INTRODUCTION:

Logic gates:
A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits. They
perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits.
Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in
them. For example, logic gates can be used in digital electronics such as
smartphones and tablets

In a circuit, logic gates work based on a combination of digital signals

coming from its inputs. Most logic gates have two inputs and one output,
and they are based on Boolean algebra. At any given moment, every
terminal is in one of the two binary conditions: true or false. False
represents 0, and true represents 1.

Depending on the type of logic gate being used and the combination of
inputs, the binary output will differ. A logic gate can be thought of like a
light switch, where in one position the output is off (0), and in another, it is
on (1).

Boolean algebra:

A Boolean algebra (BA) is a set AA together with binary operations + and -

and elements 0, 1 of AA such that the following laws hold: commutative and
associative laws for addition and multiplication, distributive laws both for
multiplication over addition and for addition over multiplication, and the
following special laws:

• x+(x⋅y)=x
• x⋅(x+y)=x
• x+(−x)=1
• x⋅(−x)=0
Truth table:

The truth table is a type of mathematical table which gives the necessary
breakdown of the logical function by listing all the possible values that the
function will attain.

A truth table is a kind of chart which is used to determine the true values of
propositions and the exact validity of their resulting argument.

Such a table typically contains several rows and columns, with the top row
representing the logical variables and combinations, in increasing
complexity leading up to the final function.

AIM:

To verify truth table of OR, AND, NOT, NOR, NAND and XOR gates.

PRINCIPLE:

Any Boolean algebra operation can be associated with inputs and outputs
represent the statements of Boolean algebra. Although these circuits may
be complex, they may all be constructed from three basic devices. We have
three different types of logic gates. These are the AND gate, the OR gate and
the NOT gate.

LOGIC STATES

1 0
HIGH LOW
ON OFF
CLOSE OPEN
TRUE FALSE
YES NO
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES:

BASIC GATES:

There are 3 basic logic gates. They are

A. OR gate
B. AND gate
C. NOT gate

THE OR GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify the truth table of OR gate

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

2 ideal p-n junction diodes (D1),(D2)

CONSTRUCTION:

An OR gate can be understood by the electronic circuit, making use of two

diodes D₁ and D₂ as shown in the figure.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to

the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in the
present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C with
respect to earth
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The OR gate is the logic gate which combines two inputs to give an output.
It is usually represented by + in Boolean algebra. Atleast one of the input
must be positive to give a positive output.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit is:

a)If both inputs A & B are low (A=0, B=0),then output is low Y=0.

b) If input A is low and B is high (A=0, B=1) output is high, Y=1.

c)If input A is high and input B is low(A=1, B=0)output is high, hence Y=1.

d) If both inputs are high (A=1, B=1) output is high, hence Y=1.

SYMBOL OF OR GATE:
BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

Y=A+B

TRUTH TABLE:

Thus, truth table has been verified.

THE AND GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify truth table of AND gate

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

2 ideal p-n junction diodes, resistor

CONSTRUCTION:

An AND gate can be understood by the electronic circuit, making use of two
diodes D₁ and D₂ as shown in the figure. The resistance R is connected to
the positive terminal of a 5V battery permanently.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to

the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in the
present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t.
earth.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:

The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that produces an output only when
all inputs are true (high). In a diode AND gate, when both inputs are high,
the diodes conduct, and the output becomes high. If either input is low, the
corresponding diode is reverse-biased, and the output becomes low.

The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit:

a) If both inputs A&B are low (A=0, B=0) then output is also low, hence Y=0.

b) If input A is high and input B is low (A=1, B=0) then output is low, hence
Y=0.

c)If input A is low and B is high (A=0, B=1) then output is low, hence Y=0.

d)If inputs A & B both are high (A=1, B=1) then output is high, hence Y = 1.

SYMBOL OF AND GATE:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

Y = A.B
TRUTH TABLE:

THE NOT GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify the Not gate

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

An ideal n-p-n transistor

CONSTRUCTION:

A NOT gate cannot be realized by using diodes. However an electronic

circuit of NOT gate can be realized by making use of a n-p-n transistor as
shown in the figure.

The base B of the transistor is connected to the input A through a resistance

Rand the emitter E is earthed. The collector is connected to 5V battery. The
output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

A NOT gate, also known as an inverter, is a logic gate that performs logical
negation on a single input to produce a single binary output. The output is
the opposite of the input, so a high input (1) results in a low output (0), and
a low input (0) results in a high output (1).

The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit:

a) If the input A is low (A = 0), output is high, hence Y = 1.

b) If the input A is high (A = 1), output is low, hence Y = 0.

SYMBOL OF NOT GATE:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

Y = Ac
TRUTH TABLE:

Thus, truth table for NOT gate is verified.

UNIVERSAL GATES:

They are the combinations of the basic gates.

THE NOR GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify the truth table of NOR gate.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

2 ideal p-n junction diodes, ideal n-p-n transistor

CONSTRUCTION:

The output of OR gate is connected to the input of NOT gate. Thus, NOR gate
is obtained.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY

It is the combination of NOT and OR gate. The NOR gate's output is the
opposite of an OR gate, and it only produces a high output (1) when all of its
inputs are low. If any or both inputs are high, the output is low.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit is:

a) If both the inputs A and B are low (A=0, B=0) then output is high, hence
Y=1.

b) If input A is high and input B is low (A=1, B=0) then output is low, hence
Y=0.

c) If input A is low and input B is high (A=0, B=1) then output is low, hence
Y= 0

d) If both the inputs are high (A=1, B=1), then output is low, hence Y=0.
SYMBOL OF NOR GATE:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

TRUTH TABLE:

Thus, truth table for NOR gate is verified.

THE NAND GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify the truth table of NAND gate

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

2 ideal p-n junction diodes, resistor, ideal n-p-n transistor

CONSTRUCTION:

NAND gate is obtained by connecting the output of AND gate to the input of
NOT gate.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

A NAND gate, is a logic gate that performs the opposite of an AND gate. It's a
combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate connected in series. The NAND
gate's output is usually at logic high, but it only goes to logic low when all of
its inputs are at logic high. The NAND gate's truth table shows that the
NAND operation is the complement of the AND operation.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit:
a) If both inputs are low (A=0, B=0) then output is high, hence Y=1.

b) If A is low and B is high (A=0, B=1) then output is high, hence Y=1.

c)If A is high and B is low (A=1, B=0) then output is high, hence Y=1.

d) If both A and B are high (A=1, B=1), then output is low, hence Y=0.

SYMBOL OF NAND GATE:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

TRUTH TABLE:

Thus, truth table for NAND gate is verified.

THE XOR GATE:

AIM:

To stimulate and verify the truth table o the XOR gate

MATERIALS REQUIRED;
2 AND gates, 1 OR gate, 2 NOT gates

CONSTRUCTION:

1. Connect input A to both inputs of the first NAND gate.

2. Connect input B to both inputs of the second NAND gate.

3. Connect A (output of gate 1) and B to the inputs of the third NAND

gate.

4. Connect A and B (output of gate 2) to the inputs of the fourth NAND

gate.

5. Connect O and O to another NAND gate to create the final XOR

output.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

An XOR gate is a digital logic gate that takes two binary inputs and
produces an output based on their logical relationship. The output is true,
or "1", if an odd number of inputs are true, and false, or "0", if the number
of true inputs is even. This is because the XOR gate considers the exclusivity
of the true inputs, unlike an OR gate. The term "XOR" stands for
"Exclusively-OR".

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit:

a) If both the inputs are low (A=0, B=0), then the output is low, hence
Y=0
b) If A is low and B is high (A=0, B=1), then output is high, hence Y=1.
c) If A is high and B is low (A=1, B=0), then output is high, hence Y=1
d) If both inputs are high (A=1, B=1), then output is low, hence Y=0.

SYMBOL OF XOR GATE:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION:

TRUTH TABLE:

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Thus, truth table for XOR gate has been verified

CONCLUSION:

This project has demonstrated the verification of truth tables using logic
gates, showcasing the fundamental building blocks of digital electronics.
Through the construction and testing of various logic gate circuits,
including AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates, we have validated the
corresponding truth tables, ensuring that the output matches the expected
result for every possible input combination. This hands-on approach has
not only reinforced our understanding of digital logic principles but also
highlighted the importance of logic gates in modern electronic systems. By
verifying the truth tables, it has confirmed the integrity of the logic gates,
paving the way for the design and development of more complex digital
circuits. As we continue to push the boundaries of technological innovation,
the significance of logic gates and truth tables will only continue to grow,
making this project a crucial stepping stone in the pursuit of advancing
digital electronics and computer science.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Proper Power Supply:

- Ensure correct voltage levels and polarities

- Double-check connections to prevent damage to ICs or components

2. Handling ICs and Components:

- Handle by the edges to prevent static electricity damage

- Avoid touching sensitive areas or pins

3. Circuit Connections:

- Avoid overloading or short-circuiting inputs/outputs

- Never connect/disconnect power supply while the circuit is active

4. Measurement and Testing:

- Use appropriate tools like logic probes or multimeters

- Ensure proper calibration and accuracy

5. Maintenance:

- Regularly inspect and maintain equipment

- Ensure calibration and accuracy

REFERENCES:

https://www.techtarget.com
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boolalg-math/#def
https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/86106
https://www.thetalearningpoint.com
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/truth-
table#
https://medium.com
LOGIC GATES

SUBMITTED BY:
V.DHARSHINI
CLASS – 12 E
2024 – 2025
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to our principal Mrs.Pushpaveni

Ayyappan, for her kind support to do my project. I extend my hearty thanks to

my physics teacher Mr. Stephen Raj who guided me to the successful

completion of this project.

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for their

constant encouragement, constructive comments and immense motivation

which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work. I also thank my

lab assistant Mr.Velmurugan for kind cooperation. Finally, I thank my parents

and my friends for their kind support, encouragement and help for the

completion of this project.

V.DHARSHINI
 CERTIFICATE

This is certify that, the project work entitled ‘LOGIC GATES’ is a bonafide work done

by the candidate V.Dharshini of class XII Section E_ has been submitted for

Secondary School Practical Examination held in the subject PHYSICS at Pushpalata

Vidya Mandir Senior Secondary School, Tirunelveli – 11 during the academic year

2024 to 2025

Signature of the Teacher Signature of the Principal

School seal

Date:

Place:

Signature of the internal examiner Signature of the External Examiner

(With No. & Date) (With No. & Date)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO TOPIC PG.NO

1. Introduction 1

2. Principle 2

3. OR gate 3

4. AND gate 5

5. NOT gate 8

6. NOR gate 10

7. NAND gate 12

8. XOR gate 14

9. Conclusion 17

10. Precautions 18

11. Reference 19