the

Literal.

COMPLEMENT

The inverse of the Boolean variable is called the complement of the variable . The
complement of 0 is 1 and the complement of 1 is 0. It is represented by ‘ over the
variable.

TRUTH TABLE

Table containing all the possible values of the logical variables and the combination
of the variable along with the given operation is called the truth table. The number
of rows in the truth table depends on the total Boolean variables used in that
function. It is given by using the formula,
 Number of Rows in Truth Table = 2 n
where “n” is the number of Boolean variables used.

TRUTH TABLES IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 A truth table represents all the combinations of input values and outputs in a
tabular manner.
 All the possibilities of the input and output are shown in it and hence the
name truth table.
 In logic problems, truth tables are commonly used to represent various cases.
T or 1 denotes ‘True’ & F or 0 denotes ‘False’ in the truth table.
Example: Draw the truth table of the conditions A + B and A.B where A and b are
boolean variables.
Solution:
The required Truth Table is,

X=A+B
A B Y = A.B

T T T T

T F T F

F T T F

F F F F

LAWS FOR BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The basic laws of the Boolean Algebra are added in the table added below,

Law OR form AND form

Identity Law P+0=P P.1 = P

Idempotent Law P+P=P P.P = P

 Law OR form AND form

Commutative Law P+Q=Q+P P.Q = Q.P

Associative Law P + (Q + R) = (P + Q) + R P.(Q.R) = (P.Q).R

Distributive Law P + QR = (P + Q).(P + R) P.(Q + R) = P.Q + P.R

Inversion Law (A’)’ = A (A’)’ = A

De Morgan’s Law (P + Q)’ = (P)’.(Q)’ (P.Q)’ = (P)’ + (Q)’

Identity Law

In the Boolean Algebra, we have identity elements for both AND(.) and OR(+)
operations. The identity law state that in boolean algebra we have such variables that
on operating with AND and OR operation we get the same result, i.e.
 A+0=A
 A.1 = A

Commutative Law

Binary variables in Boolean Algebra follow the commutative law. This law states
that operating boolean variables A and B is similar to operating boolean variables B
and A. That is,
 A. B = B. A
 A+B=B+A

Associative Law

Associative law state that the order of performing Boolean operator is illogical as
their result is always the same. This can be understood as,
 (A.B).C=A.(B.C)
 ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C)

Distributive Law
Boolean Variables also follow the distributive law and the expression for
Distributive law is given as:
 A . ( B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)

Inversion Law

Inversion law is the unique law of Boolean algebra this law states that, the
complement of the complement of any number is the number itself.
 (A’)’ = A
Apart from these other laws are mentioned below:

AND Law

AND law of the Boolean algebra uses AND operator and the AND law is,
 A.0=0
 A.1=A
 A.A=A

OR Law

OR law of the Boolean algebra uses OR operator and the OR law is,
 A+0=A
 A+1=1
 A+A=A
De Morgan’s Laws are also called Demorgan’s Theorem. They are the most
important laws in Boolen Algebra and these are added below under the heading
Boolean Algebra Theorem

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA THEOREMS

There are two basic theorems of great importance in Boolean Algebra, which are De
Morgan’s First Laws, and De Morgan’s Second Laws. These are also called De
Morgan’s Theorems

DE MORGAN’S FIRST LAWS

  States that the complement of the product (AND) of two Boolean variables
(or expressions) is equal to the sum (OR) of the complement of each Boolean
variable (or expression).
(P.Q)’ = (P)’ + (Q)’
The truth table for the same is given below:
P Q (P)’ (Q)’ (P.Q)’ (P)’ + (Q)’

T T F F F F

T F F T T T

F T T F T T

F F T T T T

DE MORGAN’S SECOND LAWS

States that: The Complement of the sum (OR) of two Boolean variables (or
expressions) is equal to the product(AND) of the complement of each Boolean
variable (or expression).
(P + Q)’ = (P)’.(Q)’
Proof:
The truth table for the same is given below:
P Q (P)’ (Q)’ (P + Q)’ (P)’.(Q)’

T T F F F F

T F F T F F

F T T F F F

F F T T T T

We can clearly see that truth values for (P + Q)’ are equal to truth values for (P)’.
(Q)’, corresponding to the same input. Thus, De Morgan’s Second Law is true.

Solved Examples on Boolean Algebra

Example 1: Draw Truth Table for P + P.Q = P
Solution:
The truth table for P + P.Q = P

P Q P.Q P + P.Q

T T T T

T F F T

F T F F

F F F F

In the truth table, we can see that the truth values for P + P.Q is exactly the same as
P.
Example 2: Draw Truth Table for P.Q + P + Q
Solution:
The truth table for P.Q + P + Q

P Q P.Q P.Q + P + Q

T T T T

T F F T

F T F T

F F F F

CONCLUSION OF BOOLEAN ALEGBRA

 Boolean Algebra serves as a foundational framework for representing and
manipulating logical expressions using binary variables and logical
operators.
 It plays a crucial role in various fields such as digital logic design, computer
programming, and circuit analysis.
 By providing a systematic way to describe and analyze logical relationships,
Boolean Algebra enables the development of complex systems and
 algorithms. Its principles and operations, including AND, OR, NOT, XOR,
NAND, NOR, and XNOR, form the building blocks for designing logic
circuits, writing efficient code, and solving logical problems.
Boolean Algebra- FAQs
What is Boolean Algebra?

Boolean Algebra also called Logical Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals
with Boolean Varaibles such as, 0 and 1.

What are Main Boolean Operators?

There are three main Boolean Operators that are,

 AND (Conjunction)
 OR (Disjunction)
 NOT (Negation)

How to minimize Boolean Function?

There are several methods for minimizing Boolean functions, including:

 Algebraic Simplification:
 Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps):
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm:
 Tabulation Method:
 Don’t-Care Conditions:

What are Applications of Boolean Algebra?

Boolean Algebra has various applications. It is used to simplify logical circuits that
are the backbone of modern technology.

What does “0” Represent in Boolean Algebra?

The “0” in Boolen Algebra represent a False condition or it represent the Switch Off
condition.

What does “1” Represent in Boolean Algebra?

The “1” in Boolen Algebra represent a Truecondition or it represent the Switch On
condition.

What are Boolean Algebra laws?

Boolean Algebra laws are rules for manipulating logical expressions with binary
variables, ensuring consistency and simplification in operations like addition,
multiplication, and complementation, crucial in fields like digital electronics and
computer science.

What are the 5 laws of Boolean algebra?

Boolean algebra is governed by five primary laws, which serve as the foundation for
manipulating logical expressions:
1. Identity Law for AND
2. Identity Law for OR
3. Complement Law for AND
4. Complement Law for OR
5. Idempotent Law

What are the 3 laws in Boolean logic?

The three fundamental laws in Boolean logic are

 The Identity Law (adding zero or multiplying by one keeps the variable
unchanged)
 The Domination Law (adding a variable to its complement results in 1 and
multiplying it by its complement results in 0)
 The Commutative Law (the order of variables can be switched in addition or
multiplication without changing the result).

What is De Morgan’s theorem?

De Morgan’s theorem states tha t the complement of a logical AND operation is

equivalent to the OR operation of the complements of the individual terms, and vice versa.
It’s a fundamental principle in Boolean Algebra used for simplifying logical
expressions and optimizing logical circuits.
KANAUPH MAPPING
 In many digital circuits and practical problems, we need to find expressions
with minimum variables. We can minimize Boolean expressions of 3, 4
variables very easily using K-map without using any Boolean algebra
theorems.
K-map can take two forms:
 Sum of product (SOP)
 Product of Sum (POS)
According to the need of problem. K-map is a table-like representation, but it gives
more information than the TABLE. We fill a grid of the K-map with 0’s and 1’s then
solve it by making groups.
STEPS TO SOLVE EXPRESSION USING K-MAP
1. Select the K-map according to the number of variables.
2. Identify minterms or maxterms as given in the problem.
3. For SOP put 1’s in blocks of K-map respective to the minterms (0’s elsewhere).
4. For POS put 0’s in blocks of K-map respective to the max terms (1’s elsewhere).
5. Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of two like 2,4,8 ..
(except 1) and try to cover as many elements as you can in one group.
6. From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and sum them up for SOP
form.

SOP FORM

1. K-map of 3 variables
 K-map SOP form for 3 variables

Z= ?A,B,C(1,3,6,7)

From red group we get product term—

A’C
From green group we get product term—
AB
Summing these product terms we get- Final expression (A’C+AB)
2. K-map for 4 variables

K-map 4 variable SOP form

F(P,Q,R,S)=?(0,2,5,7,8,10,13,15)
From red group we get product term—
QS
From green group we get product term—
Q’S’
Summing these product terms we get- Final expression (QS+Q’S’).

POS FORM

1. K-map of 3 variables
 K-map 3 variable POS form

F(A,B,C)=?(0,3,6,7)

From red group we find terms

A B
Taking complement of these two
A' B'
Now sum up them
(A' + B')
From brown group we find terms
B C
Taking complement of these two terms
B’ C’
Now sum up them
(B’+C’)
From yellow group we find terms
A' B' C’
Taking complement of these two
ABC
Now sum up them
(A + B + C)
We will take product of these three terms : Final expression –
(A' + B’) (B’ + C’) (A + B + C)
2. K-map of 4 variables

K-map 4 variable POS form

F(A,B,C,D)=?(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13)
From green group we find terms
C’ D B
Taking their complement and summing them
(C+D’+B’)
From red group we find terms
C D A’
Taking their complement and summing them
(C’+D’+A)
From blue group we find terms
A C’ D’
Taking their complement and summing them
(A’+C+D)
From brown group we find terms
A B’ C
Taking their complement and summing them
(A’+B+C’)
Finally we express these as product –
(C+D’+B’).(C’+D’+A).(A’+C+D).(A’+B+C’)